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Determination De La Composition Des Surfaces Planetaires Par Spectroscopie Gamma Et Neutron

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THÈSE En vue de l'obtention du DOCTORAT DE L’UNIVERSITÉ DE TOULOUSE Délivré par l'Université Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier Discipline ou spécialité : Planétologie Présentée et soutenue par Bénédicte Diez Le 25/06/2009 DETERMINATION DE LA COMPOSITION DES SURFACES PLANETAIRES PAR SPECTROSCOPIE GAMMA ET NEUTRON DETERMINATION OF PLANETARY SURFACES ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION BY GAMMA AND NEUTRON SPECTROSCOPY tel-00410365, version 1 - 20 Aug 2009 JURY Pr. Henri Reme professeur à l'université Toulouse III Président Dr. Johannes Brückner senior scientist au Max Planck Institut, Mainz Rapporteur Dr. Eric Chassefière directeur de recherche à l'université Paris 6 Rapporteur Pr. Philippe Paillou professeur à l'université Bordeaux I Examinateur Dr. David J. Lawrence research scientist à l'APL, Laurel, USA Examinateur Dr. Francis Rocard ingénieur CNES Examinateur Dr. Mike Toplis directeur de recherche à l'université Toulouse III Examinateur Dr. Sylvestre Maurice astronome à l'université Toulouse III Directeur Ecole doctorale : Sciences de l’Univers, de l’Environnement et de l’Espace Unité de recherche : Centre d’Etude Spatiale des Rayonnements Directeur de Thèse : Dr. Sylvestre Maurice Rapporteurs : Dr. Johannes Brückner et Dr. Eric Chassefière tel-00410365, version 1 - 20 Aug 2009 2 Avant propos Les premiers mots de cette thèse, qui sont chronologiquement les derniers, ne seront pas scientifiques. Je m’autorise une parenthèse de français, que de toute façon la plupart de mes amis anglophones comprennent mieux que je n’écris l’anglais. Le présent manuscrit constitue un résumé des travaux que j’ai effectué au cours de ces trois années de thèse. Que ce soit d’un point de vue professionnel ou personnel, il n’est le récit que de la partie émergée de ce qu’a été pour moi l’iceberg de ces trois ans. La description de la démarche scientifique ne reflète rien de ce qu’on pu être les collaborations avec nombre de chercheurs, que je peux maintenant non sans fierté nommer collègues. Je pense en premier lieu à mes amis de Los Alamos : Rick, Tom, David et surtout Bill, dont la patience, la disponibilité et l’infatigable ténacité au travail ont fait un mentor exemplaire. Si je peux, au fil des ans qui me restent pour rejoindre son âge respectable, acquérir un tant soit peu de sa vivacité intellectuelle et de ses qualités humaines, alors je m’estimerai la plus récompensée des créatures. Je pense également à mes amis d’Orsay : François, Véronique, Nicolas, Ana, Damien, Sandrine et Sylvain qui m’ont épaulé pendant mon passage à Paris. Contrairement à ce que laissaient présager les premiers mois de pataugeage complet, mon séjour chez les géologues s’est avéré très riche d’enseignements et a donné l’un des chapitres les plus aboutis de ma thèse. Je pense aussi à mes amis japonais, et il sera difficile de les nommer tous ici… La communication n’a pas été facile entre notre équipe et la leur, mais les liens se sont progressivement affirmés, et l’arrivée prochaine de Yuki est pleine de promesses pour l’avenir. Je pense enfin et surtout à l’équipe surfaces planétaires de Toulouse, dont je me sens tel-00410365, version 1 - 20 Aug 2009 membre à part entière aujourd’hui et qu’il va être difficile de devoir quitter. Claude, Olivier F., Agnès, Nath (et puis Benoit et Erwan qui ont déjà pris leur envol) il fait bon travailler à vos côtés ! J’ai mis de côté Olivier G. et Sylvestre pour des raisons qui dépassent le simple fait qu’on partage un même bureau… Olivier merci pour la constance de ta disponibilité et l’abondance de bons conseils que tu m’as divulgués. Sylvestre merci de m’avoir donné la latitude dont j’ai besoin, d’avoir su trouver les mots pour chacune des crises que j’ai traversée, bref d’avoir été là quand il fallait ! Même s’il y a eu des hauts et des bas au cours des trois ans et qu’il m’est arrivé de rechigner sur certains aspects de la recherche (tels que les corrections d’article que j’affectionne particulièrement…), je trouve le bilan plutôt très positif et j’ai le sentiment qu’on forme une bonne équipe ! D’un point de vue plus personnel, la thèse a aussi été l’occasion de nombreux voyages: Los Alamos, Berlin, Hawaï, Tucson, Noordwijk, Vienne, Tokyo, Münster… et de toutes les rencontres qui vont avec. Certaines très ponctuelles, et d’autres qui ont été amenées à durer quand j’ai réussi à faire taire les fourmis dans les pieds. Je pense aux doctorants 3 d’Orsay et de Toulouse qui sont trop nombreux pour être tous nommés. Mention spéciale pour quelques vieux de la veille avec qui j’ai plus particulièrement eu l’occasion de prendre des verres, manger des glaces ou fêter des anniversaires : Mathieu et Pat, Martatin, Pierrick, Céline et Nadège… Partout où j’ai été je me suis sentie bien entourée. Hors du cadre des laboratoires, j’ai aussi connu au cours de ces trois ans plusieurs tournants significatifs. Certains me laissent encore un peu nostalgique, ils m’ont amené à faire cavalier solitaire une grande partie de la thèse (une pensée particulièrement affectueuse pour Nico). Mais il en est d’autres plus réjouissants, tels que la découverte du swing qui a été un puissant moteur d’épanouissement ces deux dernières années, ainsi que l’occasion de rencontrer des personnes à qui je tiens beaucoup. Je repenserai par ailleurs aux années de thèse comme étant celles de la colocation avec Steph et Mathieu. Mathieu t’es un autiste du pc un brin ronchon à tes heures, mais on t’aime bien quand même. Steph, Julien a beau essayer de te voler mesquinement à nous, on ne te laissera pas partir comme ça, faudra me passer sur le corps auparavant. Merci à tous les deux, je pourrais citer douze mille anecdotes, mais je crois qu’il suffit de dire qu’on est bien ensemble. J’espère qu’il nous reste de nombreuses réunions à venir avec toute la bande ! Et puis j’ai gardé ma famille pour la fin, en dépit du fait qu’elle soit plutôt à l’origine de l’aventure. Durant ces années des évènements majeurs ont eu lieu : le mariage de Laurent avec Hélène, celui d’Alice avec Austin, et puis l’annonce d’autres encore plus importants à venir… Espérons que de nombreuses occasions de célébration nous attendent. Merci à mes proches et surtout à papa, maman et frangin qui me supportent et me soutiennent depuis encore plus longtemps que tous les autres ! tel-00410365, version 1 - 20 Aug 2009 4 Table of contents Avant propos .................................................................................................................... 3 Table of contents .............................................................................................................. 5 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 9 Introduction (en français) ............................................................................................... 11 Chapter 1 Gamma ray and neutron spectroscopy in a planetary context .................. 13 1.1 Gamma ray and neutron spectroscopy principles ............................................ 13 1.1.1 Gamma rays and neutrons ........................................................................ 13 1.1.2 Neutron sources in planetary materials .................................................... 14 1.1.3 Gamma ray sources in planetary materials ............................................... 15 1.2 Instrumentation ................................................................................................ 17 1.2.1 Gamma ray spectroscopy.......................................................................... 17 1.2.2 Neutron spectroscopy ............................................................................... 19 1.2.3 History of gamma and neutron spectrometers onboard planetary missions 19 1.3 Planets of interest ............................................................................................. 22 1.3.1 Mars .......................................................................................................... 22 1.3.2 The Moon ................................................................................................. 29 Chapter 2 Constraints on the composition of the Martian surface provided by the Mars Odyssey Neutron Spectrometer ............................................................................. 34 2.1 Scope of the Mars Odyssey Neutron Spectrometer mission ............................ 35 tel-00410365, version 1 - 20 Aug 2009 2.1.1 The Mars Odyssey mission ...................................................................... 35 2.1.2 The Mars Odyssey Neutron Spectrometer (MONS) ................................ 36 2.2 Reduction of neutron data from Mars Odyssey ............................................... 39 2.2.1 Overview of the data reduction ................................................................ 39 2.2.2 Initial Processing ...................................................................................... 43 2.2.3 Peak extraction of event mode.................................................................. 47 2.2.4 Peak extraction of category 1 ................................................................... 50 2.2.5 Reduction of systematic uncertainties ...................................................... 56 2.2.6 Final data .................................................................................................. 68 2.2.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 75 2.3 H layering in the top meter of Mars ................................................................
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