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Selectividad-De-Liquenes-Por-Grupos SELECTIVIDAD DE LÍQUENES POR GRUPOS BACTERIANOS DE SU MICROBIOMA Tesis Entregada a la Universidad de Chile en cumplimiento parcial de los requisitos para optar al grado de Doctor en Ciencias con mención en Microbiología Facultad de Ciencias por Diego Leiva Cáceres Noviembre, 2019 Directora de Tesis Dra. Julieta Orlando Co-directora de Tesis Dra. Margarita Carú Co-director de Tesis Dr. Alex Fajardo A mis abuelos ii RESUMEN BIOGRÁFICO Nací en la ciudad de Linares, donde egresé de enseñanza media y luego me instalé en Santiago para iniciar mis estudios universitarios. Siendo estudiante de Magister en Bioquímica en esta Universidad, me interesó el estudio de los líquenes y realicé mi tesis evaluando relaciones bioquímicas entre líquenes y sus comunidades bacterianas en el Laboratorio de Ecología Microbiana. Durante mi estadía en este laboratorio asistí a numerosos eventos científicos nacionales e internacionales, dicté clases en distintos cursos, colaboré con investigadores de otras áreas y participé en la publicación de cuatro artículos revisados por pares. iii AGRADECIMIENTOS Agradezco a los directores de esta tesis por su guía y apoyo constante en todo el proceso, a la comisión evaluadora por sus valiosas sugerencias, a Becas CONICYT, Fundación María Ghilardi Venegas, Proyecto UCH-1566 y Proyecto FONDECYT 1181510 por el financiamiento, a los compañeros de trabajo en el Laboratorio de Ecología Microbiana por su colaboración y compañía, a CONAF por los permisos para la toma de muestras y a nuestros colaboradores en las Universidades Karl-Franzens y Técnica de Graz por su ayuda en el tratamiento de datos de secuenciación masiva y microscopía. Finalmente agradezco a mi familia y amigos por su preocupación y apoyo, y especialmente a mi esposa por su compañía y consejos a lo largo de este proceso. iv ÍNDICE RESUMEN BIOGRÁFICO III AGRADECIMIENTOS IV ÍNDICE V LISTA DE TABLAS VI LISTA DE FIGURAS VII LISTA DE ABREVIATURAS VIII RESUMEN 1 ABSTRACT 2 INTRODUCCIÓN 3 HIPÓTESIS 9 OBJETIVO GENERAL 10 OBJETIVOS ESPECÍFICOS 10 MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS 11 RESULTADOS 16 Objetivo específico 1: Identificar los pares simbióticos de líquenes de la especie Peltigera frigida en un bosque de lenga en la Reserva Nacional Coyhaique. 18 Objetivo específico 2: Determinar el rango de especificidad que presenta P. frigida por las bacterias Sphingomonadales y Rhizobiales de su microbioma. 35 Objetivo específico 3: Determinar el éxito ecológico de las bacterias Sphingomonadales y Rhizobiales en los talos de P. frigida. 41 Objetivo específico 4: Determinar la disponibilidad de las bacterias Sphingomonadales y Rhizobiales en el sustrato subyacente a P. frigida. 42 Objetivo específico 5: Determinar el grado de selectividad de P. frigida sobre las bacterias Sphingomonadales y Rhizobiales relacionando los factores especificidad, éxito ecológico y disponibilidad. 43 DISCUSIÓN 53 CONCLUSIONES 65 REFERENCIAS 66 ANEXO 1 - SCRIPT ANÁLISIS DE SECUENCIAS EN R 76 ANEXO 2 – FIGURAS SUPLEMENTARIAS 85 ANEXO 3 – TABLAS SUPLEMENTARIAS 92 v LISTA DE TABLAS Tabla 1. Información de recolección de las muestras de líquenes. ______________________ 16 Tabla 2. Alineamiento de la región hipervariable de ITS (ITS-HR). _____________________ 20 Tabla 3. Estadísticas de los datos crudos de la obtención de secuencias por Illumina MiSeq. 23 Tabla 4. Estadísticas de las secuencias obtenidas luego de la limpieza y tratamiento con DADA2. ___________________________________________________________________ 24 Tabla 5. Valores de ∝ 푖 para los géneros del orden Sphingomonadales calculados para las muestras de líquenes. _________________________________________________________ 37 Tabla 6. Valores de 푛푐푖 para los géneros del orden Sphingomonadales calculado para las muestras de líquenes. _________________________________________________________ 37 Tabla 7. Valores de ∝ 푖 para los géneros del orden Rhizobiales para todas las muestras de líquenes. ___________________________________________________________________ 38 Tabla 8. Valores de 푛푐푖 para los géneros del orden Rhizobiales calculado para las muestras de líquenes. ___________________________________________________________________ 39 Tabla 9. Valor de especificidad básica (푛) géneros de Sphingomonadales y Rhizobiales de las muestras de líquenes. _________________________________________________________ 40 Tabla 10. Valores de 푊푆퐷 para Sphingomonadales y Rhizobiales de las muestras de líquenes. __________________________________________________________________________ 41 Tabla 11. Valores de 푊푆퐷 para Sphingomonadales y Rhizobiales de las muestras de líquenes. __________________________________________________________________________ 42 Tabla 12. Valores de 푆푒푖 (primer criterio) para los géneros del orden Sphingomonadales. __ 45 Tabla 13. Valores de 푆푒푖 (segundo criterio) para los géneros del orden Sphingomonadales. _ 45 Tabla 14. Valores de 푆푒푖 (primer criterio) para los géneros del orden Rhizobiales. ________ 46 Tabla 15. Valores de 푆푒푖 (segundo criterio) para los géneros del orden Rhizobiales. _______ 47 vi LISTA DE FIGURAS Figura 1. Ubicación de las muestras de líquenes. __________________________________ 17 Figura 2. Identificación filogenética de los micobiontes de las muestras de líquenes._______ 19 Figura 3. Identificación filogenética de los cianobiontes de las muestras de líquenes. ______ 21 Figura 4. Asignación taxonómica de las lecturas de muestras de líquenes. _______________ 26 Figura 5. Asignación taxonómica de las lecturas de muestras de sustratos. ______________ 27 Figura 6. NMDS de los ASVs agrupados por tipo de muestra y subsitio. _________________ 28 Figura 7. NMDS de los géneros bacterianos agrupados por tipo de muestra y subsitio. _____ 29 Figura 8. Frecuencia relativa de los filos bacterianos agrupados por tipo de muestra. _____ 30 Figura 9. Árbol filogenético y abundancia relativa de los filos bacterianos. ______________ 31 Figura 10. Árbol filogenético y abundancia relativa de los órdenes bacterianos pertenecientes a la clase Alphaproteobacteria. __________________________________________________ 33 Figura 11. Microscopía FISH-CLSM de las alfaproteobacterias presentes en los líquenes. __ 34 Figura 12. Árbol filogenético y selectividad por los géneros bacterianos del orden Sphingomonadales. __________________________________________________________ 49 Figura 13. Árbol filogenético y selectividad por los géneros bacterianos del orden Rhizobiales. __________________________________________________________________________ 50 Figura 14. NMDS de los géneros bacterianos pertenecientes al orden Sphingomonadales. __ 52 Figura 15. NMDS de los géneros bacterianos pertenecientes al orden Rhizobiales. ________ 52 vii LISTA DE ABREVIATURAS % p/v Porcentaje peso/volumen αi Índice de distancia filogenética ASV Amplicon sequence variant CLSM Confocal laser scanning microscopy DE Desviación estándar di promedio Distancia cofenética promedio dmáxima Distancia cofenética máxima DNA Ácido desoxirribonucleico EDTA Ácido etilendiaminotetraacético FISH Fluorescence in situ hybridization GTDB Genome Taxonomy Database HR Hypervariable region iTOL Interactive Tree Of Life ITS Internal transcribed spacer LAR1 Lichen-associated Rhizobiales 1 m.s.n.m. Metros sobre el nivel del mar n Especificidad básica (riqueza) nci Índice de especificidad filogenética NMDS Non-metric multidimensional scaling nt Nucleótido OTU Operational taxonomic unit pb Pares de bases PCR Polymerase chain reaction pi Frecuencia (abundancia relativa) qPCR Quantitative polymerase chain reaction RN Reserva Nacional rRNA Ácido ribonucleico ribosomal Sei Índice de selectividad filogenética T-BAS Tree-Based Alignment Selector TRIS Tris(hidroximetil)aminometano Wi Coeficiente de selectividad filogenética WSD Weighted Shannon diversity viii RESUMEN La diversidad de los simbiontes clásicos de los líquenes (micobiontes y fotobiones) ha sido ampliamente estudiada, pero el funcionamiento y origen de las comunidades bacterianas asociadas a éstos han recibido menos atención. Se ha propuesto que ciertas bacterias (e.g. Sphingomonadales) provienen de los propágulos reproductivos de los líquenes, que transportarían bacterias altamente dependientes de la composición del talo, pero también podrían provenir del ambiente en el que se desarrollan los líquenes (e.g. Rhizobiales), cuya contribución dependería principalmente de las condiciones ambientales. Diez líquenes de una misma especie (Peltigera frigida) y sus sustratos fueron muestreados en bosques de la Reserva Nacional Coyhaique, al sur de Chile. La identidad del micobionte y del cianobionte fue confirmada usando marcadores moleculares, confirmando que la especie corresponde a P. frigida y que se asocia con la misma cianobacteria. Luego, tanto desde los líquenes como desde los sustratos, se realizó una secuenciación de amplicones de 16S utilizando partidores que excluyen las cianobacterias. En los líquenes, las Proteobacterias fueron el filo más abundante, mientras que en sustratos las del filo Acidobacteriota fueron más numerosas, lo que sugiere que los líquenes actúan como un filtro seleccionando parte de su microbioma desde el sustrato. Utilizando un índice de selectividad, se determinó que P. frigida preferiría bacterias quimioheterótrofas tanto del orden Sphingomonadales como del orden Rhizobiales, probablemente atraídas por la materia orgánica presente en el liquen; mientras que rechazaría bacterias fijadoras de nitrógeno, probablemente porque el cianobionte ya aporta con dicha función. 1 ABSTRACT The diversity of classical lichen symbionts
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