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ACADEMIE DE PARIS

ECOLE DES HAUTES ETUDES INTERNATIONALES CENTRE D’ETUDES DIPLOMATIQUES ET STRATEGIQUES

PhD in international relations and diplomacy (2010 – 2012)

UNITY IN DIVERSITY IN THE HEART OF DIPLOMACY AND THE GREATEST TURNING POINTS IN HISTORY

By Sayd-Emi Tovsultanovitch KAGIROV

Dissertation supervisor Professor Emmanuel CAULIER

Dissertation Jury Dr Fouad NOHRA, Academic Director of CEDS Dr Mikhail LEBEDEV, professor at CEDS, Barrister, former Russian diplomat Dr Emmanuel CAULIER, Barrister, professor, Program Director at EDHEC.

DECEMBER 2012

For due reasons this dissertation was kept confidential until 11/02/2016

This thesis is dedicated to the memory of our ancestor who established our patrimonial settlement AchishBeth (the House of the king of Gath Achish), in Vedensky area, the Chechen Republic in the Caucasus.

Caucasus (Russ. Kavkaz) in the Chechen language has the form: “Kov-ka-az – A Gate of the Voice of Lamb”1.

We dedicate it to the memory of his ancestors – knights named in Europe as francs, his descendants - named in Caucasus as dzhigits, their brothers and sisters - Caucasians who walked along this road, gathered and preserved this truth of the highest level during the Modern Age.

We dedicate it, also, to our parents and children.

The Golden Road to the House of Achish - AchishBeth The Golden Age - the Age of Truth.

"In the beginning, there was the Word"2

"We granted our favour to them and gave them a language of truth of the highest level"3.

1 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 44, 127, 123. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 2 The New Testament, John, 1:1. 3 Coran, Mary, verse 51. 3

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ...... 7 Bridging the world through science ...... 7 PART I: UNITY IN DIVERSITY ...... 19 Chapter I: Theory of Unity – System of Consciousness ...... 19 The ancestors’ message coded with the help of religious names ...... 19 Michael ...... 21 Gabriel...... 22 Jihad ...... 23 Shechem ...... 25 Noah ...... 26 Adam and Noah are the symbols of transformation of Consciousness ...... 28 AchishBeth ...... 29 Beth ...... 30 Chechen one-sound words ...... 37 Principle of rearrangement of word components ...... 40 Adam ...... 41 Abraham ...... 45 Shiva ...... 46 Vishnu ...... 47 Isa (Jesus) ...... 49 Israel ...... 50 Ismael ...... 51 Islam – Salam ...... 52 Chechen first and family names ...... 54 Achish ...... 56 Genealogy ...... 58 Chapter II: Shechem...... 66 The Geographical Significance of Shechem ...... 66 The Historical Significance of Shechem...... 67 The Spiritual Significance of Shechem ...... 67 Reflection of patriarchal and clannish relations in the Chechen language ...... 69

PART II: ACHISHBETH AND ORIGIN OF LANGUAGES AND RELIGIONS ...... 79 Chapter I: Scientists’ approaches to the origin of languages ...... 79 Linguistic monogenesis ...... 83 Discontinuity theories ...... 83 Continuity theories ...... 86 Emergentist theories...... 96 Chunking theories ...... 100 Social interactionist theory ...... 102 Theory of mind ...... 102 The obligatory reciprocal altruism hypothesis ...... 104 The gossip and grooming hypothesis ...... 105 Scientists about the problem of the emergence of the first language ...... 106 Pidgins and creoles ...... 117 Chapter II: History of Research ...... 122 Evolutionary linguistics ...... 123 The terminal date for Proto-Indo-European ...... 125 Historical experiments ...... 127 Universal language...... 129 The Proto-Human language ...... 136 Swadesh lists and the list of Chechen one-sound words...... 142 PART III: THE GREATEST HISTORY’S TURNING POINTS ...... 170 Chapter I: From Adam to Abraham ...... 170 Adam and “Bow and arrow” ...... 170 Noah and a plough ...... 174 Genesis narrative in the light of recent scholarship ...... 176 Chapter II: Birth and fall of the Empires. Tragedies. Movements ...... 185 History's Turning Point - Battle of Actium ...... 185 Troyan Legend and AchishBeth ...... 196 History's Turning Point - Battle of Salamis ...... 202 History's Turning Point - The Black Death ...... 205 History's Turning Point - The fall of Constantinople ...... 207 History's Turning Point – Renaissance ...... 213 History's Turning Point - The scientific revolution ...... 215 History's Turning Point - The Anglo-Zulu War ...... 220 5

History's Turning Point - The Conquest of the Incas ...... 223 History's Turning Point - The Conquest of Spain ...... 229 History's Turning Point - The Great Wall of China ...... 233 History's Turning Point – The Russian Revolutions ...... 245 PART IV: DIPLOMACY OF ACHISHBETH ...... 265 Chapter I: Unity in diversity of civilisations...... 265 Chechens (Vaynoah) – Confucianism and Legalism ...... 273 Chechens (Vaynoah) ...... 286 Secret revolt of slaves ...... 298 CONCLUSION ...... 307 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 356 ANNEX...... 362

INTRODUCTION

Bridging the world through science

The main ideas of this research are: - to bridge the gap between different cultures and religions; - to promote a creative exchange of ideas through science diplomacy; - to across a bridge between science and religion based on history, philosophy and language of the House of Achish - AchishBeth; - to give a new impulse to a dialogue between science and theology through science diplomacy; - to show the historical, philosophical, linguistic unity within diversity of nations, cultures and religions.

‘Diversity within unity’, ‘unity of diversity’, and ‘unity in diversity’: questions behind such word combinations can only be studied meaningfully in a long-term historical perspective. In this research, we show the historical, philosophical and linguistic core of all nations of the World, including ancient ones. The World saw the beginning of significant changes in the 1980s. The fall of communism and the end of apartheid brought a new trend as democracy swept across the World. In one country after another, people striving for democracy called out for freedom and equality. The word democracy means 'rule by the people'. It is a form of government, a political philosophy, a way of life. Throughout the ages, people have fought for democratic ideals of equality and freedom. Democracies' roots stemmed from ancient Greece as far back as 1600 BC. The city-state Athens was the scene of Greek civilisation and culture. Here Athenians gathered in a public square to discuss public affairs and conduct business. Furthermore, this is the place where democracy was born. Democracy in Athens called for active citizenship, believing that it was the duty of all male citizens to participate in this process. They could participate in any assembly which discussed and adopted the laws and established government policies. These citizens had the right to vote, hold public office and own property. Athenian democracy, however, did not give the same rights to women, foreigners or slaves. The democratic reformers in Athens said: “we do not say that the man who takes no interest in politics

7 is a man who minds his own business. We say that he has no business here at all. Indeed, active citizenship is one of democracy's most basic principles”. Athenian democracy laid the foundation for the concept of democratic government we see around the world today. One of its distinguishing features is that decisions bases on the majority rule. However, in a democracy, the minority still has rights. Democratic countries write a constitution or set of rules that embody the countries laws and principles like freedom of religion, press, assembly and speech to safeguard the rights of individuals and minorities. The tradition that in the long run inspired the birth of nowadays diplomacy in Post Renaissance Europe and that led to the nowadays world system of international relations, also, began in ancient Greece. We can find the earliest proof of Greek diplomacy in its literature, particularly in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. One of the first traces of interstate relations refer to the Olympic Games of 776 BC. In the sixth century BC, the Amphictyonic leagues established regional assemblies with extraterritorial rights and permanent secretariats. Sparta was vigorously forming alliances in the mid-sixth century BC. By 500 BC Sparta had created the Peloponnesian League. In the fifth century BC, Athens led the Delian League during the Greco-Persian Wars.

- Amphictyony - is an association of neighbour states established in ancient Greece.

- Peloponnesian League is a military coalition of Greek city-states led by Sparta, formed in the sixth century BC. It is also called the Spartan Alliance.

- Delian League is an ancient Greek states' confederation under the leadership of Athens founded in 478 BC during the Greco-Persian Wars with headquarters located at Delos.

Greek diplomacy took many forms. Heralds were the first diplomats protected by the gods with an immunity that other envoys lacked. We can find references to them in prehistory. Their protector was Hermes, the messenger of the gods who became associated with all diplomacy. Heralds were the favoured channels of contact in wartime because they were inviolable. They preceded envoys to arrange for safe passage. Envoys journeyed in small groups, to ensure each other’s loyalty but heralds travelled alone. They were politically prominent figures, usually at least 50 years old. Envoys were chosen for their oratorical skills because they were expected to sway foreign assemblies.

- “… if the person successfully communicates what he means, he has performed a speech act.”4 Though such missions were conventional, Greek diplomacy was just episodic rather than constant. In contradistinction to modern ambassadors, heralds and envoys were short-time visitors in the foreign states. The governments tried to influence these states’ policies through them. In opposite to diplomatic relations, commercial and other unpolitical communications between city-states were conducted continuously. Greek consular agents were citizens of the city- states in which they lived, not of the states that employed them. Like envoys, they had a secondary task of gathering information. Their primary responsibility was the trade. Herodotus, Greek author of the first great narrative history produced in the ancient world, the History of the Greco-Persian Wars, points out that there were Greek consuls in Egypt in about 550 BCE. The Greeks developed many elements of modern diplomacy, like archives, a diplomatic vocabulary, principles of international conduct which anticipated international law, and others. Their envoys' official diplomatic correspondence and private property had diplomatic immunity. Armistice, neutralism, commercial conventions, conferences, treaties, alliances and leagues were common. For example, there were eight Greco-Persian congresses, where even the smallest states had the right to be heard. The first official diplomats trained in Byzantium. The written diplomatic instructions were issued, and they were prescribed to be polite, to entertain as generous as funds allowed, to sell Byzantine wares to lower their costs and maintain trade. The diplomats' role as gatherers of information about economic conditions in their host states became increasingly essential to the survival of the Byzantine state, from the twelfth century. Nowadays, diplomacy raised its voice in public propaganda, using technology, which became an essential tool. As well as diplomatic channels, radios, television, the Internet are used to broadcast messages to foreign countries, to spread their messages (ideas). In cities, television became crucial, as images provided an immediacy that words alone could not convey. Politicians use every possibility to be filmed, and ambassadors arise from the shadows and set forth their country’s policy on news programs or before legislative panels.

4 The Philosophy of Language. Third editions. II Speech acts. Page 117. A.P. Martinich. Oxford university press. 1996.

Television broadcasts mass demonstrations and featured banners in English. English become the most important international language. For example, when the United States invaded Panama in 1989, the Soviet Union protested using the Cable News Network, which is an American - owned television company watched by most of the foreign political leaders. There is disagreement on how to conduct diplomacy as well as who should practice it. In the 1970s the US, Australia, and some other industrialised countries as South Africa expanded enrolment beyond the old elites. Thus, these countries emphasised the development of their foreign services by using representatives of their populations’ ethnic diversity. Some others, like Brazil, France, India, and Japan, keep on recruiting elite services. China and the Soviet Union emphasise political criteria as well as intellectual skills. In general, however, embassy positions, from the ambassadorial level down, mainly are filled by professional diplomats. However, the US and several other countries continued the practice of assigning wealthy amateurs as ambassadors. The most senior diplomatic positions are used as political indulgence granted to financial contributors after each election. Public diplomacy is another tool of modern diplomatic system. We can improve our understanding of public diplomacy through comparative studies, but to do this, we need ways of talking about national approaches. The four paradigms and the balance between them show some distinct national strategies: extended diplomacy, national projection, cultural relations, and conflict mode (or political warfare). For example, France and Germany models use the cultural aspect highly although institutionally the French model has a much higher degree of foreign ministry steering. In both cases, over the past fifteen years, there has been a greater interest in alternative models. Anyone interested in Europe, as a citizen or scientist, faces the fundamental question of the unity and diversity of European societies. The question itself characterises Europe for any other region of the World it would make much less sense. Between unity and diversity, there has been a persistent, though, varying tension. It has sometimes productive as well as destructive consequences. This tension was at the very heart of the unique dynamism of European society, of its modern achievements which have spread over the World. However, it was also at the root of the unprecedented destructiveness of the Europeans who made their civil wars into World Wars.

What we call Europe today grew out of the decline of the Roman Empire centred on the Mediterranean, which superimposes a strong military-administrative structure on the ethic and cultural diversity of its peoples. The Roman Empire achieved specific cultural integration through the Latin language, Roman law, and the Christian religion. With the breakdown of the Western Empire as a political entity and with Islamic conquests in North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, the centre of gravity moved to the north-west. Ethnicity became a dominant principle of political organisation, increasing diversity. Nowadays Western Europe, mostly identified with Europe itself, proved that it could revive the old idea of European unity based on conventional institutions. With the liberation of Eastern Europe, a historical event pointing to the future, we see the reappearance of the primary and much older structure of Europe in its unity and diversity. The core of the (Western) European unification movement still lies in the territories of the old Carolingian (Frankish) Empire and the old central city belt. The core territories have become the heart of European integration. We want to show the unity in diversity not only of European nations but all nations of the World, including ancient ones: the unity in diversity of their languages, the unity in diversity of their philosophies, and the unity in diversity of their religions. This unity has been preserved during millenniums by Abraham, Isaac, Israel, Joseph, later by some of the representatives of the House of Achish5 (AchishBeth). The philosophical and language system of AchishBeth (of Franco-Gothic origin) as a theory of unity could become one of the tools of science diplomacy, playing a role of reconciliation. Philosophers and other intellectuals have been interested in language for various reasons. Since language seems to be characteristic of human being, to know about language is to know something about being human. The study of language has a long and rich history, extending over thousands of years. This study is an inquiry into the nature of mind and thought of the founders of an existing but unknown to the public, philosophy, preservers of the unique language system which we call the System of Consciousness. “Languages are the best mirror of the human mind” (Leibniz).

5 The Old Testament, 1 Samuel 27 : 2-6. 11

They like or not; the diplomatic staff must have information about partners or opponents, about their political and cultural background. Any politics is based on a philosophy which prevails in the society. That is why we would like to present our research to the world’s diplomatic staff. Today the border between West and East passes through the history, philosophy and language of the House of Achish (AchishBeth). On this border, it is possible to reconcile West and East, i.e. Islam, Christianity and Judaism and the diplomacy can play a decisive role in this process. I had graduated from the Pyatigorsk University of Foreign Languages and later Academy of Foreign Trade of the Ministry of Foreign Economic Cooperation of Russia. However, my interest in this research was raised in 1990s while reading the Bible in English. I noticed that the region where Abraham came in Canaan had the name Shechem. I decided to study the religious texts carefully and try to understand if it was the coincidence or our clan AchishBeth had more ancient roots than that of Francs in Europe. - In the book «Toponymy of the Chechen Republic» of A. Sulejmanov we read: «Under the stories of the elders, the ancient ancestors of AchishBeth6 came from Shem to Nashha, and from there extended further to Tsesa, from Tsesa to AchishBeth. Besides AchishBeth of Vedensky area, representatives of this society live in Grozny, Shela (Shali), Serzhen-Yurt, Gojty, Tsotsin evla, etc. »7

- Well-known researchers-ethnographers8 consider that the clan AchishBeth is of francs’ (European) origin.

- Adam Dolatov9 writes: "The ethnographic names of Etruscan clans and tribes derive from names of regions. Around modern Novorossiysk lived the tribe of "Era khish batoi". In the Chechen Republic, the name of this clan is Achishbatoi. Etruscans were religious people, and there were prophets among them. They were conciliators".

We assembled some of the well - known Russian and Chechen scientists in history, philosophy, linguistics and established a private, scientific centre ‘Institute’ based on our company «Preobrazhensky and K» Ltd in Moscow (Preobrazhensky Val street, 27/1) situated in the historical place. - Transfiguration regiment, in Russian the “Preobrazhensky regiment”, was one of the oldest and elite corps of the Russian army. Along with the Semenovsky regiment also served as a gendarmerie unit for the state secret police in the eighteenth century. The prince Fyodor Romodanovsky headed it. Peter-I established ‘Preobrazhensky regiment’ in the late seventeenth century based on “poteshnye voiska - droll forces”, of his fighting games in the village of Preobrazhenskoye, which is nowadays one of the Moscow communes.

6 Kagirov Sayd-Emi « Le mot, témoin de l’histoire » pp.81-93 en russe, pp 94-106 en français.ISBN:S-9900164-3-3 7Toponymy of the Chechen Republic. A. Sulejmanov. Chechen state publishing house "Zhajna". 1997 8 Yan Chesnov – Institute of ethnography of the Russian Academy of Sciences. A.P. Ippolitov - «Ethnographic sketches of Argunsky district. The collection of data on the Caucasian mountaineers», Tiflis (Tbilisi), 1868. 9Adam Dolatov - the Rector of the Chechen institute of improvement of professional skill of the teachers. /bulletin CHIPKRO – 3d edition, Grozny 2003, p.108/. 12

The institute made the first impression as a linguistic Centre. However, it was involved in the research on the history and philosophy of the House of Achish - AchishBeth (Shechemite clan, Joseph's descendants) through language. Achish was a king of Gath. Beth means a House. Moreover, we show historical and spiritual ties of AchishBeth with the most ancient civilisations and their religions. Therefore, by decision of Academic council, the institute was renamed into the Institute of Linguistics, History and Philosophy of AchishBeth. Results of our study show that our family's origin is of this House. We want to show the contribution made by the Dynasty of Achish to the development of our civilisation. This study aims to show the ties of the language, history and philosophy of the AchishBeth with different ancient cultures, and its importance for the future development of civilisation. Some of the representatives of the House of Achish are keepers of the mystery of words, preservers of Abraham, Isaac, Israel, and Joseph’s sacred knowledge. Where are the strengths and where are the potentials for using the results of this research? It may create new forms of academic cooperation. It is not an easy task but very rewarding because it shows some highlights in joint search for truth. It may confirm or dis-confirm existing theories in history, philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, thus increasing a well-motivated belief in truth-seeking quest. Foreign policy today is about managing interdependence and uncertainty and finding solutions which will make different nations with different cultures closer to each other. Using our theory “Unity in Diversity”, the foreign policy of the European Union and other countries can be shaped on scientific grounds playing a positive, productive and proactive role in the future development of civilisation. Humility has a tremendous key to progress in seeking new insights about the truth. Different political movements use weapons in reaching their goal, especially in ungoverned spaces in Africa. No one can, usually, be indifferent to that. Because the future of the planet depends on politics and diplomacy, politics and science, they must come closer. The scientific world is becoming more interdisciplinary. It is science that holds the key to our future security. One of the tools, which might be useful, is the development of history, philosophy and language of AchishBeth in the framework of science diplomacy. It could help to bridge the gap between different ideologies, becoming one of the actors involved in international relations and a new world of foreign policy today.

The war of ideas needs urgent attention. It demands enormous up fund investments. The scientific progress can help governments with the foreign policy challenges that they face. So AchishBeth could become a reliable and useful tool in the modern war of ideas in the sense of reconciliation. We can launch a new approach to science diplomacy, to use the power of word with real strategic consequences. It could help to increase mutual understanding and build a strong foundation for the future of Humanity. We could use all tools AchishBeth possesses to influence the information environment around the world. It is necessary to investigate the valuable role that AchishBeth can play in international policymaking and diplomacy based on our findings. The findings are based on evidence gathered during more than ten years of research. Scientific progress and science diplomacy can achieve breakthrough that traditional state to state diplomacy cannot match, thus eliminating new tensions and stresses. Scientific initiatives, including this proposal, are necessary for spreading our ideas around the world. Diplomacy could establish the rules, the norms and the structures to manage them. We must think through how much science and diplomacy can work together in this direction, which is essential. We must engage non- state actors in international relations to use the tools of public diplomacy facilitating dialogue to find solutions to global problems that concern us all. The most significant leap that we need is across the boundaries of religious and cultural worlds. These partnerships would include a greater focus on engagement, first of all, of the Muslim world through science, technology, and innovation building and connecting scientists from Muslim-majority countries to scientists in other religions - majority countries. Why does language provide such a fascinating object of study? Perhaps, it plays a crucial role in capturing the breadth of human thought. There are a vast variety of languages and dialects around us, expressing a multiplicity of science, political views, and ways of life. We analyse the thoughts of our predecessors and find that we can see back only as far as language let us see. We think about our future and find that we can plan only through language. We send symbols of communication along with our spacecraft, to explain who we are, in case there is anyone there who wants to know who we are. Through language, first of all, we try to understand ourselves and our society, to resolve some of the problems and tensions that arise from human interaction.

We want to show the contribution made by the Dynasty of Achish to the development of our civilisation. Some of the representatives of the House of Achish are keepers of the mystery of words, preservers of Abraham, Isaac, Israel, and Joseph's sacred knowledge. A unique way of coding has been used to preserve this knowledge. It was kept in a patriarchal society that is why we see some monarchies preserving their genealogy through the fathers similarly to the Bible. What is this knowledge? There are two systems. First is the material world system, which we call Table of Mendeleev10, and the second is the Spiritual (language) System which we call the System of Consciousness. In this thesis, we explain the second one, which is more important for human being as animals do not need the Table of Mendeleev. We deciphered this System of Consciousness. It is a unique language system of consciousness inherited by Abraham, Isaac, Israel, Joseph, the House of Achish (AchishBeth) and others. It was infiltrated in the religious writings, in holy names, because they were less prone to changes in time. In our research, we managed to decipher the contents of the names of people and some toponyms, mentioned in the sacred books and folklore traditions. We used for this task the text of the Bible in modern English and the current Chechen oral language. The very possibility of such analysis is provided by the unique features of the Chechen language the existence of a vast number of words consisting of just one sound. When added to each other, they form new words or, instead, sentences where each component preserves its original meaning. - Chechen: They refer to themselves as Noahchi, Noahcho. Chechen and Ingush peoples are collectively known as the Vaynoah, which means ‘our people’ (literally ‘Our Noah). Chechnya is the republic in the south-west of Russia situated on the north of the Caucasus Mountains. It has borders with Dagestan republic on the east and southeast, Georgia on the south-west, and Ingush Republic on the west. The leading ethnic group of Chechnya is the Chechens. Fiercely independent, the Chechens and other Caucasian tribes maintained a long-lasting resistance to Russian conquest. The constant firefights of Chechens and Russians along the Terek form the background to Leo Tolstoy’s novel “The Cossacks”.

- The Chechen autonomous republic was created in November 1920 by the Bolshevists. In 1934 it was joined with the Ingush autonomous republic to form a joint Chechen-Ingush autonomous republic. During World War II the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin accused the Chechens and Ingush of collaboration with the Germans.

10 Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev was born on January 27, 1834, Tobolsk, Siberia, Russian Empire. He died on January 20, 1907, in St. Petersburg, Russia. He is a Russian chemist who developed the periodic classification of elements. Mendeleyev found out that, while arranging the all known chemical elements in order of increasing atomic weight, the resulting table displayed a recurring pattern, or periodicity, of properties within groups of elements. In his version of the periodic table of 1871, he left gaps in places where he believed unknown elements would find their place. He, even, predicted the likely properties of three of the potential elements. The subsequent proof of his predictions within his lifetime brought fame to Mendeleyev as the founder of the periodic law. 15

Consequently, both groups were deported to Central Asia. Thus, the Chechen-Ingush republic disappeared. The Chechens and Ingushes later could return to the Caucasus, and the Chechen-Ingush republic was reestablished by Soviet government under the leader Nikita Khrushchev in 1957.

There are different hypotheses about the history of the Chechens. The Chechens consist of clans of varying origin and have two main divisions ‘Noah-cha-mohkakhoi’ to whom our clan AchishBeth belongs and ‘Lamaroy’ with the centre in Shatoi village. We are writing about our history, philosophy and language and do not mix it with the history of ‘Lamoroy’, with their pagan rites and system of slavery. We speak in different dialects of the same Chechen language. Moreover, there are different clans of slaves’ origin in Chechen society, too. At the very beginning of our cooperation, professor, philosopher A. Yandarov and his friend said: “You are trying to restore your family’s history, but you do not know yourself how noble clan AchishBeth was. There are hidden historical annals ‘teptarsh about different clans”. Doctor of History and Doctor of philology I. Aleroev noted during one of our scientific council members’ meeting: “I met Mr Sayd-Emi Kagirov recently, and I do not know him very well. However, I can confirm that he originates from a very noble House”. Concluding our more than ten years’ research, we can say that this nobleness was reached by a combination of Abraham’s monotheism and establishing inter-family, inter-clannish, international relations based on Confucius philosophy. Teaching the philosophy, history and language of AchishBeth, we believe, would help modern governments and international institutions to solve the problem of diversity of philosophies. We hope to attract many followers, including students, state officials. We believe that our views and advice would be popular among modern heads of governments, royal families, which they might use in practice. We are sure that some of the followers of this theory would be able to make successful careers in governments. Indeed, they need to be politically more flexible. As above mentioned, during the formation of Chechen ethnicity in Caucasus, its founders used Abraham’s Monotheism combined, mostly, with the philosophy of Confucius in interfamily, inter-clannish, international relations. It was after one of the periods of great migrations (8th century). As far as the philosophy of Confucianism concerns, maybe it was vice versa. The House of Achish already had this philosophy combined with monotheism during the Gath kingdom in the

Middle East, a long time before Confucius was born. We see it, for example, in the Biblical legend when David had fled to the kingdom of Gath and Saul stopped persecuting him.

- The Old Testament. 27:2 So David and the six hundred men with him left and went over to Achish, son of Maoch king of Gath. 27:3 David and his men settled in Gath with Achish. Each man had his family with him…. 27:4 When Saul was told that David had fled to Gath, he no longer searched for him. 27:5 Then David said to Achish, "If I have found favour in your eyes, let a place be assigned to me in one of the country towns, that I may live there. Why should your servant live in the royal city with you?". 27:6 So on that day Achish gave him Ziklag, and it has belonged to the kings of Judah ever since.

It means that Saul stopped persecuting David because of Achish and because he knew the responsibility of Achish towards the citizens of his kingdom and towards those whom he had given a refugee shelter. Confucius introduced his teaching as knowledge transferred from antiquity. He professed himself that he was a transmitter and not a maker and that all his deeds portrayed his reliance on and love for the ancients. As a philosophical teaching, it was an intentional contemplation of the function and responsibility of leaders (rulers) and society. It comprised a moral code applied to minutiae of greeting a friend as well as to the proper service and ethics of rulers. Even if we do not agree with some parts of different ancient or modern philosophies, they help us to develop and to promote our philosophy. We cannot imagine how we would present the history, philosophy and language of AchishBeth without knowing the different philosophical directions. The history, philosophy and language preserved by AchishBeth had a direct impact on the development of all civilisations of the World, on the development of different philosophical teachings as this research shows. Why are the most significant turning points in the history of our interest? It is because, after every most significant history's turning point, the new account and the modern philosophy begin. Theory of Unity of AchishBeth is the core of the unity of the diversified World.

Though different civilisations used only part of this Theory, our House ‘AchishBeth’ stays on the position ‘So sa sa’11 – I am my soul, I am my light, I am my spirit’ from the ‘Adamic’ period. Maybe only Chechen language formulates it with the same word ‘sa’, but our ancestors' understanding of their ‘Me, I am’ had come since the Adamic period from the time of invention of a bow and an arrow. The Old Testament Genesis, 9:13 says: "I have set my rainbow in the clouds, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and the earth". Why does a rainbow serve as a sign of the covenant between God and the Earth? Compare: English Chechen A d Iад [Ad] - a rainbow, a bow and arrow. a m ма [ma] - what!

Adam Iад ма [Ad ma] - What a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! - Like a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! - Rainbow (a bow and an arrow) it is!

The difference between Chinese Confucianism and Chechen moral code applied to all spheres of life is as follows: Chechen codes of conduct, being so close to Confucianism in every day interfamily, inter-clannish and international relations, had its specific feature. It is the monotheism of Abraham. This research might be interesting to diplomats, government officials as a reconciling phenomenon during the period of globalisation. What part of this Theory will be used during and after nowadays significant history’s turning point? It depends on the politicians, representatives of royal families, diplomats.

11 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 190, 195. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004.

PART I: UNITY IN DIVERSITY

Chapter I: Theory of Unity – System of Consciousness

The ancestors’ message coded with the help of religious names

The ancestors’ message coded with the help of holy names and words in English spelling and Chechen oral language. The study purposely selected for the analysis only those names and words with meaning that is confirmed by various religious monuments such as Old Testament, New Testament, Koran, Indian religious writings and others. The names and religious words resist to changes in time. The obtained results lead to the conclusion that the English (spelling) and Chechen (oral) language can be used to decipher the original meaning of these words. Moreover, these results correspond to their religious interpretations. In this System, every sound preserves its initial meaning not only in one word or name but in others too. The System consists of religious words and names from Bible, Koran, Torah12 Indian religious books, and others. It is the joint linguistic chain of all languages in the world, modern and ancient. For thousands of years, scientists have been trying to discover this System. At the same time, it is the linguistic and philosophical joint chain for all religions, including all ancient ones. The theory of Proto13 language14 or Parent language was developed in search of a primary language. Nowadays science includes a branch of comparative historical linguistics. Chechen legend says that the Chechen people will find themselves under the influence of England. Thus, our ancestors pointed out the necessity to study English. It is necessary in order to

12 The meaning of “Torah” is often restricted to signify the first five books of the Old Testament, also called the Law or the Pentateuch. These are the books traditionally ascribed to Moses, the recipient of the original revelation from God on Mount Sinai. Jewish, Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant canons all agree on their order: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The written Torah, in the restricted sense of the Pentateuch, is preserved in all Jewish synagogues on handwritten parchment scrolls that reside inside the ark of the Law. They are removed and returned to their place with special reverence. Readings from the Torah (Pentateuch) form an essential part of Jewish liturgical services. The term Torah is also used to designate the entire Hebrew Bible. Since for some Jews the laws and customs passed down through oral traditions are part and parcel of God’s revelation to Moses and constitute the “oral Torah,” Torah is also understood to include both the Oral Law and the Written Law.

13 Proto: original; primitive. … Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006.

14 A proto-language (alternatively known as a parent language in the tree model of historical linguistics is a hypothetical or reconstructed, typically extinct language from which several attested, or documented, languages are believed to have descended by evolution. Typically, the proto-language is not known directly. It is, a linguistic reconstruction formulated by applying the comparative method to a group of languages featuring similar characteristics. The tree is a statement of similarity and a hypothesis that the similarity results from descent from a universal language. 19 describe the historical origins of the Chechen ethnic group, including one of the founders of the Frankish-Gothic Chechen family AchishBeth. Only after that, we could decipher this System of Consciousness encoded in English (spelling) and Chechen oral language. - Franks is the Germanic tribe first certified in the 3rd century AD. They inhabited on the right bank of the lower and middle Rhine. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. In the situation when the imperial power in the West was collapsing, the Frankish were joined under the Merovingians. The Salian elite was the most powerful European elite in spreading Christianity over Western Europe.

- The Merovingian dynasty originated from the Salians. This Dynasty established one of the Germanic monarchies which replaced the Roman Empire from the fifth century. By the end of the eighth century, the Frankish Empire established its control over a large part of Western Europe, transforming it into the Carolingian Empire which dominated most of Western Europe. This Empire was transformed into France and the Holy Roman Empire. At that time the Franks ruled most of Western Europe. They had strong political ties with the Roman Church. That is why the term Frank was historically used as a synonym for the Roman Catholic Church. The preservation of English orthography some centuries ago is not an incidental coincidence, though pronunciation has changed. English linguists, historians and philosophers preserved the System of Consciousness, particularly as regards names, after the disintegration of the Frankish ethnic group. It helped the founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnic group to keep this System in the oral language. That is why founders of English and Chechen ethnic groups were strategic allies in the realm of linguistics, history and philosophy. Founders of the Russian ethnic group were a competing third party. Memorial traces of history such as: Archangel cathedral in the Kremlin, ‘Elohe’ church in Moscow (El Elohe Israel - O.T. Genesis), Royal Ismailov court in Moscow, many ‘Resurrection’ (Rus. - Preobrazhensky) churches and finally the location of the capital of Moscow together with the name of Russia, all are evidence of the high spiritual level of the Russian ethnic group founders, of their spiritual ties with the English and Chechen ethnic groups’ founders. The author bases his conclusions on the analysis of sacred texts in English, French, Russian and of the Chechen oral language. Research studies show that English spelling and the Chechen oral language have common roots (except the sound -r- pronounced in French which was retained by Chechen language). We can observe them through linguistic analysis of holy names and terms.

Michael

“Michael means The One Who is Like God”. /Rajasthan, India, Brahma Kumaris Academy for a Better World/. According to religious doctrines, Hinduism, Christianity15, Islam, Michael and Gabriel are archangels. Michael, Hebrew Mikhaʾel, Arabic Mīkāʾil or Mīkhāʾil, in the Bible and the Koran, is one of the archangels. He is the 'great captain', the leader of the heavenly hosts, and the warrior helping the children of Israel. Early in the history of Christianity, he was assisting the Church’s armies against the heathens. He holds the secret of the power of the word by the utterance of which God created heaven and earth. He was the angel who spoke (to Moses) at Mount Sinai (Acts 7:38). Michael's character of the warrior is reflected in numerous art representations. He is shown with a sword, in combat with or triumph over a dragon. Compare now: English Chechen16 Michael Ма-цхьа-эл [ma tskha el] - What a Master, Lord!

M мa [ma] - What! i c са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood h ха [ha] - time, waistband, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed еl эл [el] - Lord, Master.

Michael Ма-са-хьа-эл! - What a Spirit you are, Master! [ma-sa-kha-el] - What a Spirit is your, Master! - What a light you are, Master! - What light is your, Master!

15 Michaelmas – n. the feast of St. Michael, 29 September. - ORIGIN OE … ‘St. Michael’s Mass’, referring to the Archangel. Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006. 16 Мa /ma/: 1. Do not; 2. How; as; what, what a. …. Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 159, 190, 194, 195, 211, 213, 217, 219, 220, 223, 224, 225, 234 - Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 21

- Gyan Sarovar - The Lake of Knowledge. The Brahma Kumaris founded Gyan Sarovar in 1996. Gyan Sarovar is officially known as ‘The Academy for a Better World’. Its name is reminiscent of ‘Mansarovar’. Legend about “Mansarovar” says: whoever dipped into the lake emerged in the form of a fairy or an angel. Gyan Sarovar is a place which enables individuals to dip into the ‘Lake of Knowledge’ which help to emerge profoundly transformed. The Academy is an international campus. It is a place where men, women and children can enjoy their unique human potential and cultivate the values of our humanity.

Gabriel

Gabriel, Hebrew Gavriʾel, Arabic Gibrāʾīl, Jabraʾil, or Jibril, is one of the archangels in the three Abrahamic religions - Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. According to the Bible, Thorah and Koran Gabriel is the heavenly (God's) messenger. It is because he stood in the divine presence that Jewish, Christian and Muslim writers generally speak of him as an archangel. In the apocalyptic Books of Enoch, Michael, Uriel, Raphael, and Gabriel, are the four great archangels, though elsewhere they are said to be seven archangels. Gabriel’s feast is celebrated on September 29. Both Gabriel’s name and his functions were incorporated into Islam from Judeo- Christian tradition. In the Bible, he appears twice to Daniel, Zakari and Mary in Annunciation17. Gabriel is an archangel, announcing The Judgment Day (1 Thes. 4.16). In Islam, Gabriel revealed Koran to Mohammed becoming the Angel of Truth. In art and literature, Gabriel is mostly referred to as the Angel of Annunciation. “The angel answered: I am Gabriel. I stand in the presence of God, and I have been sent to speak to you and to tell you this good news”18. Compare: English Chechen19 Ga жа [ja] - faster, lambs b ба [ba] - Baba ri гIa [ra] - leaves, dream, descendants el эл [el] - Lord, Master.

Gabriel Джа ба гIa эл! - Faster, Lord of Baba’s descendants! [ja ba ra el] - Faster, Lord of Father’s descendants!

Having preserved the pronunciation of one-sound word Ga [ga] in this name as Ja [Dja] the Chechen language preserves its initial meaning. Meanwhile, the Latin language lacks this meaning, for ‘G’ is pronounced as Ga [ga].

17 Dan. 8.16; 9.21; Luke-1.19,26,27 18 The New Testament, Luke, 1:19. 19 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 50, 78, 111, 234. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 22

Chechen family name corresponds to one of the forefathers’ name. Chechen names Джаба [Jaba], Джабир [Jabir], Джабраил [Jabrail] preserve the initial meaning of their words-sounds. Simultaneously, in the Chechen language, there is a meaningful one-sound word [ga], that means ‘a branch, to see’. It is worth mentioning that in Chechen ДжабагIаэл [Ja ba ra el] the sound [гI] corresponds to the French sound [r]. We can use this method in analysing of almost all religious hierarchies from Torah, Bible, Coran, and others.

Jihad20 21

Russian ‘джихад’, Arabic ‘jihad’ has the following form in Chechen: жа, джа [ja] Faster! Lamb (Lambs). хьад [had] Run! Rush! Get together! Джа хьад [ja had] Faster get together! Lambs get together! Сompare Arabic Ji had

20 Jihad in Islam – a war or struggle against unbelievers. (Greater jihad) The inner spiritual struggle against sin. Origin from Arab. jihad, lit. ‘effort’. Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006.

21 Britannica-Encyclopedia: jihad (“struggle,” or “battle”), a religious duty imposed on Muslims to spread Islam by waging war; jihad has come to denote any conflict waged for principle or belief and is often translated to mean “holy war.” Islam distinguishes four ways by which the duty of jihad can be fulfilled: by the heart, the tongue, the hand, and the sword. The first consists of a spiritual purification of one’s own heart by doing battle with the devil and overcoming his inducements to evil. The propagation of Islam through tongue and hand is accomplished by supporting what is right and correcting what is wrong. The fourth way to fulfil one’s duty is to wage war physically against unbelievers and enemies of the Islamic faith. Those who professed belief in a divine revelation—Christians and Jews in particular— were given special consideration. They could either embrace Islam or at least submit themselves to Islamic rule and pay a poll and land tax. If both options rejected, jihad was declared. Modern Islam places particular emphasis on waging war with one’s inner self. It sanctions war with other nations only as a defensive measure when the faith is in danger. Throughout Islamic history, wars against non-Muslims, even though with political overtones, were termed jihads to reflect their religious flavour. It was especially true in the 18th and 19th centuries in Muslim Africa south of Sahara, where religiopolitical conquests were seen as jihads, most notably the jihad of Usman dan Fodio, which established the Sokoto caliphate (1804) in what is now northern Nigeria. The Afghan war in the late 20th and early 21st centuries was also viewed by many of its participants as a jihad, first against the Soviet Union and Afghanistan’s Marxist government and, later, against the United States. During that time, Islamic extremists used the theory of jihad to justify violent attacks against Muslims whom the extremists accused of apostasy (Arabic riddah).

Compare now: Аrabic Chechen22 J жа [ja] - Lamb (Lambs) i - faster! h ха [ha] - time, waistband, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed d да [da] - father J i h a d Джахьада - Faster, your father! [ja ha da] - Lamb (lambs), your father!

Reading the word backward, we get new Chechen words and new Chechen sentences: Chechen: Jihad Джахьад [ja had] - Faster, get together! Lambs get together! Dahaj Дахьаж [dahaj] - Look there! Da haj Да, хьаж! [da, haj] - Father, look! Dahaja Да, хьаджа! [da, ha ja] - Father, your Lamb(s)!

By analysing the modern Chechen oral language and English spelling, the author tried to decipher the contents of toponyms and names mentioned in the Bible and Coran. Based on the results we traced back our family tree AchishBeth, (Achish – the king of Gath, Shechemite clan, Joseph’s descendants) and its historical and spiritual ties with the most ancient civilisations and religions. Many religious names are combinations of meaningful sounds. The author tried to read them, as well as some toponyms mentioned in the Bible, which are directly related to the purpose of our research. Comparing Chechen oral language with English spelling, we concluded that the modern Chechen oral language is a language - code of the System of Consciousness, the so-called Proto- language. It has managed to keep a code for understanding the geographical, historical and linguistic unity of all peoples and their religions. Founders of the Chechen ethnic group are the preservers of this System in the Modern Age. The author makes these conclusions based on an analysis of sacred scriptures through English spelling and the Chechen oral language.

22 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 111, 211, 213, 217, 219, 220, 223, 224. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004.

Shechem

Reading the Bible in English, we paid attention to the name of district - Shechem in Canaan, where according to the legend, Abraham established his first altar. Amarna letters mentioned Shechem as a Canaanite city, and in the Hebrew Bible as an Israelite city of the tribe of Manasseh. Shechem became the first capital of the Kingdom of Israel. By tradition linked with Nablus/Flavia Neapolis, it is now identified with the district of Tell Balatah in the West Bank of Jordan River. - Canaan is an area variously defined in historical literature and the Bible. However, it is always centred on Palestine. The original Canaan inhabitants were called Canaanites. We can find the names Canaan and Canaanite in Egyptian and Phoenician cuneiforms from about the fifteenth century BC as well as in the Old Testament. According to the Bible, it laid north of Bethel and Shiloh, on the high road which was going from Jerusalem to the northern districts (Judges xxi, 19). It was not far from Michmethath (Joshua 17:7) and of Dothan (Genesis 37:12-17). Josephus completes these indications. According to Josephus, the city lay between Mount Ebal and Mt. Gerizim. The Old Testament, Genesis. 12:6. Abram travelled through the land as far as the site of the great tree of Moreh at Shechem… 12:7. The Lord appeared to Abram and said; "To your offspring, I will give this land". So, he built an altar there to the Lord, who had appeared to him". The similarity of the word ‘Shechem’ with the name of my people the ‘Chechen’ provoked us to start studying the Bible not only as a religious book but also as a source of the most valuable geographical, historical and linguistic information. The first finding amazed us. Compare the name ‘Chechen’ with the English ‘Shechem’, French ‘Sichem’, Russian ‘Сихем – Sichem’. Shechem was one of the essential cities in Canaan in the 2nd millennium BC and continued to play an important geographical, historical and spiritual role during the Israelite period. As we know, it was the first capital of Israel. Shechem is often mentioned in Bible stories, both as the city name and a person's name. Compare the Old Testament, Numbers: 26:28 The sons of Joseph by their clans: Manasseh and Ephraim. 26:29 The descendants of Manasseh: of Machir, the clan of the Machirites; and Machir was the father of Gilead; of Gilead, the clan of the Gileadites. 26:30 These are the descendants of Gilead: 26:31 … and of Shechem, the clan of the Shechemites; … 26:34 These are the clans of Manasseh.

The divergence in Russian of the transcription of English ‘hechem’, Russian ‘Sikhem’, and ‘the Shechemite clan’ in English or generation of ‘Shekhem’ in Russian is not casual. While dividing ‘Si-khem’ into syllables, we get ‘soul – satisfaction’ or ‘satisfaction of soul’. This meaning coincides with the Chechen a saying “Shem is the place to live in this World with satisfaction". It coincides, also, with the saying by representatives of different Chechen clans: "our forefathers came from Shem". The same phoneme – s - is found in Russian translations of Bible names ‘Сим–Sim – ‘Shem’ (O. T. Genesis 10:24); and ‘Сала–Sala’ – ‘Shelah’ (O.T. Genesis 10-24). The name of great- grandson of Joseph ‘Shechem’ is translated into Russian as ‘Шехем–Shekhem’, and we cannot analyse it, using this method. It does not make any sense. Let us remember that Russian, Kabardians, Daghestanis, Arabs and others name Chechens differently – ‘Chechen - Shechen, Sheshen, Shashan, Sasan’ etc. The episode from the Bible describing how Abraham came to Shechem in Canaan, where he set up his Altar (the name of Shechem derives from the name of Shelah, Abraham's forefather), leads to the conclusion that Abraham inserted into his name, Abram, the missing sound «h», thus, restoring the linguistic connection with ancient roots. Abraham was fully aware of the importance of restoring the proper form of his name to the enlightened descendants.

Noah

Noah is the righteous man of the Old Testament's Flood story in the book of Genesis. The vineyard cultivation linked with his name. According to the Bible, he is the father of Shem, Ham, and Japheth. Noah is the image of the saintly man. God made with him a covenant in which he assured his protection against nature's future catastrophe. Genesis (5:29) describes Noah as the son of Lamech. He is ninth in lineage from Adam. The story of the Deluge (Genesis 6:11–9:19), describes him as the patriarch chosen by God to perpetuate Humanity because of his perfect godliness. According to the Bible, his immoral contemporaries had died out in the Flood. A righteous man, Noah "found favour in the eyes of the Lord" (Genesis 6:8). So, when God saw the corruption of the Earth and decided to destroy it, he warned Noah of the inevitable disaster and made a Covenant with him. God promised to save him and his family. Therefore, according to this narrative, all surviving humanity originated from

Noah’s three sons. Such a genealogy determined the subsequent role of Abraham, as the father of Israelites and patriarch of three great religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The narrative of the Flood has close resemblance with Babylonian mythologies about apocalyptic floods. In Babylonian stories, Utnapishtim plays the role which corresponds to that of Noah. These stories are source for Biblical Flood story's features as constructing of the Ark, its flotation, and the decrease of the waters, as well as the role, played by the human protagonist. Tablet XI of the Gilgamesh epic describes Utnapishtim, who, like Noah, survived cosmic collapse by heeding divine instruction to build an Ark. Despite the substantial similarities of the Mesopotamian and Biblical narratives of the Flood, the Biblical story has a unique Hebraic aspect. The crucial difference is that In the Babylonian story, the destruction of the Flood was the consequence of a disagreement (quarrel) among the gods, but in the Bible, it resulted from the moral corruption of Humanity. The ordinary polytheism of the Mesopotamian versions is converted in the Biblical story into a statement about the omnipotence and benevolence of the one righteous God, into Monotheism. After their survival, Utnapishtim and his wife are admitted to the circle of the immortal gods once more. However, Noah's family is ordered to undertake the renewal of Humanity's history. The story concerning Noah in the Bible (Genesis 9:20–27) belongs to a different series, and it is unrelated to the Flood story. We can trace back three different topics in Genesis 9:20–27. Firstly, the episode defines the beginnings of agriculture, and the cultivation of the vine in particular, and linked it to Noah. Secondly, it tries to provide, in the persons of Noah's three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth, ancestors for three of the races of humanity and to show in some degree their historical relations. Thirdly, by its condemnation of Canaan, it offers a veiled justification for the later Israelite conquest and subjugation of the Canaanites. According to the Bible Noah's drunkenness and the disgrace, it provokes in his son Ham followed by Noah's laying of a curse on Ham's son Canaan. This scene may symbolise the ethnic and social division of Palestine. Thus, Israelites from Shem's line will separate from the pre-Israelite population of Canaan portrayed as licentious, who might live in subjugation to the Israelites. The Chechens call themselves as Noahcho. Linguistic analysis of ‘Noahcho’ demonstrates that the Chechen language has preserved the Old Testament’s meaning of the name of Noah: “Не

27 named him Noah and said: "He will comfort us in the labour and painful toil of our hands caused by the ground..."23. Compare now: English Russian Chechen24 Noah Ной Нох [noah] - Noah нох [noah] - to reap нох [noah» - a plough нох(да)[noah(da)] - to plough ной [noi] - trough нах [noah] - people чо [cho] - a house, a womb Noahcho Нохчо [Noah cho] - Noah’s House

Two biblical names have similar usage in Chechen: 1. Adam means both the name of Adam and the word ‘adam(ish)’ - man, people. 2. Noah [Nokh] also means the name of Noah, and the word [nakh] – people.

Adam and Noah are the symbols of transformation of Consciousness

Adam and Noah are the symbols of unity, equality, brotherhood, symbols of two stages of transformation of Consciousness. Adam is a symbol of transformation of Consciousness, a symbol of formation of the personality, acquisitions by him a spirit – ‘I’. Together with the acquisition of a bow and an arrow, Adam can attack animals in the distance. From this point on the person can live separately from group of primates. It was the period 50-70 thousand years ago. All peoples' settlements found in the distance more than 50 km from caves are dated after that period. Koran adds that the primate became a person only after acquisition of name. "And he has taught Adam all names"25. Acquisition of name by the person can be dated by that period. After separation from other primates and leaving caves, names were necessary for the person to differentiate his children or relatives from other primates.

23 The Old Testament, Genesis, 5:29 24 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 179, 227. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. Routledge Curzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 25 Coran, 2-Cow, verse 29. 28

The following revolutionary transformation of the Consciousness is an acquisition of tools of agriculture (a plough, and others.). This information is encoded in the name of Noah. Noah is a symbol of the beginning of processing of the Earth (ground). It is enough to learn that only man can process the Earth to understand the importance of this stage of transformation of the Consciousness. It is one of the fundamental boundaries between man and primate. After showing the similarity of word ‘Chechen’ with Shechem in Canaan where Abraham created an altar to Lord, and with the name of great-grandson of Joseph Shechem and with word ‘Noah-cho’, we will address ourselves to the name of king of Gath ‘Achish’ (in Russian transcription ‘Anhus’, in Chechen – Achish). The name of our clan's village is AchishBeth (Beth - is a House according to the Bible)26.

AchishBeth

AchishBeth means the House of Achish. Achish is the King of Gath. AchishBeth is a symbol of the preservation of the family tree from Adam to Noah, from Noah to Abraham, from Abraham to Shechem, from Shechem to the king of Gath Achish, from Achish to Kahir. Kahir is our grandfather. I am Sayd-Emi Kagirov from now on Achish Sayd-Emi Tovsultanivitch de Kahir - the founder of the Franco-Gothic Dynasty ‘Kahir, AchishBeth, Shechemite clan’. AchishBeth is a symbol of preservation of information coded in religious doctrines during different periods of history in the Middle East, Europe and Caucasus. Compare: The Old Testament, 1 Samuel. 27:2 So David27 and the six hundred men with him left and went over to Achish, son of Maoch king of Gath. 27:3 David and his men settled in Gath with Achish. Each man had his family with

26 The Old Testament, 28:9. 27 Britannica – online: David, (born, Bethlehem, Judah—died c. 962 bc, Jerusalem), second of the Israelite kings (after Saul), reigning c. 1000 to c. 962 bc, who established a united kingdom over all Israel, with Jerusalem as its capital. In Jewish tradition, he became the ideal king, the founder of an enduring dynasty, around whose figure and reign clustered messianic expectations of the people of Israel. Since he was a symbol of fulfilment in the future, the New Testament writers emphasized that Jesus was of the lineage of David. Islamic tradition honours him, too. The youngest son of Jesse (grandson of Boaz and Ruth), David began his career as an aide at the court of Saul, Israel’s first king, and became a close friend of Saul’s son and heir, Jonathan, and the husband of Saul’s daughter Michal. He so distinguished himself as a warrior against the Philistines that his resultant popularity aroused Saul’s jealousy, and a plot was made to kill him. He fled into southern Judah and Philistia, on the coastal plain of Palestine, where, with great sagacity and foresight, he began to lay the foundations of his career. 29 him…. 27:4 When Saul was told that David had fled to Gath, he no longer searched for him. 27:5 Then David said to Achish, "If I have found favour in your eyes, let a place be assigned to me in one of the country towns, that I may live there. Why should your servant live in the royal city with you?". 27:6 So, on that day Achish gave him Ziklag, and it has belonged to the kings of Judah ever since.

Beth The Old Testament, Genesis. 28:10 So Jacob went out from Beer-sheba to go to Haran. 28:11 And coming to a certain place, he made it his resting-place for the night, for the sun had gone down; and he took one of the stones which were there, and putting it under his head he went to sleep in that place. 28:12 And he had a dream, and in his dream, he saw steps stretching from earth to heaven, and the angels of God were going up and down on them. 28:18 And early in the morning Jacob took the stone which had been under his head and put it up as a pillar and put oil on it. 28:19 And he gave that place the name of Beth-el, but before that time the town was named Luz. Let us try to read with the help of the modern Chechen language the ancestors’ message encoded in the name Achish. English. Chechen Achish Акъ и са, [Ac i sa] Wonderful this spirit… is! Achish Акъ иш/уьш [Ac h ish] Wonderful they are!

Here is another example. Two Biblical names Isa (Jesus) and Isaac written in English can be spelt out in modern Chechen. Furthermore, they consist of components which confirm their common semantic parentage with the name Achish.

Beginning as an outlaw, with a price on his head, David led the life of a Robin Hood on the desert frontier of his country (Judah). He became the leader and organizer of other outlaws and refugees; and, according to the Bible, “. . . everyone who was in distress, and everyone who was in debt, and everyone who was discontented, gathered to him; and he became captain over them.” This group progressively ingratiated itself with the local population by protecting them from other bandits or, in case they had been raided, by pursuing the raiders and restoring taken possessions. Sometimes dependent on Philistine kings of Gath for protection from pursuit of King Saul, David managed to retain his status as a patriot in the eyes of his people in Judah and, even as one who had been an innocent and loyal servant of the demented Saul. He also won the favour of many Judaean elders by various politic gestures. Thus, by biding his time, he eventually had himself “invited” to become king, first by Judah in Hebron and later by all Israel, not as a rebel against Saul but as his true successor. This opportunity emerged when Saul and Jonathan were slain while engaged in battle against the Philistines on Mount Gilboa.

English Chechen Isa Иса [I sa] - This spirit, light, eye-sight, my Isaac Исаaкъ [I sa ak] - This spirit/light is wonderful! - He is my wonderful! Achish Акъ и са [Ak i sa] - Wonderful this spirit/light is! Achish Акъиш/уьш [Ak h ish] - Wonderful they are!

In the English version of the Old Testament, we read: "Isaac means he laughs"28 Compare now: English Chechen29 I и [i] - this, he, she, it s са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my a си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood а с акъ [ak] - wonderful

Isaac И са акъ! [I sa ak] - This spirit is wonderful! - This light is wonderful! - He is my wonderful!

In the book ‘Toponymy of the Chechen Republic’ of A. Sulejmanov we read: “Under the stories of the elders, the ancient ancestors of AchishBeth came from Shem to Nashha, and from that place extended further, to Tsesa, from Tsesa to AchishBeth. Besides AchishBeth of Vedensky area, representatives of this society live in Grozny, Shela (Shali), Serzhen-Yurt, Gojty, Tsotsin evla, and others”.30 Well-known researchers-ethnographers31 consider that the clan AchishBeth is of Franks’ (European) origin. Adam Dolatov32 writes: "Ethnographic names of Etruscan clans and tribes derive from names of regions. Around modern Novorossiysk, a tribe of ‘Era khish batoi’ lived. This

28 Old Testament, Genesis, 21. 29 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 30 Toponymy of the Chechen Republic. A.Sulejmanov. Chechen state publishing house "Zhajna". 1997 31 Yan Chesnov – Institute of ethnography of the Russian Academy of Sciences. A.P.Ippolitov - «Ethnographic sketches of Argunsky district. The collection of data on the Caucasian mountaineers», Tiflis (Tbilisi), 1868. 32 Adam Dolatov - the Rector of the Chechen institute of improvement of professional skill of the teachers. /bulletin CHIPKRO – 3d edition, Grozny 2003, p.108/.

31 tribe is AchishBeth In the Chechen Republic. Etruscan were religious people, and there were prophets among them. They were conciliators”. Having compared above mentioned with our studies, we conclude that after one of the periods of Great Migrations (around 8th century) the formation of new ethnicities began in Caucasus. That is why we can find references to the name of Chechen in historical books dating after the 8th century only. The core of the formation of Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnicity has been Franco-gothic family AchishBeth. It has more ancient roots originated from the middle east Dynasty Achish which were ruling the kingdom of Gath. Our family AchishBeth introduced in the new forming Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnicity new names like Noahcho, Chechem (Shechem), Vaynoah, Caucasus (Caucaz), Djigit (Djagat), others. For example, the name ‘Djigit’ was introduced to transfer habits of francs’ knights from Europe into Caucasus. Djagat has the form ‘Dja Gat – Lamb(s) of Gath’ in Chechen language. “At the beginning the name ‘Djigit’ has the form ‘Djagat’”. /Doctor of Philology, Doctor of History Ibraguim Aleroev/ AchishBeth introduced the System of Consciousness into the new forming Chechen ethnicity. Following information confirms the Franco-Gothic origin of AchishBeth: °the king of Gath Achish; °Goths are the European tribes; °depending on pronunciation, English word Gath [Gath, Goth, Get] - the name of tribes, who has ancestral home - the kingdom of Gath, where dynasty Achish ruled; °the historical name of these tribes is gothic tribes. Compare now the Chechen language33: гот [got] - narrow; гат [gat] - a unit of measure (share), a towel; гIат [grat] - rise, stand up; гIад [grad] - a stalk, a core, a trunk, a tree genealogical; гIаддаха [graddakha] - to enjoy, be blissfully happy; rejoice, be delighted; гIаддайна [graddaina] - having lost hope, from powerlessness, hopelessness.

33 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 72, 76, 79, 81, Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 32

Thus, have been coded the ties between Chechens and Goths. The Goths, member of a Germanic people divided into two branches, the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths, for centuries worried the Roman Empire. However, Jordanes34, the Gothic historian, reported that the Goths originated in southern Scandinavia. According to his story, the Goths crossed in three ships under their king Berig to the southern shore of the Baltic Sea. They settled there after defeating the Vandals and other Germanic peoples in that area. Tacitus characterised the Goths of that time by their round shields, their short swords. He underlines the Goths' obedience toward their kings. According to the Jordanes, they migrated southward from the Vistula region. After various adventures, the Goths arrived at the Black Sea. - Publius Cornelius Tacitus or Gaius Cornelius Tacitus was born in 56 AD, Roman orator and public official. He is one of the most celebrated historians and one of the most excellent prose stylists who wrote in the Latin language. His well-known works are the Germania, in which he describes the Germanic tribes and the Historiae (Histories), which describes the Roman Empire from AD 69 to 96. Goths who lived between Danube and Dniester rivers are known as Visigoths, who lived in what is now Ukraine Ostrogoths. Goths played a substantial role in the fall of the Roman Empire and the forthcoming of Medieval Europe. The Jordanes' semi-fictional Getica is the most critical source in which he describes a migration from southern Scandza, modern Scandinavia, to the lower Vistula region in nowadays Pomerania. From there they migrated to the coast of the Black Sea. Encoded in names and toponymy the history allows to trace back genealogical ties of one of the Chechen clans AchishBeth with Goths, the king of Gath Achish, Shechem, Joseph, Israel, Abraham and more ancient ancestors. We want to underline the fact that Francs, as well as Chechens (Vaynakh), did not have an alphabet. One of the first written documents in French dated by the ninth century was ‘Oaths of Strasbourg’. The Strasbourg oaths became one of the earliest witnesses that the common Latin speaking space inherited from the Roman Empire started to give way to the new nations of Europe. French and German languages started to be used time after time as official languages. One of the reasons of why the representative of the Dynasty Achish had left the Alpine mountains and established a settlement in the mountains named Caucasus is the destruction of patriarchal-patrimonial relations in Francs’ society.

34 Jordanes was not a scholar but devoted himself to writing history in Latin. 33

In Vedensky district of the Chechen Republic, there are villages Huttuni and Guni. The first has been established by representative of tribes Hutts, and the second one by representative of Huns. In 3-5 km. from AchishBeth there is another village Ersinoi. Compare it with the name of Sarmatian tribe ‘aors’. In modern Chechen language, there are two variants of translation of a word Russian – ‘ersi’ and ‘raski’ (the pronunciation of a sound [r] as it is in French). The Chechen language equates the name of a Chechen clan Ersinoi to word ‘Russian’ and ‘aors’, probably, specifying their common roots. Thus, the representatives of different ancient tribes began to establish villages based on the names of their ancient tribes. It was the beginning of the process of unification of ancient tribes' representatives under the name ‘Nohcho - Noah cho’ which means House of Noah. It was a result of the Great Migration period. It is worth mentioning that there are clans of a slavish origin among Chechens, too. Chechens35 (Vaynoah) say that they have serious history, but it is hidden. We want to notice that nobody hides this history except Chechens and Ingushes themselves. The main representatives of Chechens who are interested in concealment of this history are the representatives of clans of slavish origin. One of the main signs of definition of such clans is ‘lai – slave’. It is necessary to analyse the name of the clan together with toponymy, etc. to understand if the clan is of slavish origin or it is a noble clan. For example, there are ‘lamaroi – highlanders’ and ‘lamarlay – slaves from the mountain’. The representatives of clans of slavish origin have had a strong influence in the formation of public opinion and history after the revolution of 1917. After that revolution ideology of Russia and the Soviet Union has been based on the destruction of noble clans and support of clans of slavish origin. One of the mistakes of Gorbachev's ‘Perestroika’ is that the Russian government and the Russian elite have been trying to unite with the Western civilisation without getting rid of this ideology. - ‘Perestroika’ is a political movement for reformation organised within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during the 1980s. This movement is widely associated with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. The literal meaning of "Perestroika" is restructuring, which means the restructuring of the Soviet political and economic system. Perestroika is often argued to be the reason for the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe, and the end of the Cold War.

35 Chechen – 1. a member of the Muslim people inhabiting Chechnya, an autonomous republic in Russia. 2. the North Caucasian Chechens language. Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006. 34

The origin of any ethnos, or nation begins with the name. So, we can confirm that a representative of the House of Achish inherited the Dynasty Achish and he established the village AchishBeth. I am the youngest son in the family of Tovsultan Kagirov, whose patrimonial settlement is AchishBeth. Moreover, our father was the youngest son in the family of Kahir (Kagir). According to the Chechen customs, the youngest son inherits the house of the father. It means that I inherit the House of Kahir from AchishBeth. Thus, based on this research, I am establishing the Kahir Dynasty, of the House of Achish, of the Shechemite clan. - “Mita from Vedeno, from the clan AchishBeth who had been living in the 19th centuries in Chechen Republic was wealthy. He financed Hajj of seven religious Chechens. Afterwards, he sent his son to Hajj, accompanied by bodyguards. His son was named Miti-Hajj"36. Mitin-Hajj had a son, and he was named Kahir. In the Koran we read: "We blessed them with our favour and gave them a language of truth of the highest level" (Koran, Mary, a verse. 51) This verse of the Koran shows that Mohamed knew about the existence of this System of Consciousness preserved by Abraham, Isaac, Israel, Joseph, the House of Achish. That is why the most prominent names from the Koran correspond to this System. AchishBeth assembled in Caucasus the representatives of ancient tribes and have been forming a new language based on this System of Consciousness. The Chechen language has been transferring up to now the breath of our ancestors. This language strengthened us in understanding not only of ethnographic ties between Chechens (Vaynoah) and other ancient peoples and civilisations but our spiritual and religious unity with them, as well. Prophetical are the words of remarkable German linguist Jacob Grimm (1785-1863). «There are more worthy witnesses of the people's history than tombs, bones and weapon. It is their languages». This research shows that exists a well-structured scientific system of forming words and names following three main principles: 1. One-sound words form the basis of the System of Consciousness; 2. Hierarchic formation of words and names or word-sentences where each sound is a word. Almost all words that we studied are formed with the principle of simple attachment of one sound-word to another, like I-sa, I-sa-ac;

36 Ibragim Aliroev - Doctor of History, Doctor of Philology, professor, academician of the Russian Academy of natural sciences. 35

3. Principle of linguistic mirror-effector rearrangement of components. Compare: Isaac ‘Is ac - из акъ’ - He is wonderful! Achish ‘Ac is/ish – акъ из/уьш’ - Wonderful he is (they are). Adam ‘Ad ma -Iад ма’ - What a rainbow! Like a rainbow! Mada ‘Ma 1ad - ма Iад’ - What a rainbow! Like a rainbow!

Compare the Chechen names and surnames: Ida - Idaev Ima - Imaev Adam - Adamov Dima - Dimaev Mada - Madaev MaIag - Maigov etc. Monotonous words; words formed by adding one sound-word to another and forming new words by changing the position of components are the basis of the Chechen language. Presence in the basis of Chechen language above mentioned properties and ways of formation of new words and phrases confirm our hypothesis. The modern Chechen language has managed to preserve as linguistic characteristics of initial meaning of the words as well as a deep sense, and in personal names, especially, deep religious sense of names. These words and names belong to the System of Consciousness, so-called "Proto language". In this sense, the System of Consciousness ‘Proto language’ is considered to be preserved at the present stage by modern Chechen language and Chechens (Vaynoah). The further analysis of the selected words and names allows finding out specific laws of their formation: 1° basis of the System of Consciousness – ‘Proto language’ are the words consisting of just one sound; 2° occurrence of new units, words-maxims were the result of adding one-sound words one to another. It gives new phrases not only of descriptive but also of estimated character well observed on the examples of holy names. It is the result of such a connection of words-sounds. By principle of simple joining words-sounds to each other like: ‘I-sa’, ‘I-sa-ac’, are formed, practically, all analysed words; 3° another word forming model is the change of the places of components (words-sounds) that lead to the occurrence of new words-maxims in which words-sounds preserve their original meanings.

Compare: English Chechen Isa ‘I sa -Иса’ - This spirit, light, eye-sight, my Isaac ‘I sa ac -Исаакъ’ - This spirit/light is wonderful! He is my wonderful! Achish ‘Ac i sa –Акъ и са’ - Wonderful this spirit/light is! Achish ‘Ac h ish –Акъ иш/уьш’ - Wonderful they are!

This work contains numerous examples from the results of the conducted study. Below are some of them:

Chechen one-sound words

One-sound words form the basis of the System of Consciousness. Below are some of the Chechen words, consisting of just one consonant or one vowel. Short vowels mixed up with consonants considered as one-sound words. The words do not necessarily follow the modern grammar rules of transcription. The author aims to show that there are a great number of one-sound words in Chechen. It is an artificially formed system of one sound-words. Even the translation of the one-sound words from the Chechen language shows a profound spiritual and religious level of monotheism of the founders of Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnicity from its very emergence and further development. It is necessary to divide ethnos into founders and society. Pagans'37 rites practised by some of the Chechen Ingushes (Vaynoah) tribes are historically well-known. - Paganism is a general term used to define the religious practices which are polytheistic or indigenous. First of all, it is used in a historical narrative, for example, referring to Greco-Roman polytheism. It is the covering term of the polytheistic traditions in Europe and North Africa before Christianization. In a broader sense, as far as the contemporary religions concern, it includes most of the Eastern religions and the indigenous traditions of the Americas, Africa, Asia and Australia. Mostly, under the notion "paganism" we mean non- Abrahamic folk religion. The founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos were monotheists, and there was an attempt of nonviolent introduction of monotheism in the consciousness of a society from the very beginning of its formation. For example: X1у [hu] - seed, Ха [ha] - time, Ц1и [tsi(n)] - blood, etc.

37 Pagan – °n. a person holding religious beliefs other than those of the leading world religions. °adj. relating to pagans or their beliefs. – DERIVATIVES: paganish adj. paganism n. 'paganize' or 'paganise' v. Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006. 37

These are the ancient divinities. Introducing these words into the new forming Chechen (Vaynoah) language, the founders of Chechen ethnos pointed out that X1у [hu], Ха [ha], Ц1и [tsi(n)] are not divinities. They are seed, time, blood etc. The Chechen words consisting of just one sound (syllable)38: А [a] - pain, radiculitis, he, she, it Iа [a] - breathing, rime, steam, winter, to live (for all persons) И [i] - he, she, it, this. Йа [ya] - to lose, the verb to bring (for women, animals, and inanimate objects) Йе’[ye] - to give birth, to do, to kill (female, animals, and inanimate objects), to plant Ие’[ie] - to reconcile oneself, mix up (in imperative mood) Iе’ [ie] - to live, to stay (in imperative mood) У [u] - a plank, board Йу [yu] - to be (for women, animals, and inanimate objects) Йу’[yu] - a sting, an awl Iу [u] - a watchman Ба’ [ba] - a grandmother, a mother Бе’ [be] - do, give birth, kill (imperative mood), a nest Бу [bu] - a place where dogs and hens are kept Ва’ [va] - to lose, to bring (for men) (peremptory shout) Ву [vu] - to be (for men) Ве’ [ve] - to give birth, to kill (for men) Га [ga] - a branch, to see, a branch of a clan ГIa [ra] - leaves, a dream, [ra] should read as French. [ra] Ге’ [ge] - a belly Го [go] - I see (to see) Го’ [go] - a circle, a circumference ГIo [ro] - help [ro] should read as French [ro] ГIо’[ro] - go (imperative) [ro] should read as French [ro] Ги [gi] - have seen, on one's back ГIу [ru] - a well [ru] should read as French [ru] Да’ [da] - father Де’ [de] - father's, to give birth, to do, to kill (for animals and inanimate objects) ДIa [da] - there (to a place) Жа [ja] - a flock, faster, lambs За [za] - buds. Зу [zu] - a hedgehog Зе’ [ze] - a loss, damage, to examine (imperative mood) ЗIе’ [ze] - a chain, a ray Зи [zi] - to check (secretly), checked, have (has) examined.

38 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. (As we use the oral form of Chechen language transcription given on dictionary may not correspond precisely to the one-sound words given in our research. The dictionary does not include some of these words.) 38

Ка [ka] - a lamb, luck, a handful (a measure equal to a palm) Къа [ka] - labour, pity, mischief, sin КIа [ka] - wheat Кха[kha]- a field Кхо[kho]- natural fertiliser Къе [ke] - poor Къу[ku] - a thief Ла’ [la] - endure Ле’ [le] - speak, die Ло’ [lo] - snow, give Лу [lu] - fallow-deer Ма [ma] - What! A thing as it is! Ма [ma] - not, (negation) Мо’[mo]- a scar Пе [pe] - a wall, with the verb ‘tokha’ - to neglect Р - Са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my, mine, a corner. Си [si] - honour, dignity Со [so] - I Та’ [ta] - reconcile yourself, to recover Те [te] - freeze Ти [ti] - froze, have (has) frozen Ф - Ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard Хьа[ha] - your, yours, look Хи [hi] - water Хьо[ho] - you. Хье’[he]- brain, a mill, to knead. Хьу [hu]- a forest, brain illness, enmity XIу [hu]- seed Ца [tsa] - sieve, not ЦIа [tsa] - a house, a family clan ЦIе [tse] - a name, flame ЦIе’[tse]- red ЦIи’[tsi] - blood Ча [cha]- a bear, straw, dust Чо [cho] - a hair Чо’[cho]- innards, a womb, a house, inside Чу [chu] - inside (direction) ЧIу[chu]- an arrow Ша[sha] - ice Ша’[sha]- oneself Шо[sho]- a year Шу[shu]- you, your, yours, food Шу’[shu]- a border, a stitch Etc.

Existence of such quantity of monotonous words in the Chechen language and their deep religious meanings confirm our hypothesis. Linguistic and philosophical unity is the basis of formation of new Chechen ethnos which consists of different ancient clans. If to write all two-sonorous, three-sonorous, etc. words, we can observe a principle of hierarchy of occurrence of words. Absence of one sound words for “Р”, “F” "R" confirms our conclusions. There was an attempt to preserve the initial form of the System of Consciousness "Protolanguage". Initial sounds are: [b]; and the French and Chechen sound [r] - [гI]. An attempt of preservation of System of Consciousness "Protolanguage" is observed, practically, in all languages. For example, we can meet the next names in Russian: Иса [Isa] ‘Jesus’ (New testament. Coran) Сиф [Sif] ‘Seth’ (Old Testament, Genesis) Иосиф [Iosif] ‘Joseph’ (Old Testament. Coran) Иоасаф [Ioasaf] ‘Joseph’ (a name of the Indian prince (tsarevitch), whose memory was immortalised in Isailovsky Royal courtyard in Moscow. И са [I sa] - This (it) is a spirit, a soul, a light, a sight.39

Principle of rearrangement of word components

In the Chechen language, there are lots of examples of rearrangement of components when forming words and names as: Baba – Aba Shiva– Vishnu Russia– Surya (Indien Surya - Sun) Etc. We can show the examples not only of names but also of words from the modern Chechen language40, which correspond to a principle of rearrangement of components: Да’ [da] - father Iaд [ad] - rainbow, bow (for arrows), turnpike

39 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 40 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. (As we use the oral form of Chechen language transcription given on dictionary may not correspond precisely to the one-sound words given in our research. The dictionary does not include some of these words. 40

Зи’ [zi] - check (secret) Из [iz] - he, she, it, this За [za] - buds Аз [az] - voice Къа [ka] - labour, pity, mischief, sin Акъ [ak] - astonishing Къе’ [ke] - poor Экъ [ek] - pan Ла [la] - endure, reconcile oneself Ал [al] - say Ло [lo] - snow, give Ол [ol] - say Со [so] - I Са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my, mine, corner Ас - [as] - I Та [ta] - reconcile oneself Ат [at] - crash to pieces, pound Те [te] - standstill Эт [et] - thresh Ха [ha] - time, belt, guard, waistband Ах [ah] - half, to plough Хьа [ha] - your, yours, look Ахь [ah] - you, grind Хьо [ho] - you Ох [oh] - we ЦIе [tse] - name, flame Эц [ets] - take, buy, there Ша’ [sha] - oneself Аш [ash] - you Шу [shu] - you, your, a border Уьш [u’sh] - they Etc. Now let us analyse the following names which form the hierarchy of different religions - Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

Adam

Adam41 and Eve, in Judaism, Christianity and Islam are the parents of Humanity. In the Bible, there are two accounts of their creation. According to the Priestly (P) history of the fifth or sixth

41 See “Noah”: - Adam and Noah are the symbols of unity, equality, brotherhood, symbols of two stages of transformation of consciousness. Adam is a symbol of transformation of consciousness, a symbol of formation of the personality, acquisitions by him of his spirit – ‘I’. Together with the acquisition of a bow and an arrow, Adam can 41 century BCE (Genesis 1:1–2:4), God created all the living creatures on the sixth day of Creation and created a man in his image, a man both male and female. God then blessed the couple, saying told: "be fruitful and multiply". God gave them dominion over all other living beings. According to the other narrative of the tenth century BCE (Genesis 2:5–7, 2:15–4:1, 4:25), God, created Adam at a time when the Earth was still empty. God formed him from the Earth's dust and breathed "into his nostrils the breath of life." Then, God gave Adam the Garden of Eden to look after. God commanded him not to eat the fruit of the “tree of knowledge of good and evil” on penalty of death. After that, God created other animals but, so that Adam would not be alone. Finding these insufficient God made Adam asleep, took from him a rib and created a woman, Eve. Adam and Eve were persons of innocence until Eve yielded to the temptations of the evil serpent. Adam joined her and ate the forbidden fruit. They both acknowledged their nakedness and donned leaves as garments. Immediately God acknowledged their misconduct and announced their punishments. The punishments for the woman: pain in childbirth and subordination to man. The punishments for the man: expulsion to an accursed ground on which Adam must work for his existence. According to these narratives, their first children were Cain and Abel. Abel was a shepherd and highly appreciated by God. Cain killed him out of envy. Another son, Seth, was born to replace Abel, and they became the ancestors of two human stems, the Canaanites and the Sethites. Adam and Eve had other sons and daughters. The Hebrew Bible or Old Testament refer to the Adam and Eve story for purely genealogical reference. In the New Testament, Adam is a figure of some theological importance. Adam began human life upon Earth, but Christ began the new life of Humanity. Because of the sin of Adam, death came upon all. Because of the righteousness of Christ, life is given to all. Thus, according to the theology of St. Paul Israelites and pagans together require the grace of Christ.

attack animals in the distance. From this point on the person can live separately from group of primates. It was the period 50-70 thousand years ago. All peoples’ settlements found in the distance more than 50 km from caves are dated after that time. Coran adds that the primate became a person only after acquisition of name. “And he has taught Adam all names”. The following revolutionary transformation of the consciousness is an acquisition of tools of agriculture (a plough, etc.). This information is ciphered in a name Noah. Noah is a symbol of the beginning of processing of the Earth (ground). It is enough to understand that only man can process the Earth. The importance of this stage of transformation of consciousness is that it is one of the fundamental boundaries between man and primate.

Later Christian theology considers the conception of original sin as a sin in which humankind has been held captive since the Fall of Adam and Eve. The concept was based on Paul's Scripture. However, it was not accepted by some Christian interpreters who consider the story of Adam and Eve less a fact and more a metaphor of the relation of God and man. In the Koranic narrative of the story of Adam and Eve were described mostly in suras 2, 7, 15, 17, and 20. Allah (God) created Adam from clay but distinguished him with such knowledge that the angels were ordered to prostrate themselves before him. All the angels prostrated, but the angel Iblīs (Satan). Allah then sent them down on earth, where their progeny was doomed to live as enemies. Then, Allah, being merciful, offered to Adam and his descendants the eternal guidance if they would follow him, not Satan. According to Koranic narratives, Adam's sin was his sin alone and did not make all men sinners. Adam was responsible for his deeds, as his descendants for their sins. According to the results of our research, the legend about Cain, Abel and Seth preserved information about one of the most significant turning points in history, about the emergence and fall of the first civilisation of Humanity. We can observe that according to the Bible text, Seth was Monotheist: Compare! « Seth also had a son, and he named him Enosh. At that time, men began to call on the name of the Lord. »42. Now using the linguistic rules, we can see that Seth is "Сиф - Sif" in Russian. He is Siva in French and Shiva in Hindi. He is Ashab – As(k)hab in Coran. Cain represents the kingdom (of Canaanites), and a name Abel - Mount Ebal which symbolises the Adam's monotheism based on which was founded that kingdom. ‘Cain killed Abel' means that the rulers of that kingdom became pagans and rejected Adam’s monotheism. Abraham preserved his encoded genealogy from Adam. When he came to Shechem of Canaan and saw the people of Canaan and the Mount Ebal he understood that this was the Homeland of his ancestors, including Seth, son of Adam. This information is encoded in the Bible text: “12:6. Abram travelled through the land as far as the site of the great tree of Moreh at Shechem… 12:7. The Lord appeared to Abram and said; "To your offspring, I will give this land". So, he built an altar there to the Lord, who had appeared to him”43.

42 The Old Testament. Genesis 4:26. 43 Genesis 12:6-7 43

After Exodus Joshua also built an altar on the mount Ebal and Joseph’s bones were taken from Egypt and reburied in Shechem of Canaan. It became the heritage of Joseph's descendants. Now compare what the founders of Chechen language say about Adam: Adam English Chechen44 А [Ia] - breathing, rime, steam, winter; Да [da] - father; Iaд [ad] -a rainbow, a bow and arrow.

And consequently, the Chechen names and surnames: Адам [Adam] Iaд ма [Ad ma] - What a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! Мада [Mada] Ма Iад [Ma ad] - What a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! The Old Testament Genesis, 9:13 says: “I have set my rainbow in the clouds, and it will be the sign of the covenant between the Earth and me". Why does a rainbow serve as a sign of the covenant between God and the Earth? Compare now: English Chechen A d Iад [Ad] - a rainbow, a bow and an arrow. a m ма [ma] - what! Adam Iад ма [Ad ma] - What a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! - Like a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! - Rainbow (a bow and an arrow) it is! The Chechen language gives a precise answer to the question. Iад [ad] simultaneously means ‘rainbow’ and ‘a bow and an arrow’. Iад [ad] gives Ia де [a de], where Iа [a] – breathing and де [de] – of father, i.e. Iа де [a d] - Breathing of Father. The Old Testament, Genesis, 2:7 says: “... and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being.” In other words, it is evident that the contemporary Chechen language helps to decipher both initial meaning of the name Adam ‘What a rainbow (a bow and arrow)!’ and the earlier one - ‘Breathing of Father’. - because the language has preserved not only the general meaning of this name but the meaning of each sound in it. In these words, and the name 'Adam', are encoded the transformation of man's consciousness, formation of a personality, which can be expressed by word combination ‘I am’. This transformation began after the acquisition of a bow and arrow.

44 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages 159, 239. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004.

Koran adds that a man obtained the personality, his ‘I am’ only after acquisition of a name. "And he has taught Adam to all names" (Coran, Cow, verse 29). Compare the Chechen names and surnames: Ida - Idaev Ima - Imaev Adam - Adamov Dima - Dimaev Mada - Madaev MaIag - Maigov etc. Chechen family name corresponds to one of the forefathers’ name.

Abraham

Let us analyse the name, Abraham45. The Old Testament proves the fact that the Chechen oral language and the English spelling have preserved the initial meaning of each sound in this name and the overall meaning: “No longer will you be called Abram, your name will be Abraham, for I have made you a father of many nations”46. Compare now what information about Abraham has preserved the House of Achish, English spelling of the name and oral Chechen language? English Chechen Ab Iaб [ab] - father r гIа [ra] - leaves, dream, descendants a гIад [rad] - family tree, stalk h ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed m ма [ma] - what!

Abraham Iaб гIа хьа ма! - What a father of descendants you are! [Ab ra ha ma] - Father of descendants you are!

45 Britannica-online: Abraham, Hebrew Avraham, called initially Abram or, in Hebrew, Avram (flourished early 2nd millennium BC), first of the Hebrew patriarchs and a figure revered by the three great monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. According to the biblical book of Genesis, Abraham left Ur, in Mesopotamia, because God called him to find a new nation in an undesignated land that he later learned was Canaan. He obeyed unquestioningly the commands of God, from whom he received repeated promises and a covenant that his ‘seed’ would inherit the land. 46 The Old Testament, Genesis 17:5 45

One should pronounce a sound-word 'гIа' [rа] as French [rа]. One more linguistic confirmation: the Chechen word гIад [rad] is “a tree genealogical, the stalk, a trunk” etc. The Old Testament confirms this conclusion: "I will make you the father of nations" - the Old Testament, Genesis 17:5. It is about Abraham. He came to Shechem and established the altar. The name Shechem is linked linguistically with Abraham’s forefather Shelah. Adding to his name Abram a word-sound "h", Abraham reestablished the link with his ancient ancestors linguistically. Restoring the correct form of his name, Abraham realised its importance for his descendants, especially those who know this System of Consciousness.

Shiva

The significant interest represents word-sound « She ». It is the first part of the name Shiva. Compare now: Eve [iv] Shiva47 Sh [iv] -adding Sh Vishnu [vi]shnu -rearrangement of components. Shiva is one of the main Hindu gods. Shiva is the Transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the significant aspects of the divinity. Shiva is one in whom the Universe 'sleeps' in a boundless empty after destruction, before re-birth and during its existence. Shiva is consequently "eternal and purest". Thus, Shiva is "The Reality". Therefore, Shiva is 'The Consciousness' as well. Shiva is free from the bindings of mortal desires. Shiva is "The Bliss" - roots out sin and fear. Shiva is Auspicious - makes the earth religious. Shiva is an abode of safety and peace. The Chechen oral language and English (spelling) have preserved the initial meaning of each sound in the name of Shiva. Compare:

47Britannica-online: Shiva, (Sanskrit: “Auspicious One”) also spelt Śiwa or Śiva, one of the main deities of Hinduism, whom Shaivas worship as the supreme god. Among his common epithets are Shambhu (“Benign”), Shankara (“Beneficent”), Mahesha (“Great Lord”), and Mahadeva (“Great God”). Shiva is represented in a variety of forms: in a pacific mood with his consort Parvati and son Skanda, as the cosmic dancer (Nataraja), as a naked ascetic, as a mendicant beggar, as a yogi, and as the androgynous union of Shiva and his consort in one body, half-male and half- female (Ardhanarishvara). As Bhairava, he is often depicted as a Dalit (formerly called an untouchable) and accompanied by a dog. He is both the great ascetic and the master of fertility, and he is the master of both poison and medicine, through his ambivalent power over snakes. As Lord of Beasts (Pashupati), he is the benevolent herdsman— or, at times, the merciless slaughterer of the “beasts” that are the human souls in his care. Although Shiva’s identification with earlier mythological figures explains some of the combinations of roles, they arise primarily from a tendency in Hinduism to see complementary qualities in a single ambiguous figure. 46

English Chechen S са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honour, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood h ха [ha] - time, waistband, guard i хьа [ha] - your, look хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed va ба [ba] - grandmother (mother) ‘Ind. Father’

Shiva Са хьа bа! -Your Soul, Grandmother! Your Light, Grandmother! [Sa ha ba] -You are Soul, Grandmother! You are Light, Grandmother! - Ind. Your Light, Father!

Compare the Chechen manes and surnames: Иба [Iba] -Ибаев [Ibaev] Сахаб [Sakhab] -Сахабов [Sakhabov] Асхаб [Askhab] -Асхабов [Askhabov] Шаба [Shaba] -Шабаев [Shabaev] Шахаб [Shakhab] -Шахабов [Shakhabov]

In the name ‘Shelah’ the second constituent is ‘lah’. El [el] has the meaning of «Master, Lord». In ancient times adding to proper names, the word El was widely spread. This adding had as high-flown meaning as Islamic ’ajj’48 which is added to the name after a man’s pilgrimage to Mecca.

Vishnu

Vishnu is one o the main Hindu gods. The Vaishnava sect honours Vishnu as the Supreme Being. The Vishnu Sahasranama describes Vishnu as Paramatman, which means the Supreme Soul and Parameshwara, which means The Supreme God. It describes Vishnu as the all-penetrating

48 Hajj (also haj), the greater pilgrimage to Mecca which all Muslims are expected to make at least once if they can afford to do so. ORIGIN from Arab. (al-) haj ‘(The Great) Pilgrimage’. Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006.

47 nature of all beings, the lord of the past, present and future. Vishnu supports, maintains and governs the Universe and originates and develops all elements within the Universe. Vishnu governs the preservation and maintenance of the Universe. Thus, Vishnu is called the ‘Preserver of the Universe’. Compare: English Chechen V ба [ba] - grandmother, mother (Ind. Father) i s са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood h ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard хьа [ha] - your, look хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed n u Vishnu49 Ба са хьо - Grandmother (Ind. Father), you are Soul! [Ba sa ho] - Grandmother (Ind. Father), your Soul! - Grandmother (Ind. Father), you are Light! - Ind. Father, you are Soul!

Compare the Chechen manes and surnames: Висх [Viskh] -Висханов [Viskhanov] Басх [Baskh] -Басханов [Baskhanov] Баша [Bacha] -Бащаев [Bashaev] Байсар [Baissar] -Байсаров [Baissarov] Башир [Bashir] -Баширов [Bashirov]

49 Britannica-online: Vishnu, (Sanskrit: "The Pervader") one of the principal Hindu deities. Vishnu combines many lesser divine figures and local heroes, chiefly through his avatars, particularly Rama and Krishna. His appearances are innumerable; he is often said to have ten avatars, but not always the same 10. Among the 1,000 names of Vishnu (repeated as an act of devotion by his worshippers) are Vasudeva, Narayana, and Hari. Vishnu was not a significant deity in the Vedic period. A few Rigvedic hymns (c. 1400–1000 BCE) associate him with the Sun, and one hymn relates the legend of his three strides across the universe, which formed the basis of the myth of his avatar Vamana, the dwarf. Legends of figures that later became other avatars, such as the fish that saves humankind from a great flood, are also found in the early literature. By the time of the Mahabharata (the great Sanskrit epic that appeared in its final form about 400 CE), the avatars were identified with Vishnu. Vishnu is said to manifest a portion of himself anytime he is needed to fight evil and to protect dharma (moral and religious law). Not all avatars are wholly benevolent; some, such as Parashurama and Krishna, bring about the death of many innocent people, and the Buddha corrupts the pious antigods. Vishnu's vahana, his vehicle in the world, is the bird Garuda; his heaven is called Vaikuntha. 48

Isa (Jesus)

Jesus Christ called, Jesus of Galilee or Jesus of Nazareth, is a founder of Christianity. Christianity is one of the world's largest religions. Narratives about his doctrines and actions are written in the New Testament. At the same time, the N. T. is a theological document which makes difficult the discovery of historical Jesus. The main paths of his career and other facts from his life, however, can be characterised in the context of first-century Judaism and, particularly, Jewish eschatology. - Jewish eschatology is the field of theology and philosophy related to the final events in the history of the World, the ultimate destiny of Humanity, and related concepts. This doctrine is usually referred to as the ‘end of the World’ or ‘end times’. In Judaism ‘end times’ are usually called the ‘end of days’. Ancient Jews generally had only one name. When more significant peculiarity was needed, they, usually added the father's name or the place of origin. Therefore, in his lifetime Jesus was called Jesus son of Joseph (Luke 4:22; John 1:45; 6:42) or Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 10:38), or Jesus the Nazarene (Mark 1:24; Luke 24:19). After his death, he was named Jesus Christ. Originally Christ was not a name. It was a title derived from the Greek word Christos that is the translation of the Hebrew term ‘Messiah’ which means ‘the anointed one’. Acts of the Apostles (2:36) demonstrates that some of the early Christian writers knew that the Christ was a title. However, in many narratives of the New Testament, Paul's letters inclusive, the name and the title are associated and used together with Jesus' name: Jesus Christ or Christ Jesus (Romans 1:1; 3:24). St. Paul, sometimes, used Christ only as Jesus' name (e.g., Romans 5:6). Now compare information encoded in the name Jesus (Isa) according to the philosophy of the founders of the Chechen ethnicity, founders of the Chechen language with the philosophy of Christianity. Isa (Jesus) English Chechen I И [i] - this, that, he, she, it s сa [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my a си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood I sa И сa [I sa] - This is a light/spirit/soul! - He is the light/spirit/soul!

Israel

The name Israel, historically, has frequent and religious usage to refer to the Kingdom of Israel or the Israelites as a whole.50. According to the Hebrew Bible, the name ‘Israel’ was given to the patriarch Jacob - ‘struggle with God’51 after he successfully wrestled with the angel of the Lord.52 Jacob's twelve sons, including two sons of Joseph, became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or children of Israel. Jacob and his sons lived in Canaan. They were forced by famine to go to Egypt and lived there for four generations. Moses, a great-great-grandson of Jacob, led the Israelites back into Canaan mentioned in the Bible narratives as the "Exodus". The most ancient archaeological artefact which mentions the word "Israel" is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt dated to the late thirteenth century BCE53. Two political units in the Old Testament owns the name of Israel. Firstly, the United Kingdom of Israel under the kings Saul, David, and Solomon, which lasted from about 1020 to 922 BCE. Secondly, Northern Kingdom of Israel which included the territories of the ten northern tribes, all Israelites except Judah and part of Benjamin. Northern Kingdom of Israel was established in 922 BC as the result of a revolt under the leadership of Jeroboam-I. Southern Kingdom, ruled by the descendants of David, was after that referred to as Judah. In the eighth century BC, the Northern Kingdom of Israel was conquered, with the capital Samaria, downfallen in 722/721 BCE by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Like the name Abraham, the name Israel refers to the System of Consciousness. In the names of Abraham and Israel one-sound word гIa [rа] in Chechen has the meaning “leaves, dream, descendants”. One-sound word гIa [rа] is pronounced as French [rа], which corresponds to the Chechen гIa. The Chechen word гIад [rad] is translated as ‘family tree, stalk’ and serves as another linguistic proof to the idea. This conclusion, also, is proved by the Old Testament Genesis 17:5 - “…for I have made you a father of many nations.” (Concerning Abraham)

50 Levine, Robert A. (7 November 2000). ‘See Israel as a Jewish Nation-State, More or Less Democratic’. The New York Times. Retrieved 19 January 2011.

51 Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 381. ISBN 0-582-05383- 8. ‘Jacob’. 52 "And he said, Thy name shall be called no more Jacob, but Israel: for as a prince hast thou power with God and with men, and hast prevailed." (Genesis, 32:28, 35:10). 53 Barton & Bowden 2004, p. 126. ‘The Merneptah Stele... is arguably the oldest evidence outside the Bible for the existence of Israel as early as the 13th century BCE’. 50

Israel Compare: English Chechen Is из [is] - this, that, he, she, it rа гIa [ra] - leaves, dream, descendants el эл [el] - Lord, Master Israel Из гIa эл [Is ra el] - He is the descendants’ Master!

In the Chechen language, the word [Is-из] is, also, divided into the words [I s – и са]. I и [i] - this, that, he, she, it s са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood r Iа [ra] - leaves, dream, descendants а (гIад) [rad] - stalk, family tree е l эл [el] - Lord, Master

Israel И са гIа эл [I sa ra el] - This light/spirit is the descendants’ Master! - He is my descendants’ Master! Compare the Chechen names: Иса [Isa] -Исаев [Isaev] Раса [Rassa] -Расаев [Rassaev] Сарали [Sarali] -Саралиев [Saraliev] Исраил [Israil] -Исраилов [Israilov] Ясраил [Yasrail] -Ясраилов [Yasrailov] etc. Chechen family name corresponds to one of the forefathers’ name.

Ismael According to the Bible and Koran narratives, Ismael (Ishmael) was Abraham's first son. Ismael (Ishmael) was born to Abraham after the marriage to Sarah's handmaiden Hagar (Genesis 16:3). The names Israel and Ishmael (Ismael) differ only by the syllables [ra] and [ma]. Compare: English Chechen Is из [is] - this, that, he, she, it ma ма [ma] - what el эл [el] - Lord, Master

Ismael Из ма эл [Is ma el] - What a Master he is!

The word [Is – из] which may be divided into two words in Chechen [I s - и са] allows to grasp the meaning of every one-sound word of the name. I и [i] - this, that, he, she, it s са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honour, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood m ма [ma] - what a е1 эл [el] - Master

Ismael И са ма эл [I sa ma el] -What a Master is this Soul; Light…!

Islam – Salam54 Islam is one of the leading world religions established by the Prophet Muhammad in Arabia in the seventh century BC. In Arabic, the term 'Islam', literally means "surrender," demonstrates the fundamental religious idea of Islam. It means that the believer called a Muslim accepts surrender to the will of Allah (God). Allah is believed to be a sole God—creator, sustainer, and restorer of the World. The will of God (Allah), to which human beings must submit, is transformed through the sacred scriptures Koran, which Allah revealed to his messenger, Muhammad. In Islam, Muhammad is believed to be the last of a series of prophets, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. According to the Islamic teachings, his message simultaneously summarises and completes the revelations attributed to the earlier prophets. The religion taught by Muhammad spread rapidly through the Middle East, Africa, Europe, etc. It is a rigorous monotheism with strict loyalty to certain substantial religious practices. By the early twenty-first century, there were more than one and a half billion Muslims worldwide. Though many sectarian movements have arisen within Islam, all Muslims have a joint faith, religious practices and a sense of belonging to one community. Analysis of the word ‘Islam’ and a word of the same family ‘Salam’ proves the link of these words with the name of Ismael. cf.: mael - lam - Principle of rearrangement of components. Compare now: Islam - Salam

54 Salaam – a gesture of greeting or respect in Arabic speaking and Muslim countries … Origin: from Arab. (al- salam alaikum ‘peace be upon you’. Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006.

English Chechen Is из [is] - this, that, he, she, it S l эл [el] - Lord, Master a а l m ма [ma] - what! a m Islam Из эл ma [Is el ma] - What a Master he is!

Since the word [Is – из] is divided into two words [I s - и са], we read: I и [i] - this, that, he, she, it s са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my S си [si] - honour, dignity a со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood 1 эл [el] - Lord, Master l а a m ма [ma] - what m

Islam И са эл ма[I sa el ma]- What a Soul is the Master! - What my Master he is! - What a Master this light!

Compare Chechen names and family names: Иса [Isa] -Исаев [Isaev] Муса [Musa] -Мусаев [Musaev] Маса [Masa] -Масаев [Masaev] Салам [Salam] -Саламов [Salamov] Ислам [Islam] -Исламов [Islamov] Исмаил [Ismail] -Исмаилов [Ismailov] Салих [Salikh] -Салихов [Salikhov] Etc. Chechen family name corresponds to one of the forefathers’ name. Another example confirms our hypothesis about the conscious and skillful formation of the Chechen oral language and English spelling to preserve the System of Consciousness. It is an excerpt from our report at the round table discussion at the Foreign Languages Department of the Diplomatic Academy of the Russian Foreign Ministry held in 29 of March 200455.

55 S-E Kaguirov "Le mot, témoin de l'histoire". Pp. 107-142; 143-177. ISBN: 5-9900164-3-3 53

Chechen first and family names

Names consisting of words-maxims in which each sound is a meaningful word formed a basis of Chechen naming system. They strictly correspond to the linguistic principles of formation of the System of Consciousness. Our System of Consciousness gives answers to almost all questions put forward by the theoretical concept known as Proto language or Parent language. Chechen names consist of words-sentences, where every sound is a word. A Chechen name always corresponds to one of the forefathers' names in the pedigree vertical. “And He taught Adam all names…”56 In the Chechen language: Sа [sa] -spirit, light, Dа – father Bа -grandmother, mother eyesight, my (Ind. Father)

И[i] Isa Ida Ibа it, this Isaev Idаev Ibaev Сa [s] Sada Dаsа Bаsа Sаdаеv Dаsаеv Bаsаev Шa [sh] Shаbа Dаshа Bаshа Shаbаеv Dаshаеv Bаshаеv Sаid Dаud Bаud(d)i Sаidоv Dаudоv Bаu(t)di(n)оv Saidi (B)Vаshа Sаidаеv B)Vаshаеv

Жа[ja] Jaba Bаjа Faster! Lamb(s) Jаbаеv Bаjаеv

Ма[ma] Imа Dimа What! How! Imаеv Dimаеv

Маsа Mаdа Masаеv Маdаеv Мusа Sаidum Мusаеv Sаidumоv Маzhа Маzhаеv

Хьо[kho] Маskhаd Аmkhаd Bаskhа -you Маskhadov Аmkhadоv Bаskhа(n)оv Хьа[kha] -your, look!

56 Cоrаn, Chаpter 2 «Cow», Verse 29.

Ха[kha] -time Мusa-khajj Khamid (B)Viskha (Kha) Мuskhadjiev Khamidov (B)Viskhа(n)

Ра[ra] Rаsа Bаisаr leaves, Rаsаеv Bаisаrоv sleep, Jabir descendants. Jabirov

Эл[El] Sаidul Idаl Jabrail Lord, Sаidulaev Idalov Jabrailov Master. Israil Khalid Israilоv Khalidоv Ismаil Dalhkad Ismailоv Dаlkhаdоv Ка[ka] Lamb, luck, Каhir Каdir Мi(n)kаil hand. Каgirоv Каdirоv Мi(n)каilоv

Кха[ka] -fiеld КIa [ka] -wheat Къа[ka] -labour Etc.

We can conclude that such a system of nominations does not exist in any other language, including the ancient ones. The founders of the English spelling and Chechen oral language during several centuries put together practically all fragments of the System of Consciousness. They were scattered all over other languages and cultures, modern and ancient ones. Thus, was recreated the model of birth and millenniums-long development of human Consciousness which engendered many civilisations. "There is a more convincing evidence of the peoples' history than tombs, bones and weapon. It is the language". Jacob Grimm (1785-1863).

Achish

Let us return to the founder of AchishBeth. Achish57 is one of Bible kings, the king of Gath». According to the Bible, many biblical, historical heroes found rescue and justice in his Kingdom, including the future king of Israel David. When King Saul persecuted David, Achish gave shelter and gave him a city of Sekelag. Scientists of Israel and Canada excavate this kingdom even nowadays because Dynasty Achish attracts a great interest not only of theologians but also historians. It is mentioned frequently in the Bible story. Frankish culture is formed mostly based on Gothic culture. Gothic style is the basis of Catholic architecture. European Christianity is based mostly on Gothic culture. Our study shows more ancient Goths’ roots than those known till now. One of the first researchers of the history of Goths Jordanes in his book «The Origin and Deeds of the Goths», describes the European part of the history of the Gothic tribes. We show more ancient Middle East history of Goths. Why scientists describe only the European part of the history of gothic tribes whereas the Bible repeatedly mentions a name «Gath» and Middle Eastern 'The king of Gath Achish'? After all, the Bible is not only the religious book but, also, a source of the most valuable historical and geographical information. The answer to this question was preserved by the founders of the Chechen ethnos, having coded this information in newly created Chechen language after disintegration of Francs' ethnos. The Bible traces the information about the family tree from Adam to Noah, from Noah to Abraham, from Abraham to Joseph and from Joseph to Shechem. It is interrupted on Shechem58. Considering the importance of this information for future generations, the House of Achish - AchishBeth preserved the information that Shechem was one of forefathers of Achish by special coding. For example, after the disintegration of patriarchal-patrimonial relations among Francs, the Chechen ethnos was created based on rigid patriarchal-patrimonial relations. According to these relations, no one woman can inherit the family tree. Marrying, she, automatically, passes into a clan of her spouse.

57 The Old Testament. 1-Samuel, 27. 58 The Old Testament. Numbers, 26:31. 56

Thus, founder of our patrimonial village ‘AchishBeth’ connected his clan: with king Achish; Joseph's great-grandson Shechem; and the region - Shechem where Abraham had established his altar. Each subsequent generation has strengthened this information by forming the oral Chechen language and folk traditions, by toponymy. It is necessary to notice that under elders' stories, there are other Chechen clans which are formed by representatives of the Shechem region. Some Chechen clans have a saying ‘our ancestors came from Shem’. The Gothic contribution to the development of Frankish ethnos is well-known. However, the destruction of patriarchal-patrimonial relations in Frankish society was one of the reasons why the representative of Dynasty Achish had left Alpine mountains and established a village AchishBeth on the mountains named Caucasus. More in details the information is in my reports: at Interuniversity seminar MGIMO (U) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation ‘Lingvostranovedenie: methods of the analysis, technics of training’ on June, 10-11th, 2004; and at the round table discussion in the department of foreign languages of Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, devoted to my study, on March, 29th, 2004. The collapse of the Soviet Union accelerated the disintegration process of patriarchal- patrimonial relations in the Chechen-Ingush Republic. The nowadays situation in the Chechen Republic and Russia shows that the question of restoration of patrimonial relations are not on the agenda. We do not know when Russian and Caucasian peoples will start this process. Our Chechen House of Achish (AchishBeth) of Franco-Gothic origin preserved its history and philosophy by encoding them in names, in toponymy and across everyday spoken language. We have studied a historical period of the House of Achish (AhishBeth) starting with Shechem of Canaan up to the Chechen Republic (Caucasus). In our research, there are a vast number of examples of conservation of this information. Compare: French Eglish Russian Chechen Noé Noah Ной Нох. (O.T. Genesis 5:28) Sichem Shechem Сихем Шечем (O.T. Genesis 12:6) Chekem Shechem Шехем Шечем (O.T. Numbers 26:31) Sem Shem Сим Шем (O.T. Genesis 10:1) Chela Shelah Сала Шела (O.T. Genesis 10:24) Gath Gath Геф Гат, Гот (O.T.1Samuel, 27:2) Akish Achish Анхус Эхиш (O.T.1Samuel, 27:2) Maison Beth Дом Бет (O.T. Genesis 28 :19) Maison Beth Дом Бет “Bait” (Koran) Chechens call themselves ‘Noahcho’, literally it means ‘House of Noah’.

Genealogy The family tree was encoded through names according to the Bible. Compare: Father means father, ancestor, founder of a clan, founder of a nation. /O.T. Genesis/. Genealogy of Kagirov: Sayd-Emi Tovsultanovitch, Aslanbek Sayd-Emievitch, Gebert Sayd-Emievitch, Enissa Sayd-Emievna. Genesis: Russian French English Chechen 5:1 Адам-Ева Adam-Eve Adam-Eve Адам-Хьава 5:03 Сиф Seth Seth 5:06 Енос Enos Enosh 5:09 Каинан Quenan Kenan 5:12 Малелеил Maleleel Mahalalel 5:15 Иаред Yered Jared 5:18 Енох Henok Enoch 5:21 Мафусала Matusalem Mathuselah 5:25 Ламех Lemek Lamech 5:29 Ной Noй Noah Нох чо - Noah’s House 5:32 Сим Sem Shem Шем 10:22 Арфаксад Arpaxad Arphaxad 10:24 Сала Chela Shelah Шела 10:24 Евер Eber Eber 10:25 Фалек Peleg Peleg 11:18 Рагав Reou Reu 11:20 Серух Seroug Serug 11:22 Нахор Nahor Nahor 11:24 Фарра Terra Terah 11:27 Авраам Abraham Abraham ИбрахIим 21:03 Исаак Isaac Isaak Исакъ 25:26 Израиль Jacob-Israel Jacob-Israel Якъуб-Исраил 30:24 Иосиф Joseph Joseph Юсуп 46:20 Манассия Manasse Manasseh Манассих Numbers: 26:29 Махир Makir Makir Макир 26:29 Галаад Galaad Gilead Халид 26:31 Шехем Chekem Shechem Шечем - Shechem I-Samuel: 27:02 Анхус Akish Achish Эхиш Chechen Republic ДомАнхуса AkishBeth AchishBeth ЭхишБет Эстимир Astimir Astimir Iестимир Соломон Solomon Solomon Сулайма Давид David David Дауд Мита Mita Mita МитIа Мити-хадж Miti-hajj Mity-hajj МитIи-хьаьж Кахир Kahir Kahir КахIир Товсултан Tovsultan Tovsultan Товсолта Сайд-Эми Sayd-Emi Sayd-EmiСайд-Эми(мать-Шайман)

From nowadays, my name is Achish Sayd-Emi Tovsultanovitch de Kahir. This way has been coded the genealogy of Kagirov: Aslanbek Sayd-Emievitch (Achish Aslanbek Sayd-Emievitch de Kahir), Gebert Sayd-Emievitch (Achish Arthur Sayd-Emievitch de Kahir), Enissa Sayd-Emievna (Achish Elisa Sayd-Emievna de Kahir). In nowadays Europe the question of belonging to a particular nationality is more administrative, rather than philosophical. For our family, Dynasty Kahir, AchishBeth, Shechemite clan, belonging to a particular clan or nation is more philosophical issue rather than administrative. That is why, wherever they live, my descendants must refer to themselves as Franco-Shechemites. I want to pay attention to the usage of a phoneme ‘s’ in Russian translation of the Bible, instead of a phoneme ‘sh’ used in the English translation of the Bible. Further, we want to show a role of Russia and modern monarchic dynasties in the future development of a civilisation on the examples of such words and expressions which belong to the System of Consciousness as: 1 ‘Jihad’. 2 ‘Koh i nur’. 3 ‘Russia-Ruse’. 4 ‘Preobrazhenie – Resurrection’. In a transitive period, the contradictions enhance, usually, at all levels. Certain words express these contradictions. Let us analyse the words 'Jihad' and 'Koh i nur' which are the symbols of contradiction today. The ties of a legendary diamond ‘Koh i nur’ with various monarchic dynasties is well-known. How can these words impact the situation in the World? The distortion of the original meaning of a word can become the cause for its misuse. Let us begin with the word 'Jihad'. What kind of power has a word 'Jihad' in the hands of blind believers, despair who lost relatives, hopeless, especially, in the hands of forces which use their misfortune to achieve specific goals? This power is commensurable with the power which was in crusades. Some religious leaders try to explain that 'Jihad' is not revenge. It is not a blood spilling of innocents. It is not a happiness built on the misfortune of others. Attempts of these leaders are neutralised with a stronger attack through mass media of those who argue about 'Jihad' differently. We can put an end to the speculations with this word and make our contribution to the mutual understanding of all sides. We managed to decipher the meaning of each sound in the word "Jihad", as in many other religious words. I deciphered to one of the Christians meaning of each sound in

59 this word, i.e. showed him the fragment from our report at round table discussion at Diplomatic Academy of Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia, devoted to discussion of results of our research. Compare: Russian ‘джихад’ Arabic ‘jihad’ has the following form in Chechen: жа, джа [ja] faster! Lamb (Lambs). хьад [had] run! get together! Джа хьад [ja had] Faster get together! Lambs get together!

Сompare Arabic: Ji had Аrabic Chechen J джа [ja] - Lamb (Lambs) i - faster! h ха [ha] - time, waistband, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed d да [da] - father

J i h a d Джахьада [ja ha da] - Faster, your father! Lamb (lambs), your father! Applying the principle rearrangement of component and reading the word backward, we get new Chechen words and new Chechen sentences: Jihad Джахьад [ja had] - Faster, get together! -Lambs, get together! Dahaj Дахьаж [dahaj] - Look there! Da haj Да, хьаж! [da, haj] - Father, look! Da ha ja Да, хьа джа! [da, ha ja] - Father, your Lamb(s)! When noticed: «In any position, we receive Chechen words and phrases», he said: “In any position, we do not see any ‘war’”. We can say that the original meaning of the word ‘Jihad’ can minimise its destructive power and stop the conflicts between the religions based on it. Now, let us try to examine the ‘Koh i nur’ - the name of the legendary diamond, proceeding from the main principle of our researches: ‘a word - out of time and space’. The ‘Koh - i Nur’ means Mountain of Light in Persian language. It is a 105.6 metric carats diamond which weighs 21.6 grammes in the most recent state. It was once the most massive diamond. The Koh - i Nur is supposed to have originated in Andhra Pradesh in India together with

60 the Darya-ye Noor which means the Sea of Light. The diamond belonged to various rulers: Hindu, Rajput, Mughal, Iranian, Afghan, Sikh and British. They fought bitterly over it and seized it as a spoil of war, time and time again. It was expropriated from Kharak Singh in 1850 by the British East India Company. When Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India in 1877, it became part of the British Crown Jewels. The diamond was traditionally known as Syamantaka-mani and later Madnayak which means the King of Jewels. In the 18th century, it was renamed Kohinoor by Afghan Imperator Ahmad Shah Durrani after his conquest of India. Nowadays the diamond is set into the Crown of Queen Elizabeth and exhibited at the Tower of London. - The East India Company is a British company initially licensed as the Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East India. The company obtained a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth in 1600. It is the oldest among similar European East India Companies, and wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned its shares. The government did not own its shares and had only indirect control over the company. Exercising military power and assuming administrative functions the company, ultimately, came to rule large areas of India with its private armies. According to the results of our study, Seth was Monotheist. Compare: «Then they started to call a name of the Lord»59. Now, using the linguistic rules, we can see that Seth is ‘Сиф – Sif’ in Russian. He is 'Siva' in French, 'Shiva' in Hindi and 'Ashab – As(k)hab' in Arab. In Indian religious doctrine, there are concepts: Eye of Shiva, Koh i nur. We suppose that ‘Koh i nur’ is a legendary diamond set in the ancient temple as a sign of Monotheism. There they called to name of the Lord. When it was destroyed, Abraham came from his Homeland to Shechem of Canaan - the Homeland of his ancestors. He began a new era of Monotheism. We believe that Isaac, Israel, Joseph inherited this diamond. Joseph was appointed governor of Egypt not only because of his explanation of Pharaoh’s dreams but this diamond and explanation of its value. Therefore, understanding his responsibility before descendants, Joseph bequeathed that his bones have taken out from Egypt and buried in Shechem, thereby compensating forcedly broken continuity of the divine imperial power on the Earth connected with this diamond and this region. We must mention that it is not a coincidence that Bible describes, how Israel dressed Joseph as the prince, and, not a coincidence that is written about Abraham: «and tsars will occur from you»

59 The Old Testament. Genesis 4:26 .

(Old Testament, Genesis. 17:6). The repayment by Israel (Jacob) to Issau for the first-born rights and many others. Moreover, the role of the chief security guard of the Pharaoh in Joseph's acquaintance with the Pharaoh is not a coincidence. Hardly, Joseph could reach Pharaoh through other intermediaries, considering their career interests. Anyhow, ‘Koh i nur’ began to pass from hand to hand, generating conflicts not only in the ancient world but in the modern world too. We read: News archive 1989-2004 On November, 08th, 2000, 14:42 "Taliban" applies for a legendary brilliant Koh-i-Nur London. 8thof November. INTERFAX: “The militarised movement "Taliban" supervising the most of Afghanistan, has demanded to return a legendary diamond Koh i Nur" which belongs to the British royal family. 'Koh i Nur', which means 'Mountain of Light', had been brought to Britain from India and presented to Queen Victoria one and a half centuries ago. The last time it was put on by mother of the present Queen while crowning in 1937. British have possessed this diamond, having won the leader Singh Randzhita Singh. Furthermore, he, in turn, received it from the Afghani king who inherited it as the inheritance passing in Afghani royal family from the father to the son. Before the diamond belonged to the reigning Persian dynasty, and still before, it was in India. Thus, Talibs confirm, they have most of all the right for this diamond as at that time possessors of India originated from Afghanistan. Five countries apply for ‘Koh i Nur’, including Pakistan, Iran and India. Talibs have expressed the consent not to hurry with requirements. They intend to achieve the creation of the international commission on this question. However, the BBC broadcasting company notes on Wednesday that it is unlikely that the British royal family so easily would leave a legendary diamond”. As in a case of the word 'Jihad' let us try to close this issue of permanent conflict with the help of the meaning of the expression 'Koh i Nur'. Realizing the diamond's value as a symbol of Monotheism, together with fierce wars for its possession, there was a competition between those who knew secrets of word. They understood that the era ‘Koh i Nur’ would come to an end and new era would begin.

We see first sign of definition of the new era in the Koran where instead of ‘Koh i Nur’ appeared a word ‘Kahir’. According to the Islamic doctrine ‘Kahir’ means ‘Sovereign’. There are lots of examples even in Christianity from which we see attempts to show the necessity to eliminate a sound [n]. For example, a name Emile was formed from Immanuel by eliminating a sound [n]. Founders of the French and Chechen ethnicity have gone further. In both languages, the sound «n» at the end of a word can be written, but not pronounced. Etc. Now compare! ‘Koh i nur’ in the Chechen language60 has the form ‘Ka хьа нур– Ka ha nur’ – ‘Lamb, your light’. And ‘Kahir’ in the Chechen language has the form ‘Ka хьа гIа - Ka ha ra’ – ‘Lamb, your descendants’. We want to pay your attention to the fact that the Chechen sound [гI] corresponds to the French sound [r]. For this reason, Mita from Vedeno, from the clan AchishBeth, Shechemite clan, Joseph's descendants, believed to the Resurrection of the House of Achish and sent to hajj seven religious Chechens in 19th century. Then he sent to hajj his son accompanied by bodyguards. His son was named Miti-hajj (Hajj of Mita). Mita gave a name ‘Kahir’ to his grandson, to the son of Mita-hajj. He hoped that Dynasty Kahir of the House of Achish (AchishBeth), Shechemite clan might become a symbol of unity during a new era. Thus, Mita started to sum up the activities of those who artificially had formed Chechen and Frankish ethnicities. And the activities of their ancestors who had gathered its splinters and had preserved this language System of Consciousness. The word 'Russia - Ruse' has a great significance in transformation and future development of civilisation. The word ‘Ruse’ in Chechen language has the form ‘ГIа са - ra sa - descendants of light, my descendants’ (Chechen sound ‘гIа’ corresponds to the French sound ‘r’). Compare Indian religious doctrine. ‘Сурья - Suriya – Sun’. The name ‘Ruse’ is derived from the word ‘Suriya’ using the linguistic principle of rearrangement of components. Scientists have analysed the history of Russia during hundreds of years, but nobody has tried to understand: “Who said ‘Russia - Ruse'? What kind of power includes the word ‘Russe’?” Monuments of history: an Archangel Cathedral of the Kremlin, Elohov Church in Moscow 'El Elohe Israel - O.T. Genesis', Izmailov Royal Courtyard in Moscow, a temple to the Indian prince Ioasaf (Joseph), lots of Preobrazhensky (Resurrection) Temples, toponyms, the place where

60 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 63

Moscow was settled and the name ‘Russia - fr. Russe’ show a high spiritual level of the founders of Russian ethnicity, their spiritual and genealogical ties with the founders of English and Chechen ethnicities. Our study shows that the one who had left from the European madness and found this place for the dwelling was not the illiterate and voluntary emigrant. He was a highly intelligent refugee. He was compelled to leave a place of the dwelling which had been created by the same more ancient highly intelligent refugee who had come and said: ‘Rome’! The word ‘Rome’ in the Chechen language has the form ‘Ra ma – Г1а ма - What the descendants!’ Why is in Russia a word ‘Preobrajensky – transformation, resurrection’ used often? Those who reminded this word so often tried to explain that Russia needs Preobrazheniye - Ressurection, not revival and this transformation should base on divinity. The construction of such a quantity of Preobrazhenskiy temples confirms our conclusion. We want to notice that ‘Preobrazheniye’ is one of the twelve essential orthodox holidays. Russia and the Russian people suffer eternally because at the very beginning of its development the concept ‘divinity of imperial power’ in Russia was replaced with ‘the strong imperial power’. And the further actions of this ‘strong imperial power’, including, ‘bifurcation of a head of an eagle’ - a symbol of this power, usage of animals’ names, rodents etc. in the naming system of its citizens etc. show that this ‘power’ haven not realized its role in the history. Those who do not understand the power of a word should not misuse words allocated with divine power so that this power did not go against their people. Today they cannot relax thinking that the richness based on oil and gas can solve all problems. What remained, from richness of Queen of Sheba, and richness of the temple of Solomon on mountain Al-Aksa? There is one more evident example - fairy tale ‘The Golden Antelope’. Fairy tales and song traditions keep the wisdom of the people. Nowadays monarchic dynasties are closer to divinity. First of all, it is because of respect to the memory of their ancestors, in preserving family trees (genealogy). We want to remind that the king of Francs Charlemagne started creation of his Empire with restoration of family trees (genealogies). He wanted to preserve the language and song traditions of his ancestors. We consider that the achievements of the modern Western civilisation, first of all, based on those steps of Charlemagne.

If we analyse the nature and tendency of development of the modern monarchic systems, we will find out that many of them are guarantors of democracy in their countries. Even in those countries where democratic principles are not observed, the high standard of living of ordinary people minimises this lack. Joined efforts of monarchic, state and non-government institutions can yield good result in the preservation of national cultures during an epoch of inevitable globalisation. These monarchies can be a valuable argument for national institutions in struggle for the preservation of their national identity during globalisation. Our study shows the importance of preservation and strengthening of monarchies for further preservation of our System of Consciousness and its transformation to the future generations. We want to say that in this case works an instinct of self-preservation, too. Today, during a globalisation epoch, we do not see more convenient environment except monarchic institutions for transformation of the sacred knowledge which have been preserved by some of the representatives of the House of Achish (AchishBeth) and preservation of its genealogy. Monarchic system during a globalisation epoch serves for preservation of their national cultures. They do not oppress their peoples, and the memories about sweat and blood of former generations become dull because of the beauty of what those generations had created: architecture, cultural traditions etc. New monarchic dynasties have reached good mutual understanding and mutual respect with their citizens. Concepts ‘mutual understanding’, ‘mutual respect’ are divine but not the concepts «understanding based on force», ‘the respect based on force’.

We want to say that we should use best traditions of monarchic dynasties in the interest of the future of civilisation, instead of speculating on this issue trying to reduce the influence of monarchic institutions on the formation of new world political and financial architecture.

Chapter II: Shechem

Usually, men put their tents at the place where the water gushes from the ground, and so they establish the basis of a city. Near rivers, people cultivate their fields, plant, keep cattle and water their livestock. The wayfarer usually looks for the easiest way to travel, and this pass becomes a basis for highway. Geography affects history significantly. If we trace back any civilisation to its origin, we can see that geography provides the stage of historical events. A strategic military position, a water supply, or a convenient travelling route - geography determines, to a great extent, where historical events occur. Studying the Bible, we strongly believe in interpreting a passage in its context, a discipline which includes its historical and geographical context. This study shows the significance of Shechem, a city in central Israel. Shechem’s geography paves the way for a discussion of its history, and ultimately, its spiritual significance even still today.

The Geographical Significance of Shechem

Shechem played an essential role in the history of Israel. The location of Shechem in the middle of the nation provided the most important crossroads in central Israel.

The city lay along the northern end of ‘The ways of the Patriarchs’. This road also called the “Ridge Route” because it followed a key mountain ridge stretching five miles south, travelled from Shechem through Shiloh, Bethel, Ramah, Gibeah, Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Hebron. This route appears continuously in the Biblical text.

The Historical Significance of Shechem

Middle Bronze Age. Because of its central location and vital crossroads, Shechem saw much traffic in its history. Thus, Shechem often found itself in major events in the Biblical narrative. Shechem was one of the essential cities in Canaan during the 2nd millennium BCE and continued to be important during the Israelite period too. In the MB, Egyptian texts mentioned it. In the LB its rulers tried to dominate surrounding city-states. It also plays a vital role in the early existence of Israel located at the strategic pass between mount Gerizim and mount Ebal on a major north-south route.

The Spiritual Significance of Shechem

According to Bible narrative, Shechem appears on the Scripture as Abram enters the land of Canaan, from Ur across the Fertile Crescents and down into Canaan. The Bible mentions Shechem

67 as the first city to which Abram came (Gen. 12:6). Here Abram built an altar to the Lord, and here God confirmed His promise to give the land to him. Abram’s grandson, Jacob, came to Shechem after he returned from Padam-Aram, undoubtedly tracing the traditional travelling route of his grandfather. Here Jacob renamed Israel built an altar and named it ‘El-Elohe-Israel’ meaning ‘God, the God of Israel’ (Gen. 33:17-20). Here, also, Jacob dug a well for his herds. Years later, Jacob sent his 17 years-old son Joseph from Hebron to check on his brothers as they kept the flocks in Shechem (Gen. 37:12-14). After Joseph arrived having travelled up the Ridge-Rout, he discovered his brothers had moved on to the lush area of Dothan. So, he went to find them (Gen. 37:15-17). His brothers filled with hatred sold Joseph to some Ishmaelite traders who were coming through the Dothan pass and going to Egypt. Joseph's last memories of Israel before his brothers sold him were of Shechem and Dothan. He believed that God would one day return the nation to Canaan, and so he gave the command for his bones to be carried back with them and buried there (Gen. 50:25). Mount Ebal. Mount Gerizim.

After Moses brought the nation of Israel out of Egypt, Joshua divided the nation at Shechem. «Half of them stood in front of Mount Gerizim and half of them in front of Mount Ebal» (Josh.8:33). From Mount Ebal, they shouted the curses if they disobeyed the law and from mount Gerizim blessings if they obeyed. Furthermore, there on Mount Ebal, Joshua built an altar to God, and on a pillar of stones, he wrote a copy of the Law (Josh. 8:30-35). Joseph was the father of Ephraim and Manasseh. The Israelites brought out from Egypt the bones of Joseph and Joshua buried them at Shechem in the piece of ground which Jacob had bought from the sons of Hamor (Joshua 24:32). After the kingship of the kings of Israel Saul, David and Solomon, Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, went to Shechem because all Israelites had come there to make him king (1 Kings 12:1).

The nation divided at Shechem and ten northern Israelite tribes separated from the Southern Kingdom of Judah (1 Kings 12:1, 16). Jeroboam chose Shechem as the capital for the Northern Kingdom of Israel. Shechem was, also, located on the main crossroads on the patriarchs' travelling pathway. The city Samaria became famous in the history of Shechem because the people who worshipped on the mount Gerizim were known as Samaritans. Omri chose Samaria as the capital of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. The racial hatred between Jews and Samaritans was overriding by the time when Jesus was speaking to the Samaritan woman at Jacob's well near Shechem. Moreover, subsequent argument about what is the right place of worship, Gerizim or Jerusalem, was in full force (John 4:20). /D. Wayne Stiles II. Th. M/ We want to pay attention to the fact that Joshua built an altar to God, and on a pillar of stones wrote a copy of the Law on the mount Ebal (Josh. 8:30-35), not on the mount Gerizim. For a spiritual lesson from Shechem's history, we look back at Joshua's challenge to the nation in Joshua: "Then Joshua gathered all tribes of Israel to Shechem and called for the elders of Israel and heads and judges and officers, and they presented themselves before God" (Joshua 24:1). Joshua called all Israelites to Shechem at the end of the conquest because of its historical significance. As above mentioned, it was here that Abraham first came when he came to the land of Canaan. It was also here that Abraham’s grandson Jacob settled.

Reflection of patriarchal and clannish relations in the Chechen language

There is a theory in comparative linguistics on the ‘ancestral language’. A. Maillet, N.C. Troubetskoi, T.V. Gamkrelidze and V.V. Ivanov developed it. This theory says that the ancestral language is a stratum whose dialects gave rise to a group of languages called ‘family’. Some large linguistic families reduced to dialects of the ancestral language made it possible to identify some large families’ (macro families) ancestral languages. It is equally clear that these macro families had a unifying linguistic character not deciphered so far. The research in the area of comparative linguistics did not only concern ancient or very widespread languages but also rare languages or those of certain ethnic groups. The Chechen language has also attracted the attention of scholars. The famous German linguist Joseph Karst

69 wrote in his work ‘The Origins of the Mediterranean… Ethnolinguistic researches’: “The Chechens are not strictly speaking Caucasians, as they differ considerably, from an ethnic and linguistic point of view, from the other mountaineer peoples of the Caucasus.” Professor Y.D. Decheriev made a significant contribution to addressing the problem of the origin of the Chechen language. The researchers have reached the following conclusion: "Although a group of Ibero-Caucasian languages traditionally includes the Chechen language, this language is a self-contained system that is unlike any other language in the world." The work ‘Etymological studies of the Chechen language, Chechens are the conservers of the ancestral (Proto) language at the present stage’61 shows that this closed system was not born spontaneously. It was deliberately imposed on the Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos based on patriarchal and clan relations. The Chechen ethnos has assembled representatives of ancient mountain clans and tribes in the Caucasus. It is of general knowledge that the Chechen people include clans of different origin: Frankish, Russian, Georgian, Tatar, Dagestani, the clan of the Terek Cossacks, and others. Far from being contrary to the works of the scholars mentioned above, this study reconstitutes a missing link that unites all language families of the world. The history of the AchishBeth clan of the Chechen Republic originated from Shechem in Canaan is the subject of our research. We want to start with the characteristic of the historical periods, the European and the Caucasian ones, of the history of the AchishBeth clan. The states of nomadic peoples were powerful, but they did not last long. The oppression of Slavs by the Avars provoked a great Slavic uprising led by Samo (622-623). The fight against the Slavs and the Franks caused the decline of the Avar power: in 803 the Frankish emperor Charlemagne won a final victory. The representative of the House of Achish - AchishBeth of the Shechemite clan of the generation of Joseph and later Franco-Gothic origin founded a village called AchishBeth on the territory of the modern Vedenski district of the Chechen Republic. This way, the dynasty of Achish, the King of Gath, was perpetuated. The events related to the disappearance of the Frankish Empire in Europe offers the opportunity to draw parallels that support our hypothesis about the Franco-Gothic origin of one of

61 S-E Kaguirov. «Etymological studies of the Chechen language. Chechens are the conservers of the ancestral (Proto) language at the present stage». Moscow. 2003. ISBN: 5-9900164-1-7 70 the oldest Chechen clans - AchishBeth. Moreover, it confirms the hypothesis of deliberate creation of the Chechen ethnos to preserve the ‘ancestral (proto) language’. We suppose that future studies would confirm a deliberate constitution not only of the Chechen ethnos but the Frankish too, to conserve the system of the ancestral (proto) language. This system served as the dynamic scientific- linguistic basis for the development of various religions such as the Indian religious teachings, the Old Testament, the New Testament and the Koran. We want to show some parallels in history and civilisation, which demonstrate the similarity of Francs and Chechens (Vaynoahs). Franks and Chechens (Vaynoah) are ethnic groups characterised by patriarchal and clan relations: - For the Franks: father’s house and mother’s tongue. For Chechens Daimohk – the fathers’ home, country, Néna mot – mother’s tongue, language; - Frankish knights – equestrians, Caucasian ‘djigits’; The word ‘frank’ means: open, cordial, frank, and free in one’s thoughts and feelings, relaxed, not stingy, clear, simple, generous, noble, honest, and sincere. - ‘Djigit’ (knight), is a Caucasian whose character is: open, cordial, frank, free in his thoughts and feelings, relaxed, not stingy, clear, simple, generous, noble, honest, sincere. -A deliberately chosen oral form of the conservation of the system of the ancestral (Proto) language due to the absence of writing among the Franks and the Chechens for a long historical period; - Free Frank was member of clan, enjoyed its protection and bore the responsibility of the members of his clan. Chechen is a member of his clan, enjoys the protection and bears the responsibility of the members of his clan (until the dismantling of the Soviet Union). Moreover, these are not just spontaneous relations. The law (customs) imposes them, and one can only abjure by solemn procedures. In his book ‘Toponymy of Chechnya’ the Chechen ethnographer Akhmad Souleimanov wrote: "Toponymy is a historical memory of the land encoded in names linked with the destiny of the people living there." Let us compare now: "According to the indigenous population, distant ancestors of AchishBeth left Shem to go to Nashkha and from there further to Tsessa and left Tsessa to go to AchishBeth. Besides AchishBeth

71 in the Vedensky district, the members of this community live in the city of Grozny and on the plateaus: Chali (‘Shelah’ in Chechen) Serzhen-Yurt, Goity, Tsotsin evla, etc." "Achishbeth is of Pirengian, i.e. European origin. Arabs called the Franks as Pirengians" /Professor. Jan Chesnov., professor Ippolitov/. “The ethnographic names of Etruscan clans and tribes stem from geographical names of regions. In the region of nowadays’ Novorossiysk there was a tribe ‘Eria rich batoy’. Among the Chechens, this clan have a patronymic name AchishBeth. The Etruscans were a people inspired by God; there were many oracles among them. They were also conciliators."/Professor Adam Dolatov/ Thus, we are showing the continuity: Goths - Etruscans of Gothic origin - Franks of Gothic origin - Caucasians of Franco-Gothic origin. Chechen names date back to Biblical names. Chechens call themselves as 'Noah-cho' which means Noah's House. Compare the names: Noah Ной «Нох» Old Testament, Genesis 5

Shechem Сихем «Шечем» Old Testament, Genesis12:6 Shechem Шехем «Шечем» Old Testament, Numbers 26:31 Shem Сим «Шем» Old Testament, Genesis 10 Shelah Сала «Шела» Old Testament, Genesis10:24 Gath Геф «Гет, Гат, Гот» Old Testament, 1 Samuel 27:2-6

Achish Анхус «Эхиш» Old Testament, 1 Samuel 27:2-6 Beth – Дом «Бет» Old Testament, Genesis 28: 22 House Дом «Байт» Koran

The quoted parallels show that representatives of the Chechen clan AchishBeth encoded their hereditary link with the Franco-Goths, the kingdom of Gath, with Shechem, the grandson of Joseph. It encoded, also, its link with Shechem, the region in the Middle East, the region which Israel had bequeathed to Joseph. Through the names of the fathers, this clan was deliberately coded, as in the Old Testament (Genesis 10). The House of Achish - AchishBeth has preserved in its language the meaning of each sound of names Adam, Abraham, Isaac, and Israel written in English. It is one of the proofs that the King of Gath Achish was their son.

The distinction of each sound in these names makes sentences in modern Chechen language, which are in line with their religious interpretation. Indeed, a clan would not have preserved for thousands of years, the meaning of the names of fathers who were not part of it. Many political leaders are trying, as we know, to appear like their historical predecessors. Given the historical importance of the Franks and their Emperor Charlemagne, we can see not only a linguistic and spiritual link between Franks and AchishBeth but also a spiritual link between Frankish emperor Charlemagne and the king of Gath, founder of the Achish dynasty. Many historical heroes sought and found justice and salvation with Achish. Let us quote David, the future King of Israel, to whom Achish gave shelter and the town of Ziklag when King Saul pursued David. Compare: The Old Testament, 1 Samuel. 27:2. So David and the six hundred men with him left and went over to Achish, son of Maoch king of Gath. 27:3. David and his men settled in Gath with Achish. Each man had his family with him… 27:4. When Saul was told that David had fled to Gath, he no longer searched for him. 27:5. Then David said to Achish, "If I have found favour in your eyes, let a place be assigned to me in one of the country towns, that I may live there. Why should your servant live in the royal city with you?" 27:6. So on that day Achish gave him Ziklag, and it has belonged to the kings of Judah ever since. Compare: Harold Lamb wrote in his book ‘Charlemagne. Founder of the Carolingian Empire’: "Then something unique happened in the West! The lost empire remained engraved for centuries in the memory that created a new world in the West. Charlemagne was a legend that amplified and spread over all Christian lands. It was not a simple recollection of an imaginary golden age or an extraordinary monarch; it was instead something that belonged to all humanity. In a short time, this monarch made his subjects reach unheard-of achievements. The memory of this man went beyond the walls of palaces and churches, entered in simple dwellings and began to travel the roads ". "Charlemagne wanted to preserve the language and the traditions of songs of his ancestors". "After listening tales of the adventures of the Trojans, described by William, Charlemagne remembered that one of his ancestors bore the name Ankhiz or something of the sort. (Ankhiz- Anhous'Anhus, in English/French Achish/Akish). 1 Samuel: 27-2) Is it possible, thought

Charlemagne, that the ancient Franks were wandering Trojans, having come by mystery from the sea and led by Anchises father of Aeneas? .... At that time, names characterised a man himself, at least in the region of the Rhine." The comparison of these lines with data of Chechen history reveals relations of continuity: "The hardcore of Frankish culture shattered into pieces gave birth to nowadays European peoples. Since the departure from the Alps of representatives of the House of Achish and their installation in the Caucasian mountains, it took 1200 years for these peoples to understand that it is possible and necessary to live together. One of the reasons for the departure from Europe of the House Achish and its installation in the Caucasus was the rupture of patriarchal and clan relations in Frankish society. It made impossible further preservation of the system of the ancestral proto language – language System of Consciousness. The ancestral language mostly preserved in names, the latter being the most resistant to changes over time. It is a scientific system of word and name formation that has three basic principles: a) one-sound words constitute the basis of the ancestral language; b) hierarchical nature of the formation of words and names or word-utterances in which each sound is a word with full meaning; c) principle of linguistic rearrangement of components or inversion of the elements to form the new words and names Compare: Michael means « The One Who is Like God », /Rajasthan, India, Brahma Kumaris Academy for a Better World/ Michael Compare: Chechen 1. i. -и -this, he, she s -са -spirit, light, sight is -из -he, she, this i s -и са -he(she) spirit, light, sight

2. c -ca -spirit, light sight ha -хьа, хьо -your, you cha -цхьа -one mi cha -ма цхьа -what (single, one) mi cha el -ма цхьа эл -what a (single, one) Lord! mi c ha el -ма са хьа Эл! -What a spirit/light…you/your Lord! Michael

The names Michael, Gabriel, Adam, Abraham, Israel, and others were formed according to this pattern, and the Chechen oral language and English spelling preserved their meanings. Religious names are formed according to strict rules. Below are examples of the principle of the rearrangement/inversion of components. Compare: ЦIе [tse] - name, fire, red. ЦIи [tsi] - blood. ЦIа [tsa] - house (Chechen) Эц [ets] - redeem, purchase, take (Chechen) English Chechen Russian Isa (I sa) И са - I sa, i.e. Иса (Иисус) - Isa (Jesus) This spirit, light, sight Isaac (I sa ac) И са акъ - I sa ak, i.e. Исаак - Isaac This amazing/fantastic spirit/light! He is amazing! Achish (Ac i sa) Акъ и са - Ak i sa, i.e. Анхус - Ankhous, Эхиш - -Amazing, this spirit/light…! Ékhish(or Achish) Achish (Ac h ish) Ак иш/уьш - Ak ich/ush, i.e. They are amazing!

We can observe an attempt to maintain the system of ‘ancestral language’, which we call System of Consciousness in lots of all languages. According to the rules of patriarchal and clan relations of the Chechen ethnos, the youngest son inherits Father’s House. But the right of final decision within the families and clans belongs to the family, clan's elders. - "Mita from the village of Vedeno who belonged to the clan of Achishbeth (19th century) of the Chechen Republic was wealthy. He had financed the pilgrimage (hajj) of seven Chechen believers. Then he sent his son on pilgrimage accompanied by bodyguards. His son was named Miti-Hajj." /Professor Y.A. Aliroev/ - Miti-Hajj had a son. He was given a name Kahir. The Chechen family name strictly corresponds to the names of one of the fathers from the vertical line of the genealogical tree. We want to quote some other examples that unquestionably confirm the deliberate and artificial formation of the Chechen ethnicity based on the philosophy of conciliation of different cultures.

For example, the system of formation of the Chechen (Vaynoah) names and family names: Issa - Jesus Issaev, Ida Idaev, Iba Ibaev Ida Idaev,

Iba Ibaev. Mada Madaev Dima Dimaev Adam Adamov Adam Iba Ibaev Djaba Djabaev Baja Bajaev Djabir Djabirev Radjab Radjabov Djabrail Djabrailov Archangel-Gabriel, in Chechen-Djabrail Iba Ibaev Saba Sabaev Tsiba Tsibiev Sahab Sahabov Ashab Ashabov Shaba Shabaev Shahab Shahabov Shiva Viskh Viskhanov Baskh Baskhanov Bacha Bachaev Baissar Baissarov Bachir Bachirov Vishnu Issa Issaev Rassa Rassaev Saraly Saraliev Israil Israilov Izrail Izrailov Yasrail Yasrailov Israil –Israel Issa Issaev Mussa Mussaev Massa Massaev Moses Salam Salamov Salam – Salom Ismail Ismailov Salikh Salikhov

The given examples show the basis of unification of the clans of different origins. We want to draw your attention to the fact that in its evolution, the Chechen ethnos followed the historical and philosophical precepts which were the basis at its origin. We want to give examples other free researchers have provided and which we have developed. 1. If to compare the biblical legend about Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden with Chechen words, we will see that it is precisely this legend was the basis for the formation of these words. Let us compare the Chechen words: 1. Дит (dit) - tree дит (dit) - leave it, do not touch 2. Iаж (aj) - apple, apple tree Iажал (ajal) - death If we divide this last word into ‘Iаж - Эл (aj - El)’, we have the word ‘apple, apple tree- Lord’. 3. гIаш (rash) - leaves гIаш (rash) - part between the legs of a human being or an animal This example shows that founders of the Chechen ethnos ingeniously introduced this Biblical legend into the subconscious of the Chechen ethnos. Other examples which confirm our conclusions are as follows: 1. The contemporary Chechen word къамел [kiamel] means conversation, talking, speech. This word consists of two words: къа [kia] which means work, sin, misfortune, mercy and мел [mel] which means good deed, a reward for a good deed. The philosophy of this word is evident. It is a reminder that a man by his conversation or his speech can sin or may get a God’s reward. 2. The example taken from the toponymy of Chechnya. It is the name of a mountain lake Kazinoiam. In Chechen, it is Kesin am'. This word consists of three words: 1. K'e - poverty, k'en – old, old age, 2. zin - (secret) test 3. am - lake, puddle. Now let us compare these words with the legend telling the formation of this lake. “An old man came into the village situated at the location of the lake. He asked alms to every house. Nobody, even the richest, gave him anything but a poor older woman gave him half of her last bread. The older man thanked her and told her to climb the nearby mountain in the morning before sunrise. The older woman rose at dawn and went up the mountain. When she turned around, she saw a lake at the place where there was the village”. This legend and these words remind us that we cannot ignore the poor people.

Now we want to pass to more pleasing events which have been marked by the emergence of new words and concepts in the Chechen language. Our fathers, being of Franco-Gothic origin, have carefully followed the events occurring in the homeland of their ancestors in the Alps (Europe). It looks like a compromise between European dynasties and appearance of the Kingdom of Belgium on the map was commemorated amidst a small Chechen ethnic group by the appearance of the Chechen concept-word ‘belkhi-belgi’. The Chechen concept-word ‘belkhi-belgi means an event where neighbours, close relatives, friends, come together to produce something which is left afterwards to the family that brought them together. This event is accompanied by an evening party (dancing, singing) after the work. Another example. With the appearance of Germany on the world map, a proper personal name 'Guerman' emerged in the Chechen society. There is a system of proper names in the Chechen society which corresponds to the names of some other nations, like Arbi – Arab; Turko – Turkish. We can give many other examples of concept-words from the Chechen language and public relations, confirming the natural unification of representatives from different origins. These relations illustrate very well the possibilities of coexistence of different peoples, cultures and religions. We returned from our homeland Caucasus to the homeland of our earlier ancestors who lived in the Alps. They were named in Europe as Francs. We brought with us preserved and improved the folk traditions of our ancestors. It is a collection of my scientific reports ‘Word is the Witness of History’. It includes song traditions ‘We saw lots of storms during our long life’ by Chechen writer and poet Hizar Akhmadov, as well. We hope that the libraries of universities: Sorbonne, Oxford, Cambridge, Cologne, and others will keep them accurately. Our System of Consciousness was preserved in everyday language and song traditions. ‘Charlemagne wanted to preserve speech and song traditions of the ancestors’62.

62 From my report at the Interuniversity seminar at MGIMO (U) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation on June 10-11. Kagirov Sayd-Emi ‘Le mot, témoin de l'histoire’ pp. 81- 93 en Russie, pp.94-96 en français. ISBN: 5-9900164-3-3 78

PART II: ACHISHBETH AND ORIGIN OF LANGUAGES AND RELIGIONS

Chapter I: Scientists’ approaches to the origin of languages

“What contribution can the study of language make to our understanding of human nature? In one or another manifestation, this question threads its way through modern Western thought. The nature of language, the respects in which it mirrors human mental processes or shapes, the flow and character of thought, these were topics for study and speculations by scholars and gifted amateurs. They are of a wide variety of interests, points of view, and intellectual backgrounds. In the 19th and 20th centuries, as linguistics, philosophy, and psychology have uneasily tried to go their separate ways, the classical problems of language and mind have inevitably reappeared and have served to link these diverging fields and to give direction and significance to their efforts. There have been signs in the past decade that the artificial separation of disciplines may be coming to an end. In short, it seems to be entirely appropriate at this moment of the development of linguistics and philosophy, to turn again to old questions and to ask what new insights achieved and how the old issues may provide direction for contemporary research and study.”63 Many scientists continue to regard the topic about the origin of language inappropriate for serious study. It was a widely discussed topic, though empirical evidence was limited and there was no consensus in its ultimate origin or age. In 1866, the Linguistic Society of Paris banned debates on the subject. That interdiction remained authoritative across much of the Western World until late in the 20th century. “The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a strong affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong, indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists: there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the

63 Noam Chomsky. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ‘Language and mind’. Enlarged edition. ‘Linguistic contributions to the study of mind’: Past. Page 1. 1968; 1972 by Harcourt Brace Jvanovich, Inc.

Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family”64. A presentation of the collection of scientific reports ‘Word is the Witness of History’ in Paris and Brussels had a big success. The form of presentation allowed acquainting with the results of the study, the highest political and scientific management of Belgium and France. Although reaction to the presentation was ambiguous, its success is evident from our point of view. There were no scientists to whom this study was indifferent. We could read a shock on the faces of some of them. Maybe because of the gravity of the studies' results or comprehension that some secrets revealed. We do not think that, while for centuries the Chechen ethnos was creating in Caucasus consciously and skillfully with unique language system, history and philosophy and nobody knew about it. Sure, that its representatives knocked on the European and Russian doors. They tried to show the language system, history and philosophy based on which this ethnos had been creating when this small ethnos resisted to immense power (Russia) during centuries. Probably, they knocked so often and convincingly that the Linguistic community of Paris refused to accept any messages on the existence of ‘Uniform language’ in 1866. Consideration of scientific works in this area has been renewed only in 1960s. Why was this theme so dangerous that reflections about it were out of the law about 100 years? We want to notice that at that period the Chechen ethnos had been already skillfully formed with this unique language system based on Franco-gothic culture. We show it in our collection of scientific reports «Word is the Witness of History». We want to pay attention of the French and European politicians to the strong influence of various international actors on a political situation on Caucasus during that historical period, i.e. the end of 19 centuries and the beginning of 20 centuries, known as: 1. forces supporting national liberation movement led by Daghestani Shamil, supporters of introduction of Islamic institutions of Sheriyat; 2. orthodox Russia; 3. and the founders and preservers of the Chechen language and philosophy - AchishBeth.

64 The Ancient Languages of Europe. Chapter I, page 1. Edited by Roger D. Woodard. Cambridge University Press, 2008. 80

It would be ridiculous to think that, creating consciously and skillfully the Chechen ethnos based on Franco - Gothic culture, financing hajj of seven religious Chechens, Mita from AchishBeth65 did not finance scientific envoys to Europe and first to Paris. Probably, messages about this unique language system based on Franco - Gothic culture were persuasive. If the Linguistic community of Paris did not adopt such treacherous decision concerning the Chechen language, France should interfere directly to a situation on Caucasus. Those who would not like to see this language system had lost the game. It happened the day when we presented it in a round table discussion in the Diplomatic Academy of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs of, i.e. on March 29th, 200466. There is Russian saying “The information known by two persons known by a pig (which means by all the people) ». We can add to this saying: «especially in a century of informatization”. Scientists should define their attitude towards this work as soon as possible. Otherwise, they must explain what are looking for the experts in the field of comparative- historical linguistics, anthropology, mythology, archaeology, biology, genetics, neurophysiology, anatomy, philosophy, history, researchers in the field of theory of glottogenesis. Moreover, they should answer the question: “for what they spend a huge amount of public funds, taxpayer money not only in France”? To make it clear to non-specialists, we mean all scientists-experts who have searched eternally the answer to a question: "How and when a person separated from an animal? It is well- known that a language separates a person from an animal, but they cannot understand how and when a language appaired. We call upon the French politicians to pay attention to the situation in the scientific society. Having been in Europe for seven years, still have not received even laboratory for further research. The representative of the National Center of Scientific Researches of France in Moscow Mr Patrick Le Fort promised it in 2005. Treachery of this small Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos the second time is fraught for France and the modern civilisation with grave consequences. Professor Chomsky writes:

65 Mita from AchishBeth of Chechen Republic was wealthy "19 centuries". He financed a hajj of seven Chechens. Afterwards, he sent his son to hajj, accompanied by bodyguards. His son was named Miti-hajj /I.J. Aleroev Ibraguim Aliroev - Doctor of philology, Doctor of history, professor, academician of the Russian Academy of natural sciences. 66. The report on a round table discussion is on page 107 in Russian and on page 143 in french of the collection of scientific reports «Word is the Witness of History» Kagirov Sayd-Emi. ISBN: S-9900164-3-3 81

“More generally, I think that the long-range significance of the study of language lies in the fact that in this study it is possible to give a relatively sharp and clear formulation of some of the central questions of psychology and to bring a mass of evidence to bear on them. What is more, the study of language is, for the moment, unique in the combination it affords of richness of data and susceptibility to sharp formulation of basic issues. Nevertheless, it is fair to suppose that the major contribution of the study of language will lie in the understanding which it can provide as to the character of mental processes and the structures they form and manipulate. Anyone concerned with the study of human nature and human capacities must somehow come to grips with the fact that all normal humans acquire language. In contrast, acquisition of even its barest rudiments is quite beyond the capacities of an otherwise intelligent ape – a fact that was emphasised, quite correctly, in Cartesian philosophy.”67 - Cartesianism is the philosophical and scientific concepts derived from the works of the French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650). There exist lots of hypotheses about the emergence of the first language. These hypotheses try to answer the questions how, why, when and where language might first have appeared. It looks like there is hardly more convincing agreements today than there were a hundred years ago. At that time, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection motivated immediate speculation on the topic. However, since the early 1990s, a growing number of scholars: linguists, archaeologists, psychologists, anthropologists and others have tried to apply new methods in the research. They began to consider it as the hardest problem in science. In this dissertation, we have solved this ‘hardest problem in science’ with the help of English spelling and Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language. We want to present some theories on the topic and give answers to the questions that these theories try to receive.

67 Noam Chomsky. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “Language and mind”. Enlarged edition. “Linguistic contributions to the study of mind: Future. Pages 66-67. Paperbound ISBN: 0-15-549257-8; Hardbound ISBN: 0-15- 147810-41968; 1972 by Harcourt Brace Jvanovich, Inc.

Linguistic monogenesis. According to the hypothesis of linguistic monogenesis, there existed a proto-language, from which all other vocal languages derived. There is an ‘Out of Africa hypothesis’, according to which all humans alive today descended from Mitochondrial Eve. It is a woman who supposed to have lived in Africa some 150,000 years ago. If this hypothesis were approved, it would raise the possibility that the Proto-Human language could date to approximately that period. There is also assertion about a bottleneck population, particularly the Toba catastrophe theory. This theory determines that the human population at a period around 70,000 years ago was as low as 15,000 or even 2,000 individuals. If it did indeed become apparent, such a bottleneck population would be an excellent candidate for the date of Proto-Human language. - The Toba supereruption was a supervolcanic eruption believed to have occurred between 69,000 and 77,000 years ago at Lake Toba (Sumatra, Indonesia). It is known as one of the Earth's most massive eruptions. According to this hypothesis, the planet was submerged from six to ten years of volcanic winter and possibly an additional 1 000 years cooling period. This change in weather is supposed to have resulted in the world's human population being reduced to 10,000 or even a mere 1 000 breeding pairs, creating a bottleneck in human evolution. As far as Mitochondrial Eve and her role in the formation of Humanity concerns, according to our study, Humanity is descended from Patriarch Adam. The man who invented a bow and arrow was named as Adam by his descendants. Thus, they who decided to include him in their genealogy.

Discontinuity theories

According to the discontinuity theories, the language is such a unique invention that we cannot compare it to anything discovered among non-human beings. Therefore, it must have appeared suddenly during human evolution. According to our study, human evolution had passed several stages of enlightenment that changed human beings and their way of life. The main of them are: 1. Fire use; 2. Invention of a bow and arrow; 3. Acquisition of the ability to process the earth.

The English spelling and Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language show the encoded in the Bible and Koran (in the names Adam and Noah) information about two of these stages: 1. Invention of a bow and arrow; 3. Acquisition of ability of processing of the earth. Compare! Adam68 and Noah69. English spelling and Chechen oral language show that with the acquisition of a bow and an arrow, accelerated development of naming system began. It was the beginning of a new stage of evolution of the human being, e.g. after Professor Noam Chomsky writes: “The language is so complex that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form. It must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems”. These pre-linguistic systems, undoubtedly, are the basis for the formation of English spelling and Chechen oral language. It is necessary to notice that this system had been preserved and developed during different historical periods. At the present stage, it has preserved by the founders of English spelling and Chechen oral language. The fact is that we cannot find the naming system

68 The Old Testament Genesis, 9:13 says: “I have set my rainbow in the clouds, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and the earth ”. Why does a rainbow serve as a sign of the covenant between God and the Earth? Compare now: English Chechen A d Iад [Ad] - a rainbow, a bow and arrow a m ма [ma] - what! Adam Iад ма - What a rainbow (a bow and arrow)! [Ad ma] - Like a rainbow (a bow and arrow)! - Rainbow (a bow and arrow) it is! 69 The Chechens call themselves as Noahcho. Linguistic analysis of “Noahcho” demonstrates that the Chechen language has preserved the Old Testament’s meaning of the name of Noah: “Не named him Noah and said: “He will comfort us in the labour and painful toil of our hands caused by the ground...”. Compare now: English Russian Chechen Noah Ной Нох [nokh] - Noah нох [nokh] - to reap нох [nokh] - a plough нох(да) [nokh(da)] - to plough ной [noi] - trough нах [nakh] - people чо [cho] - a house, a womb Noahcho Нохчо [Nokh cho] - Noah’s House Two biblical names have similar usage in Chechen: 1. Adam means both the name of Adam and the word ‘adam(ish)’ - man, people. 2. Noah also means the name of Noah, and the word ‘noah’ – people. 84 which exists in Chechen (Vaynoah) in any of the world languages, including the ancient ones. It serves as proof of the artificial formation of the prelinguistic system in the Chechen language. It means that Adam was a symbol of the enlightenment when one of the human ancestors invented ‘a bow and an arrow’. After that invention, a man could live alone, because afterwards, he was able to fight animals in the distance. Philosophically saying, at that point each human being could announce ‘It is me’, ‘I am’. It is not casual that in the Bible, the names written through a hyphen put between each syllable. It specifies that each syllable is a meaningful word. These names are a synthesis of words which consist of meaningful syllables (sounds). Another difference between theories is that some consider language mostly as an innate faculty which is mostly genetically encoded. Others consider it as a mainly cultural system, obtained through social interaction. As far as the notion ‘social interaction’ concerns, we must separate the social interaction of human beings before the invention of a bow and an arrow and after its invention. When a man invented a bow and an arrow, he left the cave and there appeared a necessity to give names to each other. The founders of Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnicity reconstructed the system of formation of the first names70. The invention of a bow and an arrow resulted with man's separation from other species answers Noam Chomsky issue. Noam Chomsky is a prominent proponent of discontinuity theory, and on this issue, he stands quite isolated among his academic peers. - Avram Noam Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928. He is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, political critic. He is a Professor - Emeritus in the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy at MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he has worked for over 50 years. In addition to his work as a linguist, writes on war, politics in mass media. He is the author of over 100 books. He is known as a prominent cultural figure, and he was on the "world's top public intellectual" in a 2005 poll. He argues that a single fortune mutation occurred in one individual around 100,000 years ago. It had trigged the instantaneous emergence of the language capability, a component of the mind-

70 Chechen (Vaynoah) names consist of words-sentences, where every sound is a word. A Chechen name always corresponds to one of the forefathers' names in the pedigree vertical. “And He taught Adam all names…” / Коrаn, Chаpter 2 Cow, Verse 29/ Са [sa] -spirit, light, Dа – father Bа - grandmother, mother eyesight, my (Ind. Father) И[i] Isa Ida Ibа it, this Isaev Idаev Ibaev Сa [s] Sada Dаsа Bаsа Sаdаеv Dаsаеv Bаsаev etc. 85 brain, in perfect or almost perfect form. The philosophical evidence is, briefly, as follows. At the beginning, during the evolution, some biological change in a species arises by an accidental genetic change in a single individual, which, in turn, spreads throughout its breeding group. We argue that this single individual was named Adam by his descendants. Compare: In the Chechen – Iaд ма [Ad ma] - What a rainbow! What a bow and an arrow!

Continuity theories

The basis of the ‘Continuity theories’ is the idea that language is so sophisticated that it could not appear from nothing in its final form. It must have developed from some earlier pre-linguistic systems which existed among our primate ancestors. “The assumption that human language evolved from more primitive system is developed by Karl Popper in his recently published Arthur Compton Lecture, ‘Clouds and clocks’. He tries to show how the analysis of this evolution can solve problems of freedom of will and Cartesian dualism. Popper argues that the evolution of language passed through several stages, in particular, a lower-stage in which gestures used for expression of emotional state, for example, and a higher stage in which articulated sound used for expression of thought – in Popper's terms, for description and critical argument. His discussion of stages of evolution of language suggests a kind of continuity. He established no relation between the lower and higher stages. Moreover, he did not suggest a mechanism whereby transition can take place from one stage to the next. In short, he gives no argument to show that the stages belong to a single evolutionary process. It is difficult to see what links these stages, except for the metaphorical use of the term ‘language’.”71 - Sir Karl Raimund Popper was born 28.07.1902, in Vienna, Austria and died 17.09.1994 in Croydon, Greater London, England. He is an Austrian-born British philosopher of natural and social science. He believed that knowledge evolves from experience of the mind.

71 Noam Chomsky. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ‘Language and mind’. Enlarged edition. ‘Linguistic contributions to the study of mind’: Past. Page 1. Paperbound ISBN: 0-15-549257-8; Hardbound ISBN: 0-15-147810-4. 1968; 1972 by Harcourt Brace Jvanovich, Inc.

Our research gives a precise answer to the question about relations between lower and higher stages of evolution of language and about the mechanism whereby transition could take place. The main of them are: 1. fire use; 2. invention of a bow and an arrow; 3. acquisition of the ability to process the earth. The Continuity theories are currently supported by most scholars, but they vary in how they describe this development. Some of them see language as being mostly innate. Notably, Steven Pinker tries to avoid speculating about specific forerunner among nonhuman primates. He supposes that the language ability must have evolved in the usual gradualist way - by gradual, slow stages. Others in this intellectual group consider that language evolved not from primate communication but primate cognition, and it is significantly more sophisticated. - Steven Arthur Pinker was born September 18, 1954. He is a Canadian-born experimental psychologist, cognitive scientist, linguist and famous science author. He is a Professor at Harvard College and a Professor in the Department of Psychology at Harvard University. Pinker is well-known for his advocacy of evolutionary psychology and the computational theory of mind. He is the author of the books: The Language Instinct (1994); How the Mind Works (1997); Words and Rules (2000); The Blank Slate (2002); The Stuff of Thought (2007); and The Better Angels of Our Nature (2011). Jens Otto Harry Jespersen is the Danish linguist who classified commonly held theories about the origin of language into four groups and added his own as fifth. They are often referred to by nicknames.

The ‘bow-wow’ theory. Speech arose through humankind imitation of the sounds of the environment, particularly animal calls. The principal evidence might be the onomatopoeic words. However, few of these exist in a language, and languages vary very much in the way they represent natural sounds. That is why this theory has little support. “It is an accepted principle of phonetic study that individual sounds do not have meanings: it does not make sense to ask what /p/ or /a/ ‘mean’. The smallest units of language that are meaningful are the elements of grammar known as morphemes such as un- and –nes. However, it ignores the tendency to develop in a language the forms speakers feel does have a close relationship to objects or states in the outside world. In such cases, individual sounds are thought to reflect, or symbolise, properties of the world, and thus to ‘have meaning'. This

87 phenomenon is known as sound symbolism, though in literary contexts it is more commonly referred to as onomatopoeia72”. - Onomatopoeia is a word that phonetically bear a resemblance, imitates or indicates the source of the sound that it portrays.

The pooh-pooh theory describes the first words as emotional interjections and exclamations motivated by pain, pleasure, surprise and others. The primary evidence might be the universal use of sounds as interjections. However, no one language contains many of them. For example, the clicks, intakes of breath, and other noises used in this way bear little relationship to the vowels and consonants found in phonology.

The ding-dong theory states that all things have a vibrating natural resonance, echoed somehow by man in his earliest words. Speech arose because people reacted to the stimuli, in the world around them, and spontaneously produced sounds (‘oral gestures’) which in some way reflected or were in harmony with the environment. The vital evidence might be the universal use of sounds for words of a specific meaning. Apart from a few cases of apparent sound symbolism, the theory has nothing to confirm it. Several fanciful examples cited, nonetheless – ‘mama’ is supposed to reflect the moment of the lips as the mouth approaches the breast, and bye-bye and ta-ta show the lips and the tongue respectively ‘waving’ good-bye.

The yo-he-ho theory describes language as emerging out of collective rhythmic labour. Speeches arose because, as people worked together, their physical efforts produced communal, rhythmical grunts, which in due course development into chants, and thus language. The essential evidence might be the universal use of prosodic features, especially of rhythm. Though, the gap between this kind of expression and what we find in language is so immense that an explanation for the latter must be found.

72 Sound symbolism. p.176. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Second edition. David Crystal. Cambridge Univesity Press. 1997. Sixth printing 2005

The ‘la-la’ theory. Jespersen himself considers that, if any single factor could initiate human language, it would arise from the romantic side of life. For example, sounds associated with love, play, poetic feeling, perhaps even song. The gap between the emotional and the rational aspects of speech expression must be accounted for. Most of today's scientists consider that all such theories not so much wrong, but they occasionally offer peripheral insights, sometimes comically naïve and irrelevant. The problem with these theories is that they are so narrowly automatic. They suppose that language began automatically evolving once our ancestors had found the appropriate ingenious mechanism for linking sounds with meanings. The founders of Eglish spelling and Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language have reconstructed this appropriate ingenious mechanism for linking sounds with meanings. Compare: Mi-c-ha-el English Chechen Michael Ма-цхьа-эл [ma tskha el] - What a Master, Lord!

Michael Ма-са-хьа-эл! - What a Spirit you are, Master! What a Spirit is your, Master! [ma-sa-kha-el] - What a light you are, Master! What light is your, Master!

Chechen names and family names: Иба [Iba] -Ибаев [Ibaev] Джаба [Djaba] -Джабаев [Djabaev] Бажа [Baja] -Бажаев [Bajaev] Джабир [Djabir] -Джабиров [Djabirov] Раджаб [Radjab] -Раджабов [Radjabov] Джабраил [Djabrail] -Джабраилов [Djabrailov] Chechen family name corresponds to one of the forefathers’ name. Chechen names Джаба «Jaba», Джабир «Jabir», Джабраил «Jabrail» preserve the initial meaning of their words-sounds, Simultaneously, in the Chechen

89 language there is a meaningful one-sound word [ga], that means “a branch, to see”. It is worth mentioning that in Chechen ДжабагIаэл [ja ba ra el] the sound [гI] corresponds to the French [r].

Ji-ha-d Russian ‘джихад’, Arabic ‘jihad’ has the following form in Chechen жа, джа [ja] faster! Lamb (Lambs). хьад [had] run! rush, get together! Джахьад [ja had] Faster get together! Lambs get together!

Сompare Arabic: Ji had Аrabic Chechen J джа [ja] - Lamb (Lambs), faster! i h ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed d да [da] - father J i h a d Джа хьа да - Faster, your father! Lamb (lambs), your father! [ja ha da]

Applying the linguistic principle of mirror effect (rearrangement of components) and reading the word backwards, we get new Chechen words and new Chechen sentences: Chechen: Jihad Джахьад [ja had] - Faster, get together! - Lambs, get together! Dahaj Дахьаж [dahaj] - Look there! Da haj Да, хьаж! [da, haj] - Father, look! Dahaja Да, хьаджа! [da, ha ja] - Father, your Lamb(s)!

Israel И са гIа эл [I sa ra el] - This light/spirit is the descendants’ Master! - He is my descendants’ Master! Etc.

Gestural theory The gestural theory asserts that human language developed from gestures used for simple communication. Two types of evidence are given to support this theory: 1. Gestural language and vocal language depend on similar neural systems. 2. The regions on the cortex that are responsible for mouth and hand movements border each other. However, it is well-known that non-human primates, also, can use gestures or symbols for communication. Moreover, some of their gestures bear a resemblance with those of humans. For example, the 'begging posture', with the hands stretched out, which humans share with chimpanzees. There is one crucial question for gestural theories. Why there was a shift to vocalisation? This phenomenon proposes various explanations: - When our ancestors started to use more tools, their hands were engaged in working, and they could no longer use gestures; - To use manual gesturing speakers and listeners must be visible to one another. In many situations, they might need to communicate, even without visual contact, for example, after nightfall.

People still use hand and facial gestures when they speak, for example, when they have no language in common. There are also, a significant number of sign languages associated with 'deaf communities' which still exist. It is worth mentioning that those signed languages are equally sophisticated and have the same expressive power as any spoken language. The cognitive functions and the parts of the brain used are similar. The principal difference in the first case is that phonemes are produced outside a body, articulated with hands, body, and facial expression. It is in opposite to spoken language when phonemes are produced inside the body articulated with lips, teeth, tongue, and breathing. Opponents of gestural theory consider that there are no serious reasons why initial pitch- based vocal communication, which is present in primates, would be derelict in favour of much less effective, non-vocal gestural communication. Researchers in psycholinguistics, including David McNeill, have presented some other challenges to the 'gesture-first' theory. - David McNeill was born in 1933 in California, USA. He is an American psychologist and writer specialising in scientific research into psycholinguistics and particularly the relationship between language and thought, and the gestures that accompany the speech.

According to our study, English spelling and Chechen oral language have recreated the model of formation of first names and words. Well-known anthropologist Roy Rappaport proposed a ritual-speech co-evolution theory. Later some others like Chris Knight, J. Lewis, C. Power, N. Enfield, and Ian Watts Ritual developed this theory. - Roy A. Rappaport was born in 1926 and died in 1997. He is a well-known anthropologist who made the contributions to the ritual and ecological anthropology. One of his most famous works in ecological anthropology is the study of the Tsembaga Maring of highland New Guinea.

- Chris Knight, born 1942, is a British anthropologist and political activist. Professor Knight is best known for his theory that human language, religion and culture emerged in the human species not merely by gradual evolution described by Darwin. They emerged in an evolutionary process which was culminated by revolutionary social change.

- Camilla Power is an evolutionary anthropologist interested in the emergence of language, art, ritual and religion. Her fieldwork has been with Hadza hunter-gatherers, Tanzania 2003-4. University of East London.

- Jerome Lewis began working with Pygmy hunter-gatherers and former hunter-gatherers in Rwanda in 1993.

- Nick Enfield is a scientist working with Language & Cognition Group and Professor of Ethnolinguistics at Radboud University, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in the Netherlands. Cognitive scientist and robotics engineer Luc Steels is another prominent supporter of this general approach, as well as biological anthropologist-neuroscientist T. Deacon. Luc Steels is a Belgian scientist and Director of the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel. - Terrence William Deacon is an American anthropologist, a teacher at Harvard University for eight years. He obtained his PhD in biological anthropology at Harvard University in 1984, currently a professor of biological anthropology and neuroscience at the University of California, Berkeley, USA. Scientists from this camp argue that there must not be such a notion as a theory of origins of languages. The language is not an independent but a subjective aspect of something much broader than human's symbolic culture. These scientists argue that the attempts to explain language independently of this broader context have efficiently failed because they are discussing an issue with no solution. They say. Can one imagine the historians trying to explain the emergence of credit cards separately from the broader system of which they are a fraction? One can use a credit, and it would make a sense, only if one has a bank account. Furthermore, one has to have a bank account in the recognised institution within a society, where electronic communications technology and digital computers invented, and fraud can be discovered and prevented.

Mostly, in the same way, language would not exist without a specific variety of social mechanisms. For example, it would not exist and function for some ape communications with other apes in the wild. Even the smartest ape would not be able to make language exist under such wild conditions. Proponents of this school of thought indicate that the words are cheap, and they are inherently unreliable. Should any utmost smart ape, or even a group of apes, try to use the words in the wild, they would not have any persuasion. They use only those primate vocalisations that do keep persuasion. They are, unlike words, adequately expressive, inherently meaningful and, first of all, reliable because they are profoundly meaningful and hard to falsify. Nevertheless, language consists of contrast units, the cost of which is zero. As pure social habits, signals of this kind cannot evolve according to the Darwinian social world's development, because it is theoretically impossible. As far as language unreliable, it can exist if one can, only, construct a background for reliability inside a specific society. It can exist, mainly, where the symbolic cultural units, which are sometimes called 'institutional units', established and supported through collective maintenance. As far as the problems of reliability and deception concerns, from modern Darwinian science, the main obstacle to the development of language-like communication in nature is not a mechanistic one. Instead, it is the fact that symbols, e.g. arbitrary associations of sounds or other notional forms with corresponding meanings are unreliable and may well be false. As the saying goes, "words are cheap". The problem of reliability was not recognised, at all, by Darwin, Müller or other early evolutionary theorists. Animal vocal signals are mostly inherently reliable. When a cat purrs, the signal makes direct evidence of the animal's satisfaction state. We can trust this signal not because the cat is trying to be honest, but because it just cannot fake that sound. Primate vocal calls might be, on some degree, more manipulable, but they stay reliable for the same reason because they are hard to fake. Primate mentality is self-serving and free from moral scruples. Monkeys and apes often try to deceive one another. At the same time, they are always on guard against falling victim to deception. Surprising, but it is precisely primates' resistance to deception which blocks the evolution of their signalling systems which would develop the language. The best way to safeguard against being deceived is to ignore all signals except those that are immediately verifiable. Words automatically fail this test.

As soon as words are easy to fake, and they often turned out to be lies, listeners would adjust by ignoring them. For language to operate the listeners must be confident that speakers are usually honest. A specific feature of language is "displaced reference". It means reference to themes or subjects which are outside the currently perceptible situation. This feature prevents utterances from being acknowledged immediately as 'here' and 'now'. Language, for that reason, assumes very high levels of trust. A theory of language origins must, therefore, explain why human beings could begin trusting one another in ways that other animals cannot. Belief and trust distinguish humans from animals. According to our study, at first, there was a belief not in one another but to himself. A bow and an arrow invention, English spelling, and Chechen oral language which gives the same name to a bow and an arrow and a rainbow show that at the beginning there was a belief in a sign. The rainbow was the first sign which pushed a man to invent a bow and an arrow. In the Chechen (Vaynoah) language, Adam means ‘man’ and ‘people’. He had believed in this sign, invented a bow and an arrow and separated from animals. Belief is one of the main qualities which separate humans from animals. At the same time, it was a trust to himself. It means that the first trust which distinguishes the person from animals was a trust to himself. That is the exact meaning of the Covenant between God and the Earth written in the Bible. The Old Testament Genesis, 9:13 says: “I have set my rainbow in the clouds, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and the earth”. However, there are different levels of belief. Therefore, humanity periodically has prophets considered as envoys, and they are trusted. We trust teachers, trust preachers, trust seniors, trust relatives, trust those whom we believe and others. How is this trust used? Belief and trust are the points from which the conflict of individuals and the conflict of systems usually begin. Usually, in a hunter-gatherer society, the collective ritual is the underlying mechanism for creating trust in symbolic cultural units. Consequently, the task facing researchers of the theories of the origin of languages is more multidisciplinary than usually expected. It includes the evolutionary development of human symbolic culture, with language as a significant but supplementary concept. Critics of the ‘ritual-speech co-evolution theory' include Noam Chomsky. He named it the "non-existence" hypothesis, which means a denial of the very existence of language as an object of

94 study for natural science. Chomsky considers that language appeared in an instant and a perfect form. His critics objected saying that only something that does not exist as some theoretical construct or appropriate scientific fiction might emerge in such a miraculous way. The dispute has not solved until today. We argue the reasons and situations which provoked above mentioned: "internal aspect of something much wider" to demonstrate itself. Our study shows that beginning from Adam; there existed a caste of people of higher level of consciousness than anthropoids of Darwin. They have been keeping this System of Consciousness and transferred it developing through millennia. Chomsky's hypothesis about language emergency in an instant and perfect form, but to which he has no response, coincides with our theory. We can show how it could emerge in such a miraculous way. We can find out this information encoded in a Bible legend about the Covenant between God and Earth, and in Kоrаn, Chаpter 2, «Cow», Verse 29 and the name Adam. “I have set my rainbow in the clouds, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and the earth”. /The Old Testament Genesis, 9:13/ «And He taught Adam all names…»/Cоrаn, Chаpter 2 «Cow», Verse 29/ According to the hypothesis, mentioned earlier, ‘the words are cheap, and they are inherently unreliable'. That is why the founders of Chechen language used the principle of minimisation of production of meaningless sounds. Below are the examples. We want to pay attention to the different meanings of Chechens (Vaynoah) sound-word [s]. The Chechen word combinations: "Со са са [So sa sa]–I am my soul"; "Со са са [So sa sa] – I am my spirit”; "Со са са [So sa sa] – I am my light”; "Со са си [So sa sa] – I am my dignity"; The Chechen word combinations with related sounds "c [s]" и "ц [ts]": "Са ц1е со [Sa tse so] – My name is me"; "Са ц1и со [Sa tsi so] – My blood is me "; "Са ц1а со [Sa tsa so] – My house is me".

And so: 1. cо [so] - I; 2. cа [sa] - spirit, light sight; 3. aс [as] - I, by me; 4 си [si] - dignity, nobleness; 5. ц1а [tsa] - house; 6. ц1е [tse] - name, fire; 7. ц1и [tsi] - blood. All these words philosophically are linked with a person. Occurrence of such philosophical notions are necessary to characterise a person with dignity, a noble person, an honourable person. Thus, founders of the Chechen language minimised the production of meaningless sounds. Scientists have been trying to understand the emergence of language using some other theories, for example, theories linked to language acquisition.

Emergentist theories Emergentist theories like MacWhinney's competition model, describe a language acquisition as a cognitive process that arises from the interaction of biological pressures and the environment. According to these theories, neither nature nor nurture alone is enough to launch language learning. Both aspects must work together to allow children to acquire a language. - Brian James MacWhinney was born on the 22nd of August 1945. He is a Professor of Psychology and Modern Languages at Carnegie Mellon University, with specialisation in the first and the second language acquisition, psycholinguistics, and the neurological bases of language. He has written and edited several books and over 100 peer-reviewed articles and book chapters on these subjects. MacWhinney is best known for his competition model of language acquisition. He created the CHILDES - Child Language Data Exchange System. The proponents of these theories consider that general cognitive processes facilitate language acquisition. The result of these processes is language-specific phenomena such as word learning and grammar acquisition. Many empirical researches support the prognosis of these theories, suggesting that language acquisition is a more sophisticated process than many consider. Language acquisition is the process by which human beings obtain the ability to recognise and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words in communication. The ability to use language requires that one selects a range of tools including phonetics, syntax, and an extensive

96 vocabulary. This language could be vocalised (or visualised) either with speech either manual (as in sign language). Language acquisition has two stages: - first language acquisition, which means infants' acquisition of their native language; - and the second language acquisition, which means the acquisition of additional languages.

The ability to acquire and use language is a principle aspect that distinguishes human beings from other species. It is hard to capture what aspects of language are uniquely human. Some design features found in all known forms of human language but are missing in the forms of animal communication. For example, many non-human species can communicate with each other by signalling to the things which are around them. Nevertheless, this kind of communication lacks the arbitrariness of human vocabularies (e.g. there is nothing about the sound of the word "cat" that would hint at its meaning). At the same time, the non-human species are unable to combine the sounds in different ways to create entirely new messages which would be automatically understood by each other. Hockett named this design feature of human language as productivity. It is essential in the understanding of human language acquisition that humans are not limited to a finite set of words. Instead, humans can understand and utilise a complex system which allows to produce an infinite number of possible messages. So, while different forms of no-human species' communication exist, they differ from human languages. They have a limited range of non-syntactically structured vocabulary tokens which lack cross-cultural variation between groups. According to our study (System of Consciousness - Theory of Unity), this language productivity has been developing during the millennia in parallel with development of production of goods (development of societies). The first and most primitive synthesis was in names and had not syntactic, morphological or other structures. The new forming Chechen (Vaynoah) society have reconstructed this synthesis «And He taught Adam all names…»73 Chechen names’ forming system: Sа [sa] -spirit, light, Dа – father Bа -grandmother, mother eyesight, my (Ind. Father)

И[i] Isa Ida Ibа it, this Isaev Idаev Ibaev

73 Cоrаn, Chаpter 2 Cow, Verse 29.

Сa [s] Sada Dаsа Bаsа Sаdаеv Dаsаеv Bаsаev Шa [sh] Shаbа Dаshа Bаshа Shаbаеv Dаshаеv Bаshаеv Sаid Dаud Bаud(d)i Sаidоv Dаudоv Bаu(t)di(n)оv

The first inventor gives any new product a name, and it does not matter to which language it belongs. Any syntactic or morphological changes happen not because this word is correct comparing with borrowed language. It is more comfortable to write or say, to adapt it to a new language. Founders of the Chechen language (ethnos) used the most significant number of sounds. According to the modern scientific approach, it is a paradox. The basis of the Chechen (Vaynoah) language is the most straightforward system of one-sound words. At the same time, it contains the most significant number of sounds which show its most developed morphological system among all languages. For example, we observe preservation in the Chechen language of a sound ‘r’ with Russian pronunciation and a sound ‘г1 – r’ with French pronunciation. Another example: whereas in some other languages the letter ‘k’ has only one pronunciation, in the Chechen (Vaynoah) language the same letter has different pronunciations (nuances of sound) and different meanings: [k], [kh], [k'] [k1]. However, there is a sound which the Chechen tradition has not accepted until recently, meaningly. It is a sound ‘f’. We write ‘the Chechen tradition’ because it was the intentional action not of all society but the founders of the Chechen ethnos. Why was this sound not accepted? We suppose because it takes away the phonetic meaning of the sound "b" too far from our System of Consciousness. For example: [b] passes into [v], further into [p], and then into [f]. It is because the sound word "b" has enormous value in our System of Consciousness linked to the names Aba, Iba, Eve. These are the very first names. For example, in such borrowed names as ‘officer’ and others Chechen elders pronounce a sound [f] as [p] - [epsar]. The main problem in understanding language acquisition is the ability of the children to acquire a language so quickly from what appears to be very little input.

Considering the complex nature of human languages, and limited cognitive capabilities of children, it is hard to believe that they can acquire most forms of language without being taught. Children within a few years of birth can use the grammatical rules of their native language without being carefully taught as pupils learn grammar at school. A few theories of language acquisition have been suggested to explain this obvious problem. These theories comprise innate capacities in which a child is born prepared in some manner with these capabilities. These theories contrast with other theories in which language learned as one learns to drive a car. We would agree with the opinion that, like many other human beings’ capacities and characteristics, there are some features of language acquisition that the human beings brain automatically wired for – ‘a nature component’, and some of these features shaped by the specific language environment in which a person raised -"a nurture component". Before starting to speak complicated grammatical structures, the child listens silently during an extended period. One of the essential features are the cultural aspects. For example, if the children raised in the environment where a sound ‘r’ pronounced as in French, they cannot suddenly change their pronunciation of ‘r’ as it pronounced in other languages. They should make intellectual and physical efforts, and the result depends on their skills. To master the pronunciation of such difficult Chechen words with sounds, like ‘k- kh - k'-k1’ the Northern people needs lots of efforts. A bow and an arrow acquisition, a person's withdrawal from a cave and creation of family was the first and revolutionary push for the emergence of language. Was any internal push to such act of the person, or this quality acquired out of the blue? Indeed, there was a strong internal push. It was a person's aspiration to ‘pure, light’ because a life in a cave together with other human species could not satisfy. It was necessary to restrain the potentially anti-social propensities such as human species competitiveness and sexuality. The combination of internal aspiration to ‘pure and light’ and inspiration of the person through a rainbow, the subsequent invention of a bow and an arrow provided an excellent possibility to leave a cave. Further, hourly changing circumstances forced human beings to search for new ways out from hard situations. In this search, the person used not only physical force of a

99 body but also some brain capacities. The possibility to fight animals in the distance with the help of bow and an arrow was only one of the guarantees for a person’s survival74.

Chunking theories

Chunking theories of language acquisition include a group of theories linked to statistical learning theories. According to these theories, the input from the environment plays a substantial role. Nevertheless, they determine different learning mechanisms. The principal idea of these theories is that language development arises through the incremental acquisition of meaningful chunks of elementary constituents, which can be words, phonemes or syllables. Recently, this concept has been highly successful, for example, in imitating several phenomena in the acquisition of syntactic units and the acquisition of phonological experience. The approach has some features that make it exceptional. 1. The implemented models as computer programs, enable making clear-cut and cardinal prognosis. 2. They were developed from naturalistic input and made of actual child-directed utterances. 3. They have reproduced phenomena in several languages, including English, Spanish, and German. Scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology have developed a computer model using and analysing early conversations of children to forecast the structure of their later conversations. They showed that toddlers develop their rules of talking with trenches into which they could put certain kinds of words. An essential result of the research was that rules derived from toddler speech better predicts the subsequent speech than traditional grammars. The founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) language and English spelling used this phenomenon to reconstruct the first language systems. It was artificial formation and introduction into the languages of these structures. Therefore, we have such phrases consisting of meaningful one-sound

74 “Chomsky argues that a single fortune mutation occurred in one individual around 100,000 years ago, which had trigged the instantaneous emergence of the language capability, a component of the mind-brain, in perfect or almost perfect form. The philosophical evidence is, briefly, as follows. At the beginning, during the evolution, some biological change in a species arises by an accidental genetic change in a single individual, which, in turn, spreads throughout its breeding group. We argue that this single individual was named Adam by his descendants. In Chechen – Iaд ма [Ad ma] - What a rainbow! What a bow and an arrow!”

100 words which constituted without any endings, prefixes or suffixes. Compare: The Old Testament, Genesis 17:5: “No longer will you be called Abram, your name will be Abraham, for I have made you a father of many nations”. Abraham English Chechen Ab Iaб [ab] - father r гIа [ra] - leaves, dream, descendants a гIад [rad] - family tree, stalk h ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed m ма [ma] - what!

Abraham Iaб гIа хьа ма! - What a father of descendants you are! [Ab ra ha ma] - Father of descendants you are!

Israel И са гIа эл [I sa ra el] - This light/spirit is the descendants’ Master! - He is my descendants’ Master!

Isa75 – Isaac - Achish Compare: English Chechen Isa И са [I sa] - This spirit, light, eye-sight, my Isaac И са акъ [I sa ac] - This spirit/light is lovely! He is wonderful! Achish Акъ и са [Ak i sa] - Wonderfulthis spirit/light is! Achish Акъ иш/уьш [Ak h ish] - Wonderful they are! Etc.

75 Isa - Jesus 101

Social interactionist theory

Social interactionist theory includes several hypotheses on language acquisition. These hypotheses refer to written, spoken, or visual social tools. These tools include sophisticated systems of symbols and rules on language acquisition and its development. The interdependence between nature and nurture is the interactionist approach. Moreover, for years, psychologists and other researchers in this field have been asking the same questions. What kind of language behaviours are the nature provides innately? Furthermore, what kind of language behaviours are realised by environmental exposure to education or training?

Theory of mind

Simon Baron-Cohen considers that 'theory of mind' must have preceded language use. This concept based on evidence of use of the next characteristics forty thousand years ago: 1.intentional communication; 2. repairing failed communication; 3. intentional deception; 4. intentional persuasion; 5. teaching; 6. pretending; 7. building shared plans and goals; 8. intentional sharing of focus or topic. Furthermore, Baron-Cohen argues that many primates demonstrate some but not all of these capabilities. Michael Tomasello's research on chimpanzees encourages this conclusion. Chimps look like to understand that other chimps have awareness, knowledge, and intention. However, it looks like they do not understand false beliefs. Many primates show some propensities towards a 'theory of mind', but not a full one as human being have. Eventually, there is some consensus within the field that a theory of mind is necessary for language use. Thus, the scientists belonging to this camp, consider that the development of a full 'theory of mind' in human beings was a necessary precursor to full language use. - Simon Baron-Cohen was born on the 15th of August 1958. He is professor of Developmental Psychopathology in the Departments of Psychiatry and Experimental Psychology at the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom. He is the Director of the University's Autism Research Centre and a Fellow of Trinity College. He is

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well known for his work on autism, which includes his early theory that autism comprises degrees of mind- blindness or retention in the development of theory of mind.

- Michael Tomasello was born on the 18th of January 1950 in Bartow, Florida, USA. He is an American developmental psychologist, a co-director of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany.

- He is a critic of Noam Chomsky's universal grammar and rejects the idea of an innate universal grammar and, instead, proposes a functional theory of language development. Sometimes it is called the social-pragmatic approach to language acquisition, where children learn linguistic structures through intention-reading and pattern-finding in their interactions with others.

Mother tongues hypothesis Some scientists offered 'mother tongues' hypothesis as a probable solution to the problem of the emergence of languages. W. Tecumseh Fitch proposed that the Darwinian principle of kin selection, the rapprochement of genetic interests between relatives, might serve as part of the answer. - William Tecumseh Sherman Fitch was born in 1963. He is an American evolutionary biologist and cognitive scientist. He is co-founder of the Department of Cognitive Biology at the University of Vienna, Austria.

- He studies the biology and evolution of cognition and communication, both in human beings and animals, in particular, the evolution of speech, language and music. In his research, he concentrates on comparative approaches as Charles Darwin defended, i.e. the study of homologous and analogous structures and processes in a wide variety of species. W. Tecumseh Fitch considers that languages were initially "mother tongues". Imagining that language had developed initially for communication between mothers and their children and extended later to adult relatives as well, the interests of speakers and listeners might coincide. W.Tecumseh Fitch argues that typical genetic relationship would have led to enough trust as far as intrinsically untrustworthy signals concern. So, words might become recognised as trustworthy, and thus language could begin developing for the first time. Opponents of this theory emphasise that kin selection is not exceptional to human beings. Ape mothers also share genes with their offspring, so do all animals. Why are, only, human beings speak? Furthermore, it is difficult to believe that early human beings restricted linguistic communication to genetic kin. The incest taboo must have induced men and women to interact and communicate with non-kin. Our study shows that a language in its origin is created meaningly by man (father) who was named Adam by his descendants. However, the keeper of language is mother. It is like "founder of the family cell is a father" and "keeper of the family cell is a mother".

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Initial need for the synthesis of sounds had arisen not between mother and child. It became necessary when the father was forced to give names to the members of his family to separate them from other anthropoids. This necessity appeared when he had left a cave and created his cell. Therefore, we see the initial synthesis of sounds-words in names. Compare the Chechen names and family names. “And He taught Adam all names…”76 Sа [sa] - spirit, light, Dа – father Bа - grandmother, mother eye-sight, my (Ind. Father)

И[i]- it, this Isa Ida Ibа Isaev Idаev Ibaev Sada Dаsа Bаsа Sаdаеv Dаsаеv Bаsаev Etc.

The obligatory reciprocal altruism hypothesis

Ib Ulbaek appeals to another stereotype Darwinian principle which is called "reciprocal altruism". He gives it as an example to explain the unusually high level of purposeful honesty which is necessary for language to develop. One can express "reciprocal altruism" as the principle 'if you scratch my back, I will scratch yours'. In linguistic terms, it might mean that if "you speak faithfully to me, I will speak faithfully to you". Darwinian "reciprocal altruism", Ulbaek underlines, is a relationship entrenched between regularly interacting individuals. For language to predominate across a whole community, the necessary reciprocity would have required to be enforced universally instead of being individual cases. Ulbaek concludes that for language to develop, early society, as a whole, must have been subject to ethic adjustment. Opponents of this theory indicate that it fails to explain why, how, when, and who reciprocal altruism could impose. Our System of Consciousness shows that in their origin, founders of other ethnic groups, also, tried to introduce and preserve this system but with a different level of success. By oral, centuries- old preservation of this System of Consciousness, they reached the unusually high levels of intentional honesty necessary for this language system to evolve. This phenomenon may be compared to the polishing of a diamond stone when, depending on professionalism, one can reach

76 Cоrаn, Chаpter 2 Cow, Verse 29.

104 its corresponding quality. The preservers of this System of Consciousness will not hand down the information to following generations only for the sake of personal interests of the previous keepers if it is not correct. According to the ‘Out of Africa hypothesis’, around 50,000 years ago, group humans left Africa and proceeded to inhabit the rest of the world, including Australia and the Americas. Archaic hominids had never populated them. Some scientists believe that Homo sapiens did not leave Africa before that time. They had not yet attained modern cognition and language, and consequently lacked the skills or the numbers required to migrate. According to our study, there are no required numbers to migrate. Even one person could migrate. He obtained this ability after the invention of a bow and an arrow. We do not take into account what was the motivation for migration, and if he was afraid to do it or not. More recent example is Abraham, who migrated from his homeland Ur and travelled until the land of Shechem inhabited by pagans. The motivations for Abraham: 1. His relatives had become pagans; 2. He came with the information about his genealogy to the homeland of his forefathers Shechem to begin a new life; 3. He was the preserver of this System of Consciousness at that time and others.

The gossip and grooming hypothesis

According to Robin Dunbar 'gossip' serves for human beings living in groups what manual grooming serves for other primates. It allows individuals to regulate their relationships and thus preserve their alliances based on the principle "if you scratch my back, I will scratch yours". Human beings began extending into larger and larger social groups, and the task of manually grooming all one's friends and acquaintances became unaffordable because of the consuming time. As a result, human beings constructed a "cheap and very effective type of grooming" which is a "vocal grooming". Now human beings needed only to groom each other with cheap vocal sounds which could service multiple allies simultaneously. Moreover, one could keep both hands free for other tasks. Vocal grooming then developed little by little into spoken language, initially in the form of "gossip". - Robin Ian MacDonald Dunbar was born in 1947, the 28th of June. He is a British anthropologist and evolutionary psychologist who specialises in primate behaviour. He is head of the Social and Evolutionary Neuroscience Research Group in the Department of Experimental Psychology and a professor of evolutionary psychology at the University of Oxford from 2007-2012, was a director of the Institute of Cognitive and Evolutionary Anthropology, a professor of evolutionary anthropology at the University of Oxford and co- director of the British Academy Centenary Research Project.

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According to the opponents of this theory, the very efficiency of vocal grooming would have impaired its ability to signal the information of the kind and replace with it the time-consuming and costly manual grooming because words are cheap. A further criticism is that this theory has nothing to explain the fundamental transition from vocal grooming which means the production of pleasing but meaningless sounds, to the cognitive intricacy of syntactic speech. Philosophy of the House of Achish introduced in a conscious formation of English spelling and Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language does not allow verbosity. It minimises the production of meaningless sound-combinations. For example, the Chechen words: са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honour, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard хьа [ha] - your, look хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed Etc.

Scientists about the problem of the emergence of the first language

Some scientists consider that the development of primordial language-like systems, so-called proto-language, appeared as early as Homo habilis. - Homo habilis, or Homo rudolfensis, was the most ancient known species of the genus Homo, until May 2010. In 2010 Homo gautengensis was discovered, a species considered to be even older than Homo habilis. The discovery and description of this species linked with Mary and Louis Leakey, who discovered fossils in Tanzania, East Africa, between 1962 and 1964. Others link the development of symbolic communication only with ‘Homo Erectus’, around 1.8 million years ago, or ‘homo heidelbergensis’, around 0.6 million years ago. As far as the development of genuine language concern, they link it with Homo sapiens - less than 200,000 years ago.

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Johanna Nichols77, a linguist at the University of California, Berkeley considers that spoken language must have arisen among human beings at least 100,000 years ago. She used statistical methods to determine the time which is necessary to achieve the current spreading and diversity in modern languages. Genetic, archaeological, palaeontological and much other pieces of evidence independently support this opinion. They propose that language, most likely, emerged somewhere in sub-Saharan Africa during the Middle Stone Age. The emergence of language is roughly contemporaneous with the speciation of Homo sapiens. It is necessary to notice that invention of a bow and an arrow by humans dated between 50000 - 100000 years ago. Furthermore, the first parking of the humans further than 50 km from caves are dated by archaeologists, precisely at that period. Linguists concluded that there are no existing primitive languages. According to their hypothesis, all modern human populations speak languages of at least substantial comparable intricacy and meaningful power. However, the 20th-century concept that the world's spoken languages are and always were identical and constant in sophistication is no longer accepted. Some scholars have studied how linguistic sophistication have been varying between and within languages over historical time. As far as the following linguists’ statement concerns: “there are no existing primitive languages. All modern human populations speak languages of at least substantial comparable intricacy and meaningful power”. They meaningly or on ignorance, do not pay attention to the language system, which is the basis of the Chechen (Vaynoah) language and English spelling. Basis of the Chechen language and English spelling is the system consisting of just one-sound words. Other unsolved hypothesis is the fact that recently formed languages have simpler structures, including grammatical structures than the older languages. We can explain such phenomenon as follows. It would be interesting to remind the hypothesis of some scientists that language evolved not from primate communication but primate cognition. We should define the border between the founders, developers of our System of Consciousness and those using words only for communications who does not pay attention to the meaning of each sound. Our study shows that in the further development, there appeared lots of personalities who knew the principle of the System of Consciousness and everyone tried to bring their contribution to

77 Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 107 its development. Those who tried to synthesise sounds without knowledge, trying only to find a new variation of synthesis, have confused languages. They confused languages the way that this primitive primary language system shown in English spelling and Chechen oral language was lost. In parallel, the humans have preserved and developed this language system naturally. Some of them are Seth, Abraham, Isaac, Israel, Joseph, some of the representatives of the House of Achish (AchishBeth). As the brain of humans evolved, on each historical period, especially at the beginning of the formation of modern languages, they confused it less and created more logical language structures. The simpler the language is, its structure becomes more logically formed. That is why the founders of English spelling and Chechen oral language have simplified language system to monotonous words. Thus, founders of English spelling and Chechen oral language have recreated millenniums- old development of human Consciousness. In further development, we can see the confusion of the language even in English. For example: at the beginning, a sound ‘s’ was used correctly in the spelling of the names which represents religious hierarchies. We want to pay attention to the fact that there are much more words in the English dictionary for the letter (sound) ‘s’ comparing with other letters of the alphabet. However, in these words, they have lost the original meaning of this sound. For this, we can use the Russian philosophical saying – ‘Услышал звон, не знает где он’ which means ‘One have heard a sound of a bell but does not understand where it comes from’. English linguists felt that this sound had some valuable meaning and used it very often, though, they did not understand its meaning78. In all world languages, there are splinters of the given System, and these splinters could serve as the unifying phenomenon for all peoples. However, there are dangerous forces which do not want that people realise that they have common roots according to this Theory of Unity - System of Consciousness.

78 English Chechen s - са [sa] -spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] -honor, dignity со [so] -I. цIа [tsa] -house, home цIе [tse] -name, flame цIи [tsi] -blood

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Richard G. Klein doubted that Neanderthals had acquired modern language wholly although they may have been anatomically able to speak. He mostly bases his hesitations on the fossil record of archaic humans and their stone tool kits. For two million years following the emergence of Homo habilis, the stone tool technology of hominids changed very slightly. - Richard G. Klein was born on April 11, 1941. He is a professor of biology and anthropology at Stanford University, obtained his PhD at the University of Chicago in 1966, elected to the National Academy of Sciences in April 2003. His study interests include paleoanthropology of Africa and Europe. His initial thesis is that modern human beings developed in East Africa around one hundred thousand years ago. They began spreading throughout the non-African world starting fifty thousand years ago, replacing archaic human populations over time. He is an opponent of the hypothesis that modern behaviour emerged gradually through tens of thousands, hundreds of thousands of years or millions of years. He instead is backing the idea that modern behaviour of the human beings emerged suddenly in the upper palaeolithic revolution around fifty thousand or forty thousand years ago.

- The Neanderthals are closely related to modern human beings. They are a now-extinct species or subspecies within the genus Homo known from fossil specimens of Pleistocene period — these fossil specimens found in Europe and some parts of Western and Central Asia. The term 'Neanderthal' or "Neanderthal man" is the modern spelling of the word combination Neander Valley which locates in Germany where the species first discovered. Richard G. Klein has been working on a big range of ancient stone tools. He describes stone tools of archaic humans which are impossible to break down into categories based on their function. Accordingly, he reports that Neanderthals might have little concern for the final form of their tools. Klein considers that the Neanderthal brain might not have reached the level of sophistication needed for modern speech, even if physically, an apparatus for speech production was well- evolved. The question of the Neanderthal's level of cultural and technological complexity remains a controversial one. According to the fossil records of 195,000 years ago, anatomically modern human beings initially appeared in Ethiopia. Though they were modern anatomically, archaeological proof which is available gives little suggestion that they behaved differently from the earlier Homo heidelbergensis. Homo heidelbergensis which means "Heidelberg man" named after the University of Heidelberg, is an extinct species of the genus Homo. Homo heidelbergensis might be the direct ancestor of both Homo neanderthalensis in Europe and Homo sapiens. The best evidence found for these hominids dates them between 600,000 and 400,000 years ago. They preserved the same Acheulean stone tools and hunted less efficiently than the modern human beings of the Late Pleistocene did. - Acheulean is the notion given to an archaeological industry of stone tool manufacture. It is associated with early human beings during the Lower Palaeolithic era throughout Africa and most of West Asia, South Asia, and Europe. Acheulean tools are ordinarily found with Homo erectus remains. Scientists suppose that these

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tools first were developed by Homo habilis out of the more primitive Oldowan technology around 1.76 million years ago.

- Oldowan industry is a toolmaking tradition which was characterised by roughly worked out pebble, chopping, tools from the early Paleolithic which are dating to about 2 million years ago. The tools, made of pebbles of quartz, quartzite, or basalt, chipped in two directions to form simple, rough, all-purpose tools, were capable of chopping, scraping, or cutting.

- The Pleistocene is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago. It includes a recent period of repeated glaciations. The name Pleistocene consists of two Greek words: "pleistos-most"; "kainos "new". The transition to the more sophisticated Mousterian takes place only about 120,000 years ago shared by both Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis. - Mousterian is an archaeologists’ notion which refers to a style of mostly flint tools production, or flint industry. It is linked mainly with Homo neanderthalensis and dated to the Middle Paleolithic, the middle of the Old Stone Age. The development of thoroughly modern behaviour in Homo sapiens, not shared by Homo neanderthalensis or any other diversity of Homo, is dated to 70,000 to 50,000 years ago. It is the period of development of more sophisticated tools, for the first time created out of more than one material, e.g. bone or antler. They are sortable into different categories of function. They are projectile tools, engraving tools, drilling and piercing tools, knife blades. These witnesses are often taken as proof for the presence of fully developed language considered to be necessary for teaching of the processes of their manufacturing. We adhere to the version that humans' ability to process the number of tools linked to the emergence of language, but the necessity could and should appear during the separation of human beings from other primates. Bow and an arrow invention was an evolutionary leap in a consciousness of humans which allowed them to leave the caves. The Bible legend about "Covenant between God and an Earth" contains this period of humans' jump into a new stage. The Old Testament Genesis, 9:13 says: "I have set my rainbow in the clouds, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and the earth". Why does a rainbow serve as a sign of the covenant between God and the Earth? The modern Chechen (Vaynoah) language and English spelling gives a precise answer to this question. Compare: English Chechen A d Iад [Ad] - a rainbow, a bow and arrow. a m ма [ma] - what! Adam Iад ма [Ad ma] - What a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! - Like a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)!

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So, according to the Bible, humans separated from animals after the invention of a bow and an arrow. Coran adds that names were necessary for full separation of a person from animals. “And He taught Adam all names…” /Cоrаn, Chаpter 2 Cow, Verse 29/ 50 000 - 70 000 years ago, it is precisely the period of the invention of a bow and arrow. For the same period is dated the occurrence of parking of humans further than 50 km from caves. When humans invented a bow and an arrow, they could fight animals at a significant distance. During this period, a necessity in ‘collective force - collective spirit’ for struggling against animals disappeared. First, a person had invented a bow and arrow, and after that appeared a concept ‘I am’, ‘It is me’. First – action, then - concept or a name to this action. The most significant jump in language evolution was the progression from primitive pidgin- like speech to a creole-like speech with developed grammar and syntax. According to our research, whether it was necessary for the naming of subjects or the proper names, the first words should consist of just one sound. When sounds were not enough to define subjects or for naming, synthesis or combination of sounds began79.

Communication, speech and language Many scholars make a differentiation between speech and language. They suppose that language was developed as an environment for communication, and primarily as a cognitive capacity to construct concepts and communicate them, earlier in humans’ evolution. However, a speech as one of the forms of communication developed much later. The speech, also, may function without language, e.g. in some cases of human mental retardation or learning failure. We can observe this phenomenon in the animal kingdom. For example, talking birds can imitate human speech with varying capability. Nevertheless, this capacity to mimic human sounds is varied from the acquisition of syntax. Moreover, language use does not require the production of speech sounds, for example, as evidence, the existence of modern sign languages. These languages use manual symbols and facial

79 “And He taught Adam all names…” /Cоrаn, Chаpter 2 Cow, Verse 29/. Compare Chechen (Vaynoah) names and surnames: Sа [sa] -spirit, light, Dа – father Bа -grandmother, mother eyesight, my (Ind. Father) И[i]- it, this Isa Ida Ibа Isaev Idаev Ibaev 111 grammar as a basis for language rather than speech. Morse coding system and the system of the nautical signal flags are other ways of communication, but not obligatorily language. Initial formation of names (words), to some extent, reminds the Morse coding system when the same one sound - words used in different variations. It confirms our conclusions that the System of Consciousness was preserved and developed during the millennia. For this reason, we cannot find such a system of names which exist in Chechen (Vaynoah) society in any other language of the world, including the ancient ones. One of the fundamental features of human language is the capacity to ask questions. Some animals, particularly bonobos and chimpanzees, demonstrated that they could respond correctly to complicated questions and requests. They learned to communicate with their human trainers, using mostly visual forms of communication. At the same time, they failed to ask even simple questions. In contrast, human children can ask their first questions, using only question intonation. It is at the babbling period of their evolvement. It is long before the children start using syntactic structures. Although babies from different cultures acquire native languages from their social environment, all languages of the world without exception, use similarly rising question intonation for ‘yes-no' questions. It is strong evidence of the universality of question intonation. Arbitrary expressions of joyful excitement, regardless of the language or nationality of the speaker, usually have falling intonation, and this might also be universal.

Cognitive development and language The high-level reference or the capacity to refer to things or notions which are not in the immediate realm of the speaker is one of the breathtaking capacities that language users have. This capacity linked with theory of mind, or an awareness of the other as a being like himself/herself with individual will and intention. Chomsky proposed six main aspects of this high-level reference: 1. Theory of mind; 2. Capacity to acquire nonlinguistic conceptual representations, such as the object/kind distinction; 3. Referential vocal signals; 4. Imitation as a rational, intentional system; 5. Voluntary control over signal production as evidence of intentional communication 6. Number representation.

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Duality of patterning A specification of human language whereby we can analyse speech on two levels: 1. as constructed from meaningless elements, i.e. a limited inventory of sounds; 2. as constructed from expressive elements, i.e. a virtually limitless inventory of words. The importance of duality of patterning as one of the 'design features of language' was indicated by American linguist Ch. F. Hockett in 1960. - Charles Francis Hockett was born on the 17th of January 1916 and died 3ed of November 2000. He was an American linguist who developed many essential ideas in American structuralist linguistics. His career comprises over half a century scientific activity at Cornell and Rice universities. Humans' language has two levels or layers of construction at the same time. This property is called duality. In speech production, humans have a physical level at which they can produce individual sounds, like ' n, b and i ' independently. None of these sounds has any inherent meaning. In a specific combination such as bin, we have another level which produces a meaning that is different from the meaning of the combination in 'nib'. So, at one level, we have particular sounds, and, at another level, we have particular meanings. This duality of levels is one of the most efficient features of humans' language. It is because, with a limited set of particular sounds, humans can produce a vast number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are diverse in meaning."80 The founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos used this possibility of word combination in artificial formation of the Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language. We called it a principle of rearrangement of components. We can show the examples not only of names but also of words from the modern Chechen language81, which correspond to a principle of rearrangement of components: Да’ [da] - father. Iaд [ad] - rainbow, a bow and an arrow, turnpike Зи’ [zi] - check (secret) Из [iz] - he, she, it, this За [za] - buds. Аз [az] - voice

80 George Yule, The Study of Language, 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2006 81 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. (As we use the oral form of Chechen language transcription given on dictionary may not correspond precisely to the one-sound words given in our research. This dictionary does not include some of these Chechen words, as well).

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Къа [ka] - labour, pity, mischief, sin Акъ [ak] - astonishing, astonish. Къе’ [ke] - poor Экъ [ek] - pan Ла [la] - endure, reconcile oneself. Ал [al] - say Ло [lo] - snow, give. Ол [ol] - say Со [so] - I. Са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my, mine, corner. Ас - [as] - I. Etc. Charles F. Hockett established a notion ‘duality of patterning’. It expresses the fact that particular units of language at one level, which is the level of sounds may be combined to create different kind of units at a different level, such as words. Ch. F. Hockett considers that duality of patterning is the last feature that emerged in language, and it was decisive in separating human language from other forms of primate communication. "The most difficult problem to figure out is how and when duality of patterning might have emerged. How did humans manage to combine endlessly into arbitrary symbols various isolated sounds? Hockett thought that if two calls each had two particular parts, then apparently something in the blending process might alert humans to the existence of separated units. If we can combine breakfast and lunch into brunch, does that alert us to the possibility that 'br' is a distinct unit of sound combinable with other distinct units of sound? Solving this enigma remains one of the most contradictory problems in determining how language became possible."82 The sound system of a language consists of a limited set of simple phonological units. According to the specific phonotactic rules of language, these units can be recombined and interlinked, generating morphology and open-ended lexicon. A fundamental feature of language is that a simple, limited set of phonological units gives rise to an endless lexical system wherein rules determine the form of each unit, and the meaning is inextricably associated with form. Phonological syntax is a simple combination of pre-existing phonological units. There is another essential feature of human language: lexical syntax, where pre- existing units are combined, and they generate semantically new or distinct lexical units.

82 Harriet Ottenheimer, The Anthropology of Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology. Wadsworth, 2009.

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Some aspects of the lexical-phonological principle exist among non-human species. While almost all elements are documented in some form in the natural world, very few of them co-exist within the same species. Birdsong, singing apes, and the songs of whales all demonstrate phonological syntax. They combine units of sound into larger structures devoid of enhanced or original meaning. Some of the species of primate do have simple phonological systems with units referring to objects in the world. Nevertheless, in contrast to human systems, the units in these primates' systems usually function in isolation, lacking the lexical syntax. There is a new argument that Campbell's monkeys display lexical syntax, combining two calls, predator alarm call with a ‘boom’, the combination of which denotes a lessened threat of danger. However, it is still uncertain whether this is a lexical or a morphological phenomenon. - Joseph John Campbell was born on March 26, 1904 and died on October 30, 1987. He was an American mythologist, writer and lecturer. He was best known for his work in comparative mythology and comparative religion which is immense and covers many aspects of the human experience. He often summarised his philosophy by phrase: "Follow your bliss." According to our study, the System of Consciousness – Theory of Unity consists of a large number of meaningful elements which are made up of a conveniently small number of meaningful independent elements. Compare: The Old Testament, Genesis 17:5: “No longer will you be called Abram; your name will be Abrah am, for I have made you a father of many nations”. Abraham English Chechen Ab Iaб [ab] - father r гIа [ra] - leaves, dream, descendants a гIад [rad] - family tree, stalk h ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed m ма [ma] - what! Abraham Iaб гIа хьа ма! - What a father of descendants you are! [Ab ra ha ma] - Father of descendants you are!

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Israel И са гIа эл [I sa ra el] - This light/spirit is the descendants’ Master! - He is my descendants’ Master!

Isa (Jesus) – Isaac - Achish Compare: English Chechen Isa Иса [I sa] - This spirit, light, eye-sight, my Isaac Исакъ [I sa ac] - This spirit/light is wonderful! - He is my wonderful!

Achish Акъ и са [Ac i sa] - Wonderful this spirit/light is! Achish Акъ иш/уьш [Ac (h) ish] - Wonderful they are! Etc. "Of all Hockett's design features, duality of patterning is the most misrepresented and misunderstood; in particular, it is frequently conflated with or linked to productivity. Hockett seems to have regarded duality of patterning as the single most important breakthrough in the evolution of language, yet he was unsure whether to ascribe duality of patterning to the dance of the honeybee."83 "It is hard to find clear and uncontroversial examples of duality of patterning outside our species. However, we can find them, and there is evidence, from the way some animals like birds and dolphins manipulate melodies, that this might be true. It would mean that duality of patterning is a necessary condition for a communication system to be a human language, but that by itself it may not be enough. There is no human language without duality of patterning."84

83 D.R. Ladd, "An Integrated View of Phonetics, Phonology, and Prosody." Language, Music, and the Brain: A Mysterious Relationship, ed. by Michael A. Arbib. MIT Press, 2013 84 Daniel L. Everett, Language: The Cultural Tool. Random House, 2012 116

Pidgins and creoles Pidgin is a simple language that evolves as a means of communication between two or more groups which do not have any language in common. It is mostly used in situations such as trade when both groups speak languages different from their native languages, and there is no common language between the groups. In principle, a pidgin is a simplified means of linguistic communication. It is constructed impromptu, conventionally, between individuals or groups of people. A pidgin is not the native language of any speech community. Instead learned as a second language. A pidgin may consist of words, sounds, or body language from multiple other languages and cultures. Pidgins allow people or a group of people to intercommunicate with each other without having any similarities in language. Pidgin, initially, is a language that typically evolved out of irregular contacts, for example, between Europeans and non-Europeans in locations other than Europe from the sixteenth through the early nineteenth century. It is often associated with activities such as trade, plantation, agriculture, and mining. Traditional pidgins function as lingua francas, or means for intergroup communication, but not as vernaculars usually defined as language varieties used for ordinary interactions that occur outside a business context. - Lingua franca, which means in Italian "Frankish language" is a language used as a way of communication between populations which speak vernaculars that are not mutually comprehensible. The term 'lingua franca' was first used during the Middle Ages to characterise a French and Italian-based jargon or pidgin. Crusaders and traders evolved this jargon or pidgin in the eastern Mediterranean. Fixed forms of its nouns, verbs, and adjectives are its main characteristics, and simplifications of the Romance languages were the explanation for these changes because they assembled much-diversified groups of people. Many empires and major trade entrepôts, storehouses have had lingua francas. Pidgins have no native speakers because the people who use them, for example, during random trade contacts maintain parallel their vernaculars for intragroup communication. The pidgins often lack inflexions on verbs and nouns, right articles and other function words such as conjunctions. Moreover, they lack complexity of the sentences. Therefore, they have been described sometimes as 'broken' languages and even as 'chaotic'. However, several pidgins have survived for generations, which characterise pidgin as a sufficiently stable system. Not all simplistic or 'broken' forms of language considered to be pidgins. Each pidgin has its own rule and ways of usage. For proficiency in the pidgin, one must learn these rules. Pidgins are extremely simplified languages which have only inchoate grammar and a limited vocabulary. In their initial stage, pidgins mostly consist of nouns, verbs, and adjectives. They

117 consist of few or no articles, prepositions, conjunctions or auxiliary verbs. Usually, its grammar has no fixed word order. Our study shows that the pidgin system was used in the artificial formation of Chechen (Vaynoah) language in the initial stage. Subsequently, this pidgin turned into creole language (Chechen, Vaynoah). That is why we cannot find articles, endings, prepositions while decoding the meaning of the holy names with the help of the Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language. This pidgin was based not on phrases used in business or plantation, but on the religious philosophies through which the founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) language introduced into the new forming language the monotheism. Studies of creole languages around the world have suggested that they share surprising similarities in grammar. They are evolved uniformly from pidgins in a single generation. These similarities are apparent even when creoles do not share any common language origins. Moreover, creoles share similarities despite being evolved in isolation from each other. Syntactic similarities comprise 'subject - verb - object' word order. Even when creoles derive from languages with a different word order, they often establish the 'subject - verb - object' word order. Creoles are inclined to have similar usage for definite and indefinite articles and similar arrangement rules for phrase structures even when the parent languages do not. “The central question in any discussion of creole languages and language acquisition should be the implications that these languages have for any valid theory of acquisition. Creole languages pose a challenge to acquisition theory that no existing theory of acquisition can answer. The belief that well-formed syntactic input is essential to language acquisition is shared by literally every school of thought in the field of acquisition. In most parts of the world, we have no direct evidence of the input from which creole languages formed. In Hawaii, however, creolisation took place recently enough for the input to the creole to be documented and analysed. … In Hawaii, the pidginized input that gave rise to a creole language was radically ill-formed in at least three ways: 1. It was structurally restricted (that is, it contained no sentences that one could unambiguously analyse as containing embedded clause); 2. It was radically variable (that is, it contained elements from more than one language, and it had little or no structural consistency);

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3. It was morphologically impoverished. In particular, it lacked all grammatical and many derivational inflexions. It lacked, as well, a high percentage of such word-classes as determiners, prepositions, complementisers and verbal auxiliaries. The pidgin input that gave rise to Hawaiian Creole can demonstrate all these properties."85 Our System of Consciousness which is the basis of the Chechen (Vaynoah) language mainly consists of nouns, verbs and adjectives with no articles, prepositions, conjunctions or auxiliary verbs. Often the grammar has no fixed word order. Compare: Shiva Eve [iv] Shiva Sh [iv] - adding Sh Vishnu [vi]shnu - rearrangement of components The Chechen oral language and English (spelling) have preserved the initial meaning of each sound in the name of Shiva. Compare now: English Chechen S са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood h ха [ha] - time, waistband, guard i хьа [ha] - your, look хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed va ба [ba] - grandmother (mother), Ind. Father

Shiva Са хьа bа! [Sa-ha-ba] - Your Soul, Grandmother! -Your Light, Grandmother! - You are Soul, Grandmother! You are Light, Grandmother!

Ji-ha-d Russian ‘джихад’, Arabic ‘jihad’ has the following form in Chechen: жа, джа [ja] faster! Lamb (Lambs). хьад [had] run! rush, get together! Джахьад [ja had] Faster get together! Lambs get together! Сompare Arabic: Ji had

Аrabic Chechen J джа [ja] - Lamb (Lambs) i - faster! h ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard хьа [ha] - your, look

85 Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs 86. Creole Languages and Langua ge Acquisition edited by Herman Wekker. Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter,1996. pp.33 -34.

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a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed d да [da] - father J i h a d Джа-хьа-да [ja-ha-da] - Faster, your father! Lamb (lambs), your father!

Applying the linguistic principle of mirror effect and spelling the word backwards, we get new Chechen words and new Chechen sentences: Chechen: Jihad Джахьад [ja had] - Faster, get together! Lambs, get together! Dahaj Дахьаж [dahaj] - Look there! Da haj Да, хьаж! [da-haj] - Father, look! Dahaja Да, хьа джа! [da-ha-ja] - Father, your Lamb(s)!

Isa86 – Isaac - Achish Compare: English Chechen Isa И са [I-sa] - This spirit, light, eye-sight, my Isaac И са акъ [I-sa-ac] - This spirit/light (is) wonderful! - He (is) my wonderful!

Achish Акъ и са [Ac-i-sa] - Wonderful this spirit/light (is)! Achish Акъ иш/уьш, [Ac (h) ish] - Wonderful they (are)! Etc.

Since the children are mostly responsible for creolization of a pidgin, scientists like Derek Bickerton and Noam Chomsky consider that humans are born with an inbuilt, universal grammar. This grammar comprises a broad range of grammatical models which include all the grammatical systems of the world's languages. The paralipsis settings of this inbuilt universal grammar are represented by the similarities which are apparent in creole languages. These paralipsis (default) settings are overridden during the process of language acquisition by children to match the native or other local language. The children first learn the creole-like features of the language more naturally than the features which are in contradiction to creole grammar. - Derek Bickerton was born on March 25, 1926. He is a linguist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Hawaii, Manoa. His work basis in creole languages in Guyana and Hawaii. He considers that some of the features of creole languages afford powerful insights into the development of language as a unique feature of the human species. He is the creator and leading proponent of the 'language bio program hypothesis'. According to this hypothesis, creoles' similarity is due to their being formed from a previous pidgin by children, and they all share the universal innate grammar ability of humans. The development of 'Nicaraguan sign language' is one of the issues often quoted in support for the existence of Universal grammar theory. In 1979, the recently installed Nicaraguan government begun the country's first widespread attempt in the deaf children education. Before that

86 Isa - Jesus 120 time, there was no deaf community in Nicaragua. A centre for special education set a program which was initially attended by 50 young deaf children. By 1983 this program was attended by 400 students. The Centre did not have access to training (education) facilities of any of the sign languages used around the World. Therefore, the children were not taught any existing sign language. The language program, instead, was based on Spanish and lip-reading. The use of signs by teachers was limited to fingerspelling, using simple signs to sign the alphabet. The program achieved little success. Most students failed to understand the concept of Spanish words. Arriving at the centre, the first children had only a few inarticulate gestural signs developed within their own families. Nevertheless, when the children were placed together, initially, they began to build language signs. The more and the younger children joined, the language became more sophisticated (complicated). The children's teachers had limited success at communicating with their students, but the kids began communicating amongst themselves with great success. Afterwards, the Nicaraguan government invited Judy Kegl, an American sign-language expert at Northeastern University. Judy Kegl and other researchers began to analyse the language. They noticed that the younger children had taken the pidgin-like form of the older children to a higher level of intricacy (complexity). The language developed by younger children had a verb agreement and other concords of grammar (but no recursion). The appearance of Chechen (Vaynoah) language was the result of establishing an artificial pidgin and creole language based on the ancient and contemporary philosophies. In this process was used experience of Francs in contacting with non-Europeans (as an example, above mentioned lingua-franca and other pidgin and creole languages). Chechen (Vaynoah) language evolved not based on business concepts, but philosophies (concepts) based on monotheism. "The founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos were monotheists, and there was an attempt of nonviolent introduction of monotheism in the consciousness of a society from the very beginning of its formation. For example: X1у [hu] - seed, Ха [ha] - time, Ц1и [tsi(n)] - blood, etc. are the ancient divinities.

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Introducing these words into the new forming Chechen (Vaynoah) language, the founders of Chechen ethnos pointed out that X1у [hu], Ха [ha], Ц1и [tsi(n)] are not divinities. They are a seed, a time, blood etc. Other one-sound Chechen (Vaynoah) concepts: са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honour, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood ха [ha] - time, waistband, guard хьа [ha] - your, look хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed Etc. This phenomenon is brightly illustrated in the etymology of Chechen (Vaynakh), names and words as well. For example, I sa - Isa; I da - Ida; I ba - Iba. Chechen (Vaynakh) surname necessarily corresponds to a name of one of the forefathers. For example, Isa-Isaev; Ida-Idaev, Iba- Ibaev. In this context, it is not incidental that in some versions of the Bible, the names written through hyphens like 'Is-ra-el', and others.

Chapter II: History of Research

Ancient philosophers tried to receive an answer to the question of how human beings acquire the ability to speak a language and understand each other. It was well before the development of empirical methods for testing the theories on language acquisition. However, mostly, they seemed to consider language acquisition as a subset of man's capacity to acquire knowledge and learn concepts. Plato proposed some new ideas based on his observation. He considered that word- meaning mapping in some form was innate. - Plato (424/423 BC – 348/347 BC) was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician a student of Socrates. He was the founder of the Academy in Athens, which became the first higher institution in the Western World. Plato assisted in settling the foundations of Western philosophy and science together with his teacher, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle.

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Besides, Sanskrit grammarians discussed for over 12-centuries whether human beings' ability to recognise the meaning of words was given by God, possibly innate, or passed down by previous generations and learned from already established practices. For example, a child might learn the word 'cow' by listening to trusted speakers who are talking about cows. Empiricists like Hobbes and Locke argued that knowledge arises ultimately from abstracted sensibility. Their arguments lean towards the 'nurture' side of the argument, that language is acquired through sensory experience. - Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury, born on the 5th of April 1588, died on the 4th of December 1679. He was an English philosopher best known today for his work on political philosophy. His book 'Leviathan' laid the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory.

• John Locke was born on the 29th of August 1632, Wrington, Somerset, England - died on the 28th of October 1704, High Laver, Essex. He was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. He was an inspirer of both the European Enlightenment and the Constitution of the United States and widely known as the father of classical liberalism. His work had a significant impact on the development of epistemology and political philosophy and lay at the foundation of modern philosophical empiricism and political liberalism. His philosophical thought was close to Robert Boyle, Sir Isaac Newton, and other members of the Royal Society who were the founders of modern science. His political point of view was linked with the notion 'social contract' between citizens and the significance of toleration, mostly on religious matters. Most of what he preached in politics was accepted in England after the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89 and in the United States after the country's declaration of independence.

Evolutionary linguistics

All human beings have language, including the Tasmanians and the Andamanese; though, they lived in isolation from the other humans of the Old-World continents around 40,000 years. - The Aboriginal Tasmanians were the indigenous Australian population of Tasmania, located south of the continent of Australia. Their population upon of European explorers' arrival in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were estimated at four thousand. They were relatively short people. Overall, they had Australoid physical characteristics. The Tasmanians spoke languages which the Aborigines of the mainland did not understand. The island was divided among several tribes who spoke different dialects. Each had a delimited hunting territory. Means of subsistence were based on hunting land and sea mammals, including shellfish and vegetable food. During the warm period of the year, the Tasmanians moved through the open forest and moorlands of the interior in family groups of fifteen to fifty people. In the colder period of the year, they moved to the coast. From time to time, groups of families assembled for a 'corroboree', a dance celebrating significant events, a hunt, or for the defence activities against attack. The first regular white settlement was established in Tasmania in 1803. In 1804 an unprovoked attack on a group of Tasmanians by whites was the initial incident in the Black War.

Black War (1804–1830) is the notion applied to hostilities between Aborigines and white European soldiers and settlers on the Australian island of Tasmania called Van Diemen's Land. This conflict resulted in the extermination of the indigenous Aboriginal population of the island. The conflict began in May 1804 when a group of white soldiers opened fire on an Aboriginal hunting party. The anger of the Aborigines increased when white settlers occupied the Tasmanians' hunting regions of the island for sheep raising. Moreover, when

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other food ran short, the white settlers took to hunting kangaroos which significantly depleted this essential product of the Aborigines' life.

- The Andamanese population is the confederation of different aboriginal inhabitants of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands which form one of the districts of India. They populated the southeastern side of the Bay of Bengal.

Most Andamanese have been de-tribalized and absorbed into modern Indian life, but traditional culture survives among such groups as the Jarawa and Onge of the lesser islands. Late twentieth-century there were around 50 estimated speakers of Andamanese languages and 550 ethnic Andamanese. Until the mid- nineteenth century, the remoteness of the Andamanese and vigorous defences of their land helped them to avoid outside influences. Some of the Andamanese keep on living by hunting and gathering, obtaining food from wild plants and animals. The bow was used both for fishing and for hunting wild pigs. The Andamanese had no traps or fishhooks. They catch the fish, turtle, and dugong with nets and harpoons. They produce pottery. Iron, obtained from detritus, has been used for arrowheads, adzes, and knives, from at least the eighteenth century. They are shaped by breaking and grinding. Late eighteenth to early nineteenth-century European scientists supposed that the languages of the world reflected various stages in the development from primitive to advanced speech. It is culminating in the Indo-European languages seen as the most advanced. We argue that the basis of the Indo-European languages is not any, so-called, Proto language but the System of Consciousness, described in this thesis. It has been introduced into the new forming English spelling and Chechen oral language artificially. Modern linguistics started in the late eighteenth century. Before this period the Romantic or animist theses of Johann Gottfried Herder and Johann Christoph Adelung remained influential among scholars until the nineteenth century. The issue of language origins seemed unapproachable to methodical approaches, and in 1866 the Linguistic Society of Paris banned all discussion of the origin of language. The society suggested that it was an unanswerable problem. A systematic approach to historical linguistics developed during the nineteenth century. It reached its culmination in the Neogrammarian school of Karl Brugmann and others. - Johann Gottfried von Herder, born on August 25, 1744, Mohrungen, East Prussia, modern Morag, Poland and died December 18, 1803, Weimar, Saxe-Weimar, modern Germany. He is a German critic, theologian, and philosopher. He is an innovator in the philosophy of history and culture. His influence, augmented by his contacts with the young J.W. von Goethe, made him a harbinger of the Romantic Movement. He received a noble rank with the addition of ‘von’ in 1802.

- Johann Christoph Adelung was born on August 8, 1732, in Spantekow Bei Anklam, Pomerania, Prussia, modern Germany and died September 10, 1806, Dresden, Saxony, modern Germany. He is one of the well- known German linguists before Jacob Grimm. His grammars, dictionary, and works on style helped to standardise the language.

- Friedrich Christian Karl Brugmann was born on March 16, 1849, Wiesbaden, Nassau modern Germany and died June 29, 1919, Leipzig, Germany. He is German linguist whose works in comparative Indo-European linguistics during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are considered as comprehensive and still- authoritative research in this field. During most of his professional life (1887–1919), Brugmann worked as a professor of Sanskrit and comparative linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany. He became the 124

greatest synthesist among the Indo-European grammarians of his time as an immensely productive researcher, a pointedly perceptive investigator, and a determined defender of theoretical principles. Of his 400 publications, the work on which his prominence most securely rests in the two volumes on sounds and forms which he prepared for the "Outline of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-Germanic Languages" (1886– 93). It remains, probably, the most authoritative grammar ever written, and it is, also, one of the grand schemes of knowledge concerning the Indo-European languages. Nevertheless, scientific interest in the issue of the origin of language has, only, gradually been inflamed starting from the 1950th. Since that time the ideas such as universal grammar, mass comparison and glottochronology have been under discussion. The origin of language as a subject emerged out of studies in neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics and human evolution. The Linguistic Bibliography introduced 'Origin of language' as an independent headline in 1988, as one of the sub- topics of psycholinguistics. The research institutes of evolutionary linguistics are a recent phenomenon, which appeared only in the 1990th. As far as the results of our study concerns, we address to France, the nation considered to be a locomotive of Renaissance. Probably in this context, the strategic interests of the nation as the nation which supports exceptional views put on the second place after momentary political interests. Probably, it is not easy to turn look directed on the African continent and the Middle East towards the Caucasus. Though, French people, according to their prophet Nostradamus, has been waiting for the 'Prince' from the Caucasus. As far as Russia concerns the concept 'United Mission' of Nostradamus was decided to replace with concept 'United Russia' (leading political party in Russia) and to do the experiment once again. The history will show the result of this experiment. Everybody interprets prophecies proceeding from personal understanding of their value. Perhaps, French people made the image of a "young beautiful prince on a white horse" etc. We have been planning a documentary and feature film «Paris of Troy. Dynasty continuation». For this purpose, we began contacts and acquaintance with the results of these researches the well-known French and other countries scientists, politicians etc. We hope that they will help us with this Project.

The terminal date for Proto-Indo-European

"Indo-European language family is the most developed system. So, scientists try to find out Proto-Indo-European language. They hope that afterwards, it would be much easier to decipher

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Proto – Human language. Some scholars argue that the terminal date for reconstructed Proto Indo- European language is the date after which it becomes an anachronism. It should be close to the date when its oldest 'daughter languages' were born. Proto-Indo-European was reconstructed based on systematic comparisons between all the Indo-European daughter languages. The mother tongue cannot be placed later than the daughters. Of course, it would have survived after detachment and isolation of the oldest daughter. But as time passed, if that daughter dialect remained isolated from the Proto-Indo-European speech community, each would have developed its peculiar innovations. Mother's image retained through each of her daughters is the form the mother had before the detachment of that daughter branch. Each daughter, therefore, preserves a somewhat different image of the mother. Linguists have exploited this fact and other aspects of internal variation to identify chronological phases within Proto-Indo-European. The number of phases defined by different linguists varies from three (early, middle, and late) to six. However, if we define Proto-Indo-European as the language that was ancestral to all the Indo- European daughters, then it is the oldest reconstructable form, the earliest phase of Proto-Indo- European, that we are talking about. The later daughters did not evolve directly from this early kind of Proto-Indo-European but from some intermediate, evolved set of late Indo-European languages that preserved aspects of the mother tongue and passed them along. So, when did the oldest daughter separate? The answer to that question depends very much on the accidental survival of written inscriptions. Moreover, the oldest daughter preserved in written inscriptions is so peculiar that it is probably safer to rely on the image of the mother preserved within the second set of daughters. What is wrong with the oldest daughter?"87 Our answer to this question of the scientists is straightforward. Nothing wrong with her because the oldest daughter did not exist. There exists a language System which we discovered through English spelling and Chechen oral language. We named it as a System of Consciousness (Theory of Unity). We describe this system in our collection of scientific reports "Word is the Witness of History" and in this thesis.

87 The Horse. The Wheel. And Language. Part three. Language and time. Pages 42-43. David W. Anthony. Princeton University Press. 2007. 126

All languages are derived not from the Proto-family languages, and all language families are derived not from Proto-Humanity language. They all derived from this System of Consciousness preserved during the Modern Age with the help of holy names and words in English spelling and the Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language.

Historical experiments

There are some historical anecdotes about people who attempted to discover the emergence of language experimentally. Herodotus told the first such tale. He told that Pharaoh Psammetichus maybe Psammetichus I, had two children who were raised by deaf-mutes. Pharaoh wanted to see what language they would speak. After some time, the children were brought before him, and one of the two said something pronounced like 'bekos'. It is the Phrygian word for 'bread'. So, Psammetichus concluded that the first language was Phrygian. - Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian born in Halicarnassus, Caria, modern Bodrum, Turkey. He lived in the fifth century BC (484 – 425 BC), and he was named as the "Father of History". Herodotus was the first historian who collected his materials systematically, checked their accuracy to a certain extent and arranged them in a well-formed and lively narrative.

- Psammetichus or Egyptian Psamtik, is the name of three kings of the Saite dynasty, twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt who were called by Herodotus respectively Psammetichus, Psammis and Psammenitus. The first of these is generally considered to be the founder of the dynasty.

- Phrygians were the ancient Indo-European people, who were initially inhabiting in the southern Balkans. From tribal villages, Phrygia became a developed state with its capital at Gordium in the 8th century BC. During this period, the Phrygians expanded eastward time after time attacking the kingdom of Urartu. Meantime, Cimmerian invaders (690 BC) suppressed the Phrygian Kingdom. Later its neighbour Lydia subjugated it for a short time. Afterwards, it was conquered by the Persian Empire, then by the Empire of Alexander and became part of the Roman Empire. The last mentioning of their language in literature dates to the fifth century AD (CE), and it was probably extinct by the seventh century. King of Scotland, James - V is said to have tried a similar experiment. His children were supposed to have spoken Hebrew. Both the medieval monarch Frederick II, King of Prussia and Akbar, the Mughal Emperor of India are said to have tried similar experiments, too. The children involved in these experiments did not speak. - James V was born on April 10, 1512, Linlithgow, West Lothian, Scotland and died on December 14, 1542, in Falkland, Fife. He was a King of Scotland from 1513 to 1542. During the period of his minority, James was a 'puppet' in the struggle between pro-French and pro-English groups. It lasted throughout the first half of his reign. When later James V obtained personal control over the government, he supported Roman Catholicism against the Protestant nobles and allied his country with France. James V was 17 months old when he succeeded to the throne of his father, James IV who ruled in 1488–1513. There was the struggle for power maintained between the duke of Albany John Stewart, who was pro-French regent, and Archibald Douglas, the Earl of Angus. Each side tried to gain support of the young King. By 1530, James V had consolidated his authority in Scotland. In 1524 he signed a treaty with his uncle, King Henry VIII of England but in 1538 he

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married the French noblewoman Mary of Lorraine and afterwards made an alliance with France against England. He was a cruel man. In his later years, he instituted, practically a reign of terror in Scotland. His financial exactions did not conciliate him with his subjects.

- Frederick II, whose nickname was Frederick the Great, born on January 24, 1712, in Berlin, Prussia, modern Germany, and died on August 17, 1786, in Potsdam, near Berlin. He was King of Prussia in 1740–1786, and a brilliant military campaigner. In a range of diplomatic stratagems and wars against Austria and other states he vastly enlarged Prussia's territories. He made Prussia, above all, as one of the most significant military powers in Europe. He was a luminous absolute monarch. He licensed French language and art and built near Berlin a palace, Sanssouci in the style of French Rococo. Frederick II, the third King of Prussia, ranks among the two or three dominating figures in contemporary Germany's history. Under his governance, Prussia became one of the most significant states of Europe. Its military power had a striking effect, and it increased its territories vastly. From early in his reign Frederick II gained a high reputation as a military chief. The Prussian army quickly became a model which was admired and imitated in many other states. He also arose quickly as a leading representative of the ideas of liberal government. Then these ideas were becoming influential throughout most of Europe. His example did much in spreading and strengthening those ideas.

- Akbar, full name Abu al-Fatḥ Jalal al-Dīn Muḥammad Akbar was born on October 15, 1542, in Umerkot, Sindh, modern India and died in 1605, in Agra. He is the greatest of the Mughal emperors of India who reigned from 1556 to 1605 and expanded power of Mughal over most of the Indian subcontinent. To preserve the unity of his Imperium, Akbar developed programs which won the loyalty of the non-Muslim people of his kingdom. His central administration was reformed and strengthened. He centralised his financial system and restructured tax collection procedures. Though he never renounced Islam, other religions as Hindus, Parsis, and Christians, were the matters of his great concernment. The representatives of these religions were often engaged in religious discussion before him. Though he was Illiterate himself, he encouraged scientists, poets, painters, and musicians, making his court a centre of culture. We want to give an example from our discussions on this theme with other observers of the so-called concept of Proto Human Language. We want to return to the above-stated example. One of the free researchers in the field of etymology told: - Adam and Eve were speaking Chechen language in the Garden of Eden? - Did they? What were they speaking there about? - According to the Bible, what did God say to Adam and Eve? - Do not touch this tree? - What is the Chechen for 'tree'? - Dit (Дит). - What is the Chechen for 'Do not touch'? - Dit (Дит). - If you taste fruit from this tree, you will die, said God. - What fruit should they not taste? - An apple. - What is the Chechen for 'apple'? - Azh (1аж). - What is the Chechen for 'death'? - Azhal (1ажал). -With what did they cover their nakedness? -With leaves. -What is the Chechen for 'leaves'? - R'ash (Г1аш). 128

-What did they cover with these 'rash (Г1аш)'? -A crotch between legs. -What is the Chechen for 'a crotch between legs'? - R'ash (Г1аш).

It is one more striking example of artificial formation of the Chechen (Vaynoah) language based on various religious philosophies. If everything to put from upside down in the right position, we will see that Adam and Eve were not talking in the Garden of Eden in the Chechen (Vaynoah) language, but, simply, the founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos used this Bible legend in the artificial formation of above mentioned Chechen (Vaynoah) words. The founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos used deities of ancient peoples the same way for the formation of the Chechen words and concepts. Even the translation of the one-sound words from the Chechen language shows a profound spiritual and religious level of monotheism of the founders of Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnicity from its very emergence and further development. It is necessary to divide ethnos into founders and society. Pagans'88 rites which were practised by some of the Chechen tribes and Ingushes are historically known. The founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos were monotheists, and there was an attempt of nonviolent introduction of monotheism in the consciousness of Chechen (Vaynoah) people from the very beginning of its formation. For example: X1у [hu] - seed; Ха [ha] - time; Ц1и [tsi(n)] - blood; etc. are the ancient divinities.

Introducing these words into the new forming Chechen (Vaynoah) language the founders of Chechen ethnos indicated that ‘X1у [hu], Ха [ha], Ц1и [tsi(n)]’ are not divinities, but they are, seed, time, blood, etc.

Universal language

The notion 'Universal language' may deal with a hypothetical or historical language spoken and understood either by all either by most of the world's population. It may be the ideal of a

88 Pagan – °n. a person holding religious beliefs other than those of the leading world religions. °adj. relating to pagans or their beliefs. – Derivatives: paganish adj. paganism n. paganise or paganise v. Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006. 129 complementary international language for communication between groups speaking different primary languages. In other understanding, it might be the primary language of all groups or the only existing language. According to some mythological and religious traditions, there was once a single universal language among all people, or language shared by human beings. Nevertheless, there is no historical evidence which supports this hypothesis. In some traditions, there is less interest in this issue or exists an ordinary deflection of the question. For example, in Islam, the Arabic language is the language of the Koran. So, Muslims may consider it as universal. The written classical Chinese language was read broadly but pronounced differently by readers for centuries in different areas of China, in Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. Thus, it was a, de facto, universal literary language for a broad-based culture which covered the people of a large number of areas. Similarly, Sanskrit was a literary language in Nepal for those who had a different primary language (mother tongue). Consequently, the Medieval Latin was a widespread language of literati (well-educated people) in the Middle Ages. The language of the Vulgate Bible was, the same way, common in the area of Catholicism which included most of Western Europe and parts of Northern and Central Europe. - The Vulgate Bible is a late fourth-century translation of the Bible into Latin. It was mostly the work of St. Jerome. St. Jerome was officially accredited by Pope Damasus I in 382 to revise the old Latin translations of the Bible. By the thirteenth century, this revision called the ‘versio vulgata’ became the definitive and officially promoted and widely known Latin version of the Bible in the Roman Catholic Church. Its widespread adoption led to the obscuration of earlier did Latin translations, commonly referred to as the ‘Vetus Latina’. Some trade languages, like ancient Koine Greek, may be considered as an example of universal languages which were existing and used for commerce. - Koine is a word which derives from the Greek and means’ common’. It is, also, referred to as ‘Hellenistic Greek’. It was the common supra-regional form of Greek language which was spoken and written during Hellenistic and Roman antiquity. It evolved through the spreading of Greek after the conquests of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC. It served as the common ‘lingua franca’ for the populations of the most of Mediterranean region and the Middle East during the following centuries. In historical linguistics, monogenesis refers to the idea that all spoken human languages descend from a single ancestral language spoken many thousands of years ago. There is a theory in comparative linguistics on the ancestral language. This theory says that the ancestral language is a stratum whose dialects gave rise to a group of languages called 'family'. Some large linguistic families reduced to dialects of the ancestral language allows to identify some large families' (macro families) ancestral languages. There exists a hypothesis on Proto-Human Language.

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Our study shows that it exists one more universal language which has been evolving during millennia among certain people. Symbolically we link this language with the Bible (religious) patriarchs: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, and Israel. However, this language has been evolving until today by the representatives of AchishBeth and other unknown people. They time after time encoded and deciphered it through religious narratives and other linguistic and philosophical environments. We named it a System of Consciousness because all people who obtain it has joint philosophical (religious) level of Consciousness which lays beyond the knowledge of usual people. In 2006 we introduced this research to the French professor Jean Charles Perrot, former head of the Linguistic Association of Paris. He said: "It is something new in the science". The reaction of another well-known French historian, Professor Jean-Pierre Mahé was "it lays beyond my mind, and it reminds me Kabbalah". Kabbalah is the esoteric Jewish mysticism appeared in the twelfth century. Kabbalah has always been, mostly, an oral tradition. The initiation into its doctrines and practices is conducted by a personal guide to avoid the dangers intrinsic in mystical experiences. Esoteric Kabbalah is also "tradition" to some extent. It claims to secret knowledge of the unwritten Torah, divine revelation, which God shared with Moses and Adam. Although the observance of the Law of Moses persists as the principal tenet of Judaism, Kabbalah provided a means of approaching God directly. Thus, it gave Judaism a religious dimension when some viewed a mystical way of approach to God as heretical and dangerously pantheistic. The origin of Kabbalah is traced back to Merkava mysticism, also spelt Merkabah. Merkabah mysticism began to flourish in Palestine during the first century AD, but from the seventh to the eleventh century its centre was in Babylonia. Merkabah had as its primary concern ecstatic and mystical contemplation of the divine throne, or "chariot", observed in a vision by the prophet Ezekiel. The earliest known Jewish text on magic and cosmology, ‘Book of Creation’ of Sefer Yetzira, appeared sometime between the third and the sixth century. It explained creation as a process involving the ten divine numbers (sefirot) of God the Creator and the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Taken together, they were said to form the "Thirty-two paths of secret wisdom". The main text of early Kabbalah was the twelfth century ‘Sefer ha-bahir’ which means ‘Book of Brightness’. Its influence on the development of Jewish esoteric mysticism and on Judaism in the whole was profound and long-lasting. The Bahir not only explained the sefirot as ministerial in

131 creating and sustaining the universe but also introduced into Judaism such concepts as the transmigration of souls ‘gilgul’ and strengthened the basis of Kabbalah by providing it with a broad mystical symbolism. - In the speculations of esoteric Jewish mysticism (Kabbalah) Sefirot is any of the ten emanations, or powers, by which God the Creator believed is manifesting. The concept first appeared in the Sefer Yetzirah's "Book of Creation", as the ten ideal numbers. The theory formed without any firm evidence.

- "Sefer ha-bahir - Book of Brightness" is mostly symbolic commentary on the Old Testament. Its basic motif is the mystical importance of the shapes and sounds of the Hebrew alphabet. The influence of the Bahir on the development of Kabbalah, esoteric Jewish mysticism, was thorough and sustained. It looks like the book have first appeared in Provence, France, in the latter half of the twelfth century. Kabbalists themselves considered the book to be much older. In an objective examination of the medieval text, it looks like the author of the Bahir just incorporated into his work specific mystical texts and notions that had earlier come to Europe from the East. Although Bahir is systemless, as a rule enigmatic, and written mixing Hebrew and Aramaic, it successfully introduced into Kabbalah, and through Kabbalah, into Judaism an extensive mystical symbolism. Gershom Gerhard Scholem, a twentieth-century Jewish scientist, believes that it had the most significant influence on Jewish religious thought. For example, the Bahir includes the earliest-known explanation of the ten divine emanations, which symbolise the creation and continued existence of the universe mysteriously. They include three upper and seven lower manifestations, which became widely known in Kabbalah as "sefirot - numbers". Thus, we see the trace of the System of Consciousness in different religious writings. That is why we consider it a universal language (philosophical) system. English spelling and Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language reconstructed, evolved and preserved this System of Consciousness. Compare:

Adam English Chechen89 А [Ia] - breathing, rime, steam, winter; Да [da] - father; Iaд [ad] - a rainbow, a bow and an arrow.

And consequently, the Chechen names and surnames: Адам [Adam] Iaд ма [Ad ma] - What a rainbow (bow and an arrow)! Мада [Mada] Ма Iад [Ma ad] - What a rainbow (bow and an arrow)!

English Chechen A d Iад [Ad] - a rainbow, a bow and an arrow. a m ма [ma] - what! Adam Iад ма [Ad ma] - What a rainbow (a bow and arrow)! - Like a rainbow (a bow and arrow)! - Rainbow (a bow and arrow) it is!

89 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages 159, 239. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004.

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Compare the Chechen names and surnames: Ida - Idaev Ima - Imaev Adam - Adamov Dima - Dimaev Mada - Madaev MaIag - Maigov etc. Chechen family name corresponds to one of the forefathers’ name.

Abraham English Chechen Ab Iaб [ab] - father r гIа [ra] - leaves, dream, descendants a гIад [rad] - family tree, stalk h ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed m ма [ma] - what!

Abraham Iaб гIа хьа ма! - What a father of descendants you are! [Ab ra ha ma] - Father of descendants you are!

Israel English Chechen Is из [is] - this, that, he, she, it rа гIa [ra] - leaves, dream, descendants el эл [el] - Lord, Master Israel Из гIa эл [Is ra el] - He is the descendants’ Master! In the Chechen language, the word ‘Is-из’ is also divided into the words ‘I s – и са’. I и [i] - this, that, he, she, it s са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood r Iа [ra] - leaves, dream, descendants а (гIад) [rad] - stalk, family tree е l эл [el] - Lord, Master Israel И са гIа эл [I sa ra el] - This light/spirit is the descendants’ Master! - He is my descendants’ Master!

Compare the Chechen names: Иса [Isa] - Исаев [Isaev] Раса [Rassa] - Расаев [Rassaev] Сарали [Sarali] - Саралиев [Saraliev] Исраил [Israil] - Исраилов [Israilov] Ясраил [Yasrail] - Ясраилов [Yasrailov] etc. Chechen family name corresponds to one of the forefathers’ name.

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Ismael English Chechen Is из [is] - this, that, he, she, it ma ма [ma] - what el эл [el] - Lord, Master Ismael Из ма эл [Is ma el] - What a Master he is!

The word ‘Is – из’, which may be divided into two words in Chechen ‘I s - и са’ makes it possible to grasp the meaning of every one-sound word of the name. I и [i] - this, that, he, she, it s са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honour, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood m ма [ma] - what a е1 эл [el] - Master Ismael И са ма эл [I sa ma el] - What a Master is this Soul; Light…!

Compare: Islam - Salam English Chechen Is из [is] - this, that, he, she, it S l эл [el] - Lord, Master a а l m ма [ma] - what! a m Islam Из эл ma [Is el ma] - What a Master he is!

Since the word ‘Is – из’ is divided into two words ‘I s - и са’, we read: I и [i] - this, that, he, she, it s са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my S си [si] - honour, dignity a со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood l эл [el] - Lord, Master l а a m ма [ma] - what m

Islam И са эл ма [I sa el ma] - What a Soul is the Master! - What Master he is! - What a Master this light!

Shiva Eve [iv] Shiva Sh [iv] - adding Sh Vishnu [vi]shnu - rearrangement of components

The Chechen oral language and English (spelling) have preserved the initial meaning of each sound in the name of Shiva.

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Compare now: English Chechen S са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood h ха [ha] - time, waistband, guard i хьа [ha] - your, look хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed va ба [ba] - grandmother (mother), Ind. Father Shiva Са хьа bа! [Sa-ha-ba] - Your Soul, Grandmother! -Your Light, Grandmother! - You are Soul, Grandmother! You are Light, Grandmother! Compare the Chechen manes and surnames: Иба [Iba] - Ибаев [Ibaev] Сахаб [Sakhab] - Сахабов [Sakhabov] Асхаб [Askhab] - Асхабов [Askhabov] Шаба [Shaba] - Шабаев [Shabaev] Шахаб [Shakhab] - Шахабов [Shakhabov]

Compare: Vishnu English Chechen V ба [ba] - grandmother, mother (Ind. Father) i s са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood h ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard хьа [ha] - your, look хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed n u Vishnu Ба са хьо [Ba sa ho] - Grandmother (Ind. Father), you are Soul! - Grandmother (Ind. Father), your Soul! - Grandmother (Ind. Father), you are Light! - Ind. Father, you are Soul! Compare the Chechen manes and surnames: Висх [Viskh] - Висханов [Viskhanov] Басх [Baskh] - Басханов [Baskhanov] Баша [Bacha] - Бащаев [Bashaev] Байсар [Baissar] - Байсаров [Baissarov] Башир [Bashir] - Баширов [Bashirov]

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The Proto-Human language

The Proto-Human language is the hypothetical common ancestor of all the world's languages. The concept of Proto-Human supposes the existence of monogenesis of all registered human languages. It does not mean monogenesis of these languages with unrecorded languages — for example, the Paleolithic or hypothetical Neanderthal languages. Proponents of linguistic polygenesis do not accept the concept of a fully developed Proto-Human language. They consider that the world's language families developed, independently from each other, from a proto- linguistic form of communication used by archaic Homo sapiens. If the hypothesis of Proto-Human language is accepted, its date may be set between two hundred thousand years ago and fifty thousand years ago. It is between the age of Homo sapiens and the age of behavioural modernity. There is no commonly accepted term for this notion. Most references to the subject do not comprise a particular notion for the language which is under discussion. The terms Proto-World and Proto-Human are in occasional use. Professor Merritt Ruhlen uses the term Proto-Sapiens. - Merritt Ruhlen was born in 1944. He is an American linguist who has worked on the classification of languages and what this may discover about the origin and evolution of modern human beings. Amongst other linguists, Ruhlen's works "The Origin of Language" (1994), "A guide to the world's languages" (1987), others are recognised as standing outside the mainstream of comparative-historical linguistics. Proto-Human language is a term used informally for various concepts: - referring to the emergence of language itself in human evolution; - origin of language; - proto-language, a stage before the emergence of language proper;

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- mythical origins of language; - referring to a Proto-World language, the hypothetical, most recent common ancestor of all the world's languages; - referring to the date of attestation in writing (epigraphy). The earliest attested languages (from ca. 3000 BC) are the Sumerian and the Egyptian languages. Alfredo Trombetti made the first significant scientific effort to prove the reality of monogenesis. His book ‘L'unità d'origine del linguaggio’ was published in 1905. Trombetti considers that the most ancient universal ancestor of recorded languages was spoken between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago. - Alfredo Trombetti was an Italian linguist, born in Bologna on January 16, 1866, and died in Venice on July 5, 1929. Trombetti worked at the University of Bologna as a professor. He was a member of the Italian Academy. Alfredo Trombetti, a well-known proponent of the doctrine of monogenesis, believed that all of the world's languages traced back to a single common ancestral language. This doctrine is still highly controversial. Many linguists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries rejected the doctrine of monogenesis. The doctrine of the polygenesis of the human races and their languages became dominating. The best-known advocate of monogenesis doctrine was American linguist Morris Swadesh (mid-20th century). He was the first to use two essential methods for investigating deep relationships between languages, lexicostatistics and glottochronology. - Morris Swadesh was born on January 22, 1909 and died on July 20, 1967. He was an influential and controversial American linguist. Morris Swadesh applied in his works basic concepts of historical linguistics in the aboriginal languages of the Americas. There was an evident example of language change in Europe over the centuries, the changes from Latin to the Romance languages - Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian. These changes took place for less than two thousand years. Because the European languages were in written form, it was easy to determine the rate of languages change. He suggested that this is a fundamental principle that could be applied to all languages. In the second half of the twentieth century, Joseph Greenberg proposed a series of classifications of the world's languages. These classifications have been controversial but broadly discussed. Though Joseph Greenberg did not make any obvious argument for monogenesis, all of his classification work was engaged in solving this task. As he stated: "The final goal is a detailed classification of what might, very likely, be a single language family." Joseph Greenberg's research on language universals are less controversial than his classification studies. He published an article "Some Universals of Grammar with Particular Reference to the Order of Meaningful Elements" in 1966. He suggested 45 universals of word order

137 and grammar categories based on information received from around 30 languages. In 1963 he, also, edited ‘Universals of Language’ and in 1978 the four-volume "Universals of Human Language". - Joseph Harold Greenberg, born on May 28, 1915, in Brooklyn, New York, U.S. and died on May 7, 2001, in Stanford, California. He was an American anthropologist and linguist, and his specialisation is African languages and language universals. Greenberg was the first scientist who presented a unified classification of African languages. Prominent American scholars M. Ruhlen, J. Bengtson, and H. Fleming are, also, advocates of linguistic monogenesis. - John D. Bengtson is a linguist, historian and anthropologist. He is a former president and currently a vice- president of the "Association for the Study of Language in Prehistory" and an editor of the journal Mother Tongue from 1996 to 2003. His study includes Scandinavian, Indo-European, African, Dene–Caucasian languages, and paleo linguistics, e.g. the study of prehistory through linguistic evidence.

- Harold Crane Fleming is an American anthropologist and historical linguist who is specialising in the cultures and languages of the Horn of Africa. Ruhlen traces back to the ancestral (Proto) language some words. His study is based on the occurrence of similar sound-and-meaning forms in different languages across the world. John D. Bengtson and Merritt Ruhlen identify 27 global etymologies. Based on these correspondences, Ruhlen90 lists these roots for the ancestor language. For example: ku = 'who'; ma = 'what'; pal = 'two'; akwa = 'water'; tik = 'finger'; kan = 'arm'; boko = 'arm'; buŋku = 'knee'; sum = 'hair'; putV = 'vulva'; čuna = 'nose, smell' The attempt to evaluate the date of the hypothetical Proto-Human language was that of Alfredo Trombetti. He concluded that it was spoken between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago. This estimate happens to coincide with current estimates on the age of Homo sapiens. It is doubtful and disputed whether the earliest members of Homo sapiens had fully developed language. Some scientists connect the emergence of language to the development of behavioural modernity. It is the period towards the end of the Middle Paleolithic or at the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, roughly fifty thousand years ago. According to this hypothesis it evolved out of a proto-linguistic stage which might have lasted considerably longer. Thus, according to Richard Klein, the ability to produce complex speech developed, only, some fifty thousand years ago with the emergence of modern man or Cro-Magnon man. - Richard G. Klein was born on April 11, 1941. He is a Professor of Biology and Anthropology at Stanford University. In 1966 he obtained his PhD at the University of Chicago. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in April 2003. His research interests include paleoanthropology (Africa and Europe). His central thesis is that modern human beings evolved in East Africa around one hundred thousand years

90 Ruhlen, Merritt. (1994b:105). The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 138

ago. Starting fifty thousand years ago, they began spreading throughout the non-African world and replaced archaic human populations over time. He criticises the idea that behavioural modernity evolved gradually over the course thousands, hundreds of millions of years. He instead advocates the view that modern behaviour arose suddenly in the Upper Paleolithic revolution around fifty thousand or forty thousand years ago.

- Cro-Magnon is a population of early Homo sapiens dating from the Upper Paleolithic period in Europe. Modern scientific literature often uses the term European Early Modern Humans (EEMH), instead of Cro- Magnon. In 1868, some ancient human skeletons were found in a shallow cave at Cro-Magnon near the town of Les Eyzies-de-Tayac in the Dordogne region of southwestern France. French geologist Edouard Lartet explored the cave was explored and discovered five archaeological layers. The human bones found in the topmost layer proved to be between 10,000 and 35,000 years old. The prehistoric human beings revealed by this finding were called Cro-Magnon. They are considered, along with Neanderthals to be representatives of prehistoric human beings. The obstacle in making any conclusion on particulars of Proto-Human lies in the time depth involved, which is far beyond what linguists can trace back today. It is between five and ten millennia in the cases of Indo-European and Afro Asiatic. Some linguists, like Ruhlen, supposes that this obstacle can be overcome using mass comparison and internal reconstruction. There are some contradictions among the linguist on the question: how much we can know about ancestor (proto - human) language? Lyle Campbell has a conservative position on the issue. He supposes that it would have shared the 'design feature' of recorded human languages, such as grammar defined as 'fixed or preferred sequences of linguistic elements', and the 'design feature' such as 'recursion', defined as "clauses embedded in other clauses". However, beyond this, nothing can be known of it. Less conservative linguists have suggestions on the vocabulary and syntax of the ancestor (Proto-Human) language. Until now, there are no serious proposals on its grammar and phonology. - Lyle Richard Campbell was born in 1942. He is a well-known linguist and one of the leading experts on indigenous American languages, an expert on historical linguistics in general. His research includes Uralic languages. Presently he is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. A rather large number of words have been carefully traced back to the hypothetical ancestor (proto-human) language. The main principle during this research based on the occurrence of similar sound-and-meaning forms in different languages around the world. The best-known such vocabulary list belongs to the linguists as John Bengtson and Merritt Ruhlen, who identify twenty- seven 'global etymologies'. Murray Gell-Mann and Merritt Ruhlen argued that the ancestral (Proto-Human) language had SOV, subject-object-verb, word order. The reason for this kind of conclusion is that nearly all the world's language families may be reconstructed back to SOV word order in their earliest stages. Their proposal develops an earlier one made by Talmy Givon. If this hypothesis is correct, it might

139 have wide range of implications. Since, according to a key article by Joseph Greenberg in 1963, it was known that SOV word order is generally associated with a series of other phenomena. For example, instead of saying “The man goes to the wide river”, as it is in English, Proto-Human speakers would have said: “Man wide river to goes”. This phenomenon was used for artificial formation of the Chechen language and English spelling at the initial stage. Therefore, we have such phrases consisting of meaningful one-sound words set without any endings, prefixes, suffixes etc. Compare: The Old Testament, Genesis 17:5: “No longer will you be called Abram, your name will be Abraham, for I have made you a father of many nations”. Abraham English Chechen Ab Iaб [ab] - father r гIа [ra] - leaves, dream, descendants a гIад [rad] - family tree, stalk h ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed m ма [ma] - what!

Abraham Iaб гIа хьа ма! - What a father of descendants you are! [Ab ra ha ma] - Father of descendants you are!

Islam - Salam English Chechen Is из [is] - this, that, he, she, it S l эл [el] - Lord, Master a а l m ма [ma] - what! a m Islam Из эл ma [Is el ma] - What a Master he is!

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Shiva Compare: Eve [iv] Shiva Sh [iv] - adding Sh Vishnu [vi]shnu - rearrangement of components Compare: S са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood h ха [ha] - time, waistband, guard i хьа [ha] - your, look хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed va ба [ba] - grandmother (mother), Ind. Father

Shiva Са хьа bа! [Sa-ha-ba] - Your Soul, Grandmother! -Your Light, Grandmother! - You are Soul, Grandmother! You are Light, Grandmother! Compare the Chechen manes and surnames: Иба [Iba] - Ибаев [Ibaev] Сахаб [Sakhab] - Сахабов [Sakhabov] Асхаб [Askhab] - Асхабов [Askhabov] Шаба [Shaba] - Шабаев [Shabaev] Шахаб [Shakhab] - Шахабов [Shakhabov]

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Compare the Chechen manes and surnames: Висх [Viskh] - Висханов [Viskhanov] Басх [Baskh] - Басханов [Baskhanov] Баша [Bacha] - Бащаев [Bashaev] Байсар [Baissar] - Байсаров [Baissarov] Башир [Bashir] - Баширов [Bashirov]

Isa (Jesus) English Chechen I И [i] - this, that, he, she, it s сa [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my a си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I. цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood I sa И сa [I sa] - This is a light/spirit/soul! - He is the light/spirit/soul! Etc. According to these examples, we can suggest that there was no philosophical or grammatical meaning in the word order. So, we can suppose that the rearrangement of the components was necessary only to form a new name but with the same meaning. This phenomenon is well observed comparing the names mentioned above as Shiva and Vishnu. - Thomas Givon was born on June 22, 1936. He is a linguist and writer, one of the initiators of functionalism in linguistics and one of the founders of the linguistics department at the University of Oregon based on his functional-adaptive approach to language and communication.

Swadesh lists and the list of Chechen one-sound words

Swadesh lists are compilations of universal conceptions for quantitative comparisons of languages which are assumed as genealogically related to each other. They are named after the United States linguist Morris Swadesh and used in lexicostatistics and glottochronology. - Glottochronology is the part of lexicostatistics which deals with the chronological relationship between different languages. Initially, words included in the lists were chosen for universal, cultural independent presence in as many languages as possible, regardless of their steadiness. Specific genetic grouping of languages may include several levels of relatedness. Glottochronology or lexicostatistics was advanced by two United States linguists, Morris Swadesh and Robert Lees. It is a controversial and not commonly accepted method for measuring the degrees of varieties between related languages in terms of years of separation. However, many

142 authors analysed the stability of the resulting list of universal vocabulary under language change and possibility to use this fact for purposes of glottochronology. Morris Swadesh collected the 'Swadesh list' based on his intuitions. More recent similar lists which were formed by Dolgopolsky list Leipzig–Jakarta list, are based on systematic data from lots of different languages. However, they are not yet as well-known and as broadly used as the 'Swadesh list'. Such lexicostatistical test lists are used in lexicostatistics to determine the subgrouping of languages. They are, also, used in glottochronology to 'provide dates for branching-points in the tree'. The task of defining and counting the number of related words (cognates) in the list is far from trivial. It is, often, the subject to dispute, because cognates do not inevitably look similar. Recognition of related words (cognates) presuppose knowledge of the sound laws of the corresponding languages. Swadesh's final list, published in 1971, contains 100 terms. Explanations of the terms can be found in Swadesh 1952 or, where noted by a dagger (†), in Swadesh 1955. 1. I (Pers.Pron.1.Sg.); 2. You (2.sg! 1952 thou & ye); 3. We (1955: inclusive); 4. This; 5. That; 6. Who? (“?” not 1971); 7. What? (“?” not 1971); 8. Not; 9. All (of a number); 10. Many; 11. One; 12. Two; 13. Big; 14. Long (not 'wide'); 15. Small; 16. Woman; 17. Man (adult male human); 18. Person (individual human); 19. Fish (noun); 20. Bird; 21. Dog; 22. Louse; 23. Tree (not log); 24. Seed (noun!); 25. Leaf (botanics); 26. Root (botanics); 27. Bark (of tree); 28. Skin (1952: person’s); 29. Flesh (1952 meat, flesh); 30. Blood; 31. Bone; 32. Grease (1952: fat, organic substance); 33. Egg; 34. Horn (of bull etc., not 1952) †; 35. Tail; 36. Feather (large, not down); 37. Hair (on head of humans); 38. Head (anatomic); 39. Ear; 40. Eye; 41. Nose; 42. Mouth; 43. Tooth (front, rather than molar); 44. Tongue (anatomical); 45. Claw (not in 1952) †; 46. Foot (not leg); 47. Knee (not 1952) †; 48. Hand; 49. Belly (lower part of body, abdomen); 50. Neck (not nape!); 51. Breasts (female; 1955 still breast) †; 52. Heart; 53. Liver; 54. Drink (verb); 55. Eat (verb); 56. Bite (verb); 57. See (verb); 58. Hear (verb); 59. Know (facts); 60. Sleep (verb); 61. Die (verb); 62. Kill (verb); 63. Swim (verb); 64. Fly (verb); 65. Walk (verb); 66. Come (verb); 67. Lie (on side, recline); 68. Sit (verb); 69. Stand (verb); 70. Give (verb); 71. Say (verb) †; 72. Sun; 73. Moon (not 1952) †; 74. Star; 75. Water (noun); 76. Rain (noun, 1952 verb); 77. Stone; 78. Sand (opposite to following); 79. Earth (=soil); 80. Cloud (not fog); 81. Smoke (noun, of fire); 82. Fire; 83. Ash(es); 84. Burn (verb intr.!); 85. Path (1952 road, trail; not street); 86. Mountain (not hill); 87. Red (colour); 88. Green

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(colour); 89. Yellow (colour); 90. White (colour); 91. Black (colour); 92. Night; 93. Hot (adjective; 1952 warm, of weather); 94. Cold (of weather); 95. Full†; 96. New; 97. Good; 98. Round (not 1952)†; 99. Dry (substance!); 100. Name.

The Swadesh–Yakhontov list is a 35-word subset of the Swadesh list posited as exceptionally stable by Russian linguist Sergei Yakhontov. It has been used in lexicostatistics by linguists such as Sergei Starostin. With their Swadesh numbers, they are: 1. I; 2. You (singular); 7. This; 11. Who; 12. What; 22. One; 23. Two; 45. Fish; 47. Dog; 48. Louse; 64. Blood; 65. Bone; 67. Egg; 68. Horn; 69. Tail; 73. Ear; 74. Eye; 75. Nose; 77. Tooth; 78. Tongue; 83. Hand; 103. Know; 109. Die; 128. Give; 147. Sun; 148. Moon; 150. Water; 155. Salt; 156. Stone; 163. Wind; 167. Fire; 179. Year; 182. Full; 183. New; 207. Name.

As we see, there is no philosophical, religious or any other clear concept in the formation of these list of words. Now, compare it with the list of one-sound words which the founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) formed artificially. They comprise our System of Consciousness and have clear philosophical and religious (monotheism) concepts. The founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos were monotheists, and there was an attempt of nonviolent introduction of monotheism in the consciousness of a society from the very beginning of its formation. For example: X1у [hu]-seed, Ха [ha»- time, Ц1и [tsi(n)»-blood, etc. are the ancient divinities. Introducing these words into the new forming Chechen (Vay Noah) language, the founders of Chechen ethnos pointed out that X1у [hu], Ха [ha], Ц1и(н) [tsi(n)] are not divinities. They are seed, time, blood, etc.

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The Chechen words consisting of just one sound (syllable)91: А [a] - pain, radiculitis, he, she, it Iа [a] - breathing, rime, steam, winter, to live (for all persons) И [i] - he, she, it, this. Йа [ya] - to lose, the verb to bring (for women, animals, and inanimate objects) Йе’[ye] - to give birth, to do, to kill (female, animals, and inanimate objects), to plant Ие’[ie] - to reconcile oneself, mix up (in imperative mood) Iе’ [ie] - to live, to stay (in imperative mood) У [u] - a plank, board Йу [yu] - to be (for women, animals, and inanimate objects) Йу’[yu] - a sting, an awl Iу [u] - a watchman Ба’ [ba] - a grandmother, a mother Бе’ [be] - do, give birth, kill (imperative mood), a nest Бу [bu] - a place where dogs and hens are kept Ва’ [va] - to lose, to bring (for men) (peremptory shout) Ву [vu] - to be (for men) Ве’ [ve] - to give birth, to kill (for men) Га [ga] - a branch, to see, a branch of a clan ГIa [ra] - leaves, a dream, [ra] should read as French. [ra] Ге’ [ge] - a belly Го [go] - I see (to see) Го’ [go] - a circle, a circumference ГIo [ro] - help [ro] should read as French [ro] ГIо’[ro] - go (imperative) [ro] should read as French [ro] Ги [gi] - have seen, on one's back ГIу [ru] - a well [ru] should read as French [ru] Да’ [da] - father Де’ [de] - father's, to give birth, to do, to kill (for animals and inanimate objects) ДIa [da] - there (to a place) Жа [ja] - a flock, faster, lambs За [za] - buds. Зу [zu] - a hedgehog Зе’ [ze] - a loss, damage, to examine (imperative mood) ЗIе’ [ze] - a chain, a ray Зи [zi] - to check (secretly), checked, have (has) examined. Ка [ka] - a lamb, luck, a handful (a measure equal to a palm) Къа [ka] - labour, pity, mischief, sin КIа [ka] - wheat Кха[kha] - a field Кхо[kho] - natural fertiliser Къе [ke] - poor Къу[ku] - a thief Ла’ [la] - endure Ле’ [le] - speak, die Ло’ [lo] - snow, give Лу [lu] - fallow-deer Ма [ma] - What! A thing as it is! Ма [ma] - not, (negation) Мо’[mo] - a scar

91 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. (As we use the oral form of Chechen language transcription given on dictionary may not correspond precisely to the one-sound words given in our research. The dictionary does not include some of them) 145

Пе [pe] - a wall, with the verb ‘tokha’ - to neglect Р - Са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my, mine, a corner. Си [si] - honour, dignity Со [so] - I Та’ [ta] - reconcile yourself, to recover Те [te] - freeze Ти [ti] - froze, have (has) frozen Ф - Ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard Хьа[ha] - your, yours, look Хи [hi] - water Хьо[ho] - you. Хье’[he] - brain, a mill, to knead. Хьу [hu] - a forest, brain illness, enmity XIу [hu] - seed Ца [tsa] - sieve, not ЦIа [tsa] - a house, a family clan ЦIе [tse] - a name, flame ЦIе’[tse] - red ЦIи’[tsi] - blood Ча [cha] - a bear, straw, dust Чо [cho] - a hair Чо’[cho] - innards, a womb, a house, inside Чу [chu] - inside (direction) ЧIу[chu] - an arrow Ша[sha] - ice Ша’[sha] - oneself Шо[sho] - a year Шу[shu] - you, your, yours, food Шу’[shu] - a border, a stitch Existence of such quantity of one sound words in the Chechen language and their deep religious meanings confirm our hypothesis about linguistic and philosophical unity as the basis of formation of the new Chechen ethnos. This ethnos includes different ancient clans. If to write all two-sonorous, three-sonorous etc. words we can observe a principle of hierarchy of occurrence of words. Absence of monotonous words for sounds ‘Р’, ‘F’ ‘R’ confirms our conclusions about the attempt to preserve the original form of the System of Consciousness 'Protolanguage'. Initial sounds are: [b]; and the French and Chechen sound [r] - [гI]. An attempt of preservation of System of Consciousness 'Protolanguage' is observed, practically, in all languages. For example, we can meet the next names in Russian: Иса [Isa] Jesus New testament. Coran Сиф [Sif] Seth Old Testament, Genesis Иосиф [Iosif] Joseph Old Testament. Coran Иоасаф [Ioasaf] Joseph a name of the Indian prince (tsarevitch), whose memory has been immortalised in Ismailovsky Royal courtyard in Moscow. И са [I sa] - This (it) is a spirit, a soul, a light, a sight.

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Principle of rearrangement of components while forming words and names of the System of Consciousness In the Chechen language, there are lots of examples of rearrangement of components when forming words and names as: Baba – Aba Shiva – Vishnu Russia – Surya (Indien: Surya - Sun) Etc. We can show the examples not only of names but also of words from the modern Chechen language92, which correspond to a principle of rearrangement of components. Compare: Да’ [da] - father Iaд [ad] - rainbow, bow (for arrows), turnpike Зи’ [zi] - check (secret) Из [iz] - he, she, it, this За [za] - buds Аз [az] - voice Къа [ka] - labour, pity, mischief, sin Акъ [ak] - astonishing Къе’ [ke] - poor Экъ [ek] - pan Ла [la] - endure, reconcile oneself Ал [al] - say Ло [lo] - snow, give Ол [ol] - say Со [so] - I Са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my, mine, corner Ас - [as] - I Та [ta] - reconcile oneself Ат [at] - crash to pieces, pound Те [te] - standstill Эт [et] - thresh Ха [ha] - time, belt, guard, waistband Ах [ah] - half, to plough Хьа [ha] - your, yours, look Ахь [ah] - you, grind Хьо [ho] - you Ох [oh] - we ЦIе [tse] - name, flame Эц [ets] - take, buy, there Ша’ [sha] - oneself Аш [ash] - you Шу [shu] - you, your, a border Уьш [u’sh] - they Etc.

92 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. (As we use the oral form of Chechen language transcription given on dictionary may not correspond precisely to the one-sound words given in our research. The dictionary does not include some of them).

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As we can see, there are different approaches and methods in tracing back the origin of, so- called, ancestral (Proto-Human) language. As far as the formation of Swadesh lists, and other hypotheses on the issue concern, some scholars do not accept the methods used to determine these forms. Some areas of criticism are advanced against the approaches applied by scholars Ruhlen and Gell-Mann. The principal basis of these criticisms is that the words while being compared do not show common ancestry. Some linguists challenge the very possibility of tracing language elements so far back into the past. Campbell notes that given the time passed since the origin of human beings language, every word from that time would have been replaced or changed beyond recognition in all languages of the world today. Campbell acutely criticises efforts of some scholars to reconstruct a Proto-human language. He says: "the search for global etymologies is at best a hopeless waste of time. At worst it is an embarrassment to linguistics as a discipline, unfortunately confusing and misleading to those who might look to linguistics for understanding in this area." - Joseph Campbell was born on March 26, 1904, in New York, New York, U.S. and died on October 30, 1987, in Honolulu, Hawaii. He was an American author and editor. His works on comparative mythology examined the universal functions of myth in various human cultures and mythic figures in a wide range of literatures. Different religious texts, myths and legends show a state of Humanity in which initially only one language was spoken. For example, in Judeo-Christian narratives, the 'confusion of tongues' is described in the Biblical story of the Tower of Babel. This story tells about the creation of numerous languages from an original Adamic language. Some other cultures also, describe the same myths about the creation of multiple languages as an act of God. For example, the destruction of a "knowledge tree" by Brahma in Indic religions, or a present from the god Hermes in Greek myth. Some other myths tell the stories about the creation of various languages associated with the creation of different tribes of Humanity or because of supernatural events. The search for the origin of language has a long history tracing back to mythology. Most of the myths do not ascribe to human beings the invention of language but tells about a divine language predating human language. Mystical languages used to associate with animals or spirits, such as the language of the birds. They are also associated with animals or birds and humans in common which are of particular interest during the Renaissance.

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According to Abrahamic religious traditions, Adamic language is the language used in the conversation between Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. Jewish interpretations such as Midrash says that Adam spoke Hebrew because the names which he gives Eve – ‘Isha’ and ‘Chava’, only make sense in Hebrew. - Midrash is a mode of biblical interpretation known in the Talmudic literature. The term 'Midrash' is also used to refer to a separate body of commentaries on Scripture which use this interpretative mode. Midrash is a way of explaining biblical narratives which goes beyond the pure nature of religious, legal or moral teachings. It fills in many gaps left in the biblical narrative concerning events and personalities only hinted at. The initial purpose of 'Midrash' was to determine problems in the interpretation of delicate fragments of the Hebrew Bible text. Rabbinic principles of hermeneutics and philology is used to align them with the religious and ethical values.

- Hermeneutics is the study of the common principles of interpretation of the Bible. Primary purpose of hermeneutics is to discover the truths and values of the Bible. The founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language and English spelling reconstructed the meaning of the names Eve, Shiva etc. but we have different, from Jewish, interpretation of this phenomenon. Compare: Shiva Eve [iv] Shiva Sh [iv] - adding Sh Vishnu [vi]shnu - rearrangement of components

Compare: S са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood h ха [ha] - time, waistband, guard i хьа [ha] - your, look хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed va ба [ba] - grandmother (mother), Ind. Father

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I sa И сa [I sa] - This is a light/spirit/soul! - He is the light/spirit/soul! Etc.

Dante refers to the topic in his essay ‘De Vulgari Eloquentia - On Eloquence in the Vernacular’. He argues that the Adamic language is unchangeable because it is of divine origin. He also remarks that according to Genesis, the first speech act (conversation) is due to Eve, addressing the serpent, and not to Adam. - Durante degli Alighieri who is called Dante (c. 1265–1321), was a well-known Italian poet of the Middle Ages. His 'Divine Comedy', which was initially called 'Comedìa' and later was called 'Divina by Boccaccio', is widely recognised the most significant literary work written in the Italian language and a masterwork of world literature.

- 'De vulgari eloquentia - On Eloquence in the vernacular' is the title of an essay by Dante written in Latin. Initially, it was planned that it would consist of four books but gave up in the middle of the second. It was, most likely, written, shortly after Dante went into exile, which might be between 1302 and 1305. The first book describes the relationship between Latin and vernacular, and the search for a notable vernacular in the Italian area. The second book is an analysis of the structure of the "canto" or song also spelt "canzone" in Italian, a literary genre. Latin essays were top-rated and enjoyed by many people in the Middle Ages. Dante used some innovations in his work. Firstly, the topic, which is the vernacular, was an unusual choice at that time. Secondly, the way Dante dealt with this theme while giving to vernacular the same dignity which had a meaning, only, for Latin. Thirdly, Dante wrote this essay to examine methodically and in detail the constitution or structure of origin and philosophy of vernacular. He supposed that this language was not something static, but something evolved and needed a historical contextualisation. In his ‘La Divina Commedia - The Divine Comedy', nevertheless, Dante changed his view to another and considered the Adamic language as the product of Adam. It had the aftermath which could not any longer be considered as unchangeable, and hence Hebrew could not be considered identical to the language of Paradise. Dante concluded (Paradiso XXVI) that Hebrew was a derivative of the language of Adam. Notably, the chief Hebrew name for God in scholastic tradition 'El' might be inherited of a different Adamic name for God, which Dante gives as I. - 'La Divina Commedia - The Divine Comedy', is a long narrative poem written c. 1308–21 by Dante. It is supposed to be one of the world's greatest works in literature divided into three main parts - Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. The narrative traces the journey of Dante from the darkness to the revelation of the divine light. The culmination of this journey is the Beatific Vision of God. Dante is guided by the Roman poet Virgil, who represents the impersonation of human knowledge from the dark forest through the descending circles of the pit of hell. Passing Lucifer at the pit's bottom, at the dead-centre of the World, Dante and Virgil

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appear on the beach of the island mountain of Purgatory. At the top of Purgatory, where penitent sinners are purified of their sins, Virgil departs, having led Dante as far as human knowledge is able, to the doorstep of Paradise. There Dante is met by Beatrice, embodying the knowledge of divine mysteries bestowed by Grace, who leads him through the following one another ascending levels of heaven to the Empyrean. There Dante is allowed to glimpse, for a moment, the glory of God. In Christianity and Judaism, it is uncertain if the speech act used by God to address Adam was the language of Adam used by Adam to name all living things, or if it was a different divine language. However, God is described as using speech act during creation, and as addressing Adam before 'Genesis 2:19'. Some theologians suppose that the language of God was different from the language of Paradise invented by Adam. Most medieval Jewish theologians advocate the hypothesis that the Hebrew language was the language of God. This hypothesis was accepted in Western Europe since at least the sixteenth century and until the early twentieth century. - Genesis 2:19. (New International Version) “Now the Lord God formed the ground, all the wild animals and all the birds in the sky. He brought them to the man to see what he would name them; and whatever the man called each living creature, that was its name”. As far as the first name-giver concerns, the founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos reconstructed the principle of naming. Chechen (Vaynoah) names consist of words-sentences, where every sound is a word. A Chechen name always corresponds to one of the forefathers' names in the pedigree vertical. «And He taught Adam all names…»/Коrаn, Chаpter 2 «Cow», Verse 29/ Compare Chechen (Vaynoah) words, names and surnames:

Sа [sa] -spirit, light, Dа – father Bа - grandmother, mother eyesight, my (Ind. father)

И[i] Isa Ida Ibа names it, this Isaev Idаev Ibaev surnames

Sa [sa] Sada Dаsа Bаsа Sаdаеv Dаsаеv Bаsаev etc.

Anyhow, who gave the name to Adam? The Chechen (Vaynoah) language, Koran, and Old Testament answer that Adam was given a name by his descendants who decided to preserve their genealogy. They have chosen as a patriarch of their genealogy the inventor of "a bow and an arrow".

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The Old Testament Genesis, 9:13 says: "I have set my rainbow in the clouds, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and the earth". Why does a rainbow serve as a sign of the covenant between God and the Earth? Compare: English Chechen A d Iад [Ad] - a rainbow, a bow and arrow a m ма [ma] - what!

Adam Iад ма - What a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! [Ad ma] - Like a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! - Rainbow (a bow and an arrow) it is!

Two biblical names have similar usage in Chechen: 1. Adam means both the name of Adam and the word ‘adam(ish)’ - man, people. 2. Noah [Nokh] also means the name of Noah, and the word ‘nakh’ – people. The Chechens call themselves as Noahcho. Linguistic analysis of ‘Noahcho’ demonstrates that the Chechen language has preserved the Old Testament's meaning of the name of Noah: "Не named him Noah and said," He will comfort us in the labour and painful toil of our hands caused by the ground...". Compare now: English Russian Chechen Noah Ной Нох [nokh] - Noah нох [nokh] - to reap нох [nokh] - a plough нох(да) [nokh(da)] - to plough ной [noi] - trough нах [nakh] - people чо [cho] - a house, a womb Noahcho Нохчо [Nokh cho] - Noah’s House

In Islam, a classical Arabic is believed to be a sacred language. In conjunction with Hebrew and Aramaic, both of which Jesus spoke, Arabic is derived from Proto-Semitic language, too. Along with Hebrew and Aramaic, Arabic is also Abrahamic in its origin and one of the three main Semitic languages. It is believed to be sacred because Arabic supposed to be the language in which Allah revealed his word to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. - Proto-Semitic language is a hypothetical Proto-language to which belong the Middle East Semitic languages. Northern Mesopotamia, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Levan is proposed as its locations of origination. The Semitic language family is considered a part of the larger Afroasiatic macro-family of languages.

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In Vedic religion, ‘Vāc’, which means 'speech', the language of liturgy, was considered the language of the gods. Now it is known as Vedic Sanskrit. In Tamil national mysticism, Tamil language which belongs to a Dravidian language family is considered more divine than Sanskrit. Tamil people of South India and North-east Sri Lanka spoke it predominantly. In ancient India, linguistics obtained its stimulus from the necessity to recite and interpret the Vedic texts correctly. In the oldest Indian text, the Rigveda, a sacred Indo-Aryan collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns is, already, deified. By 1200 BCE93, the vocal performance of Vedic texts became standardised. Treatises on ceremonial recitation proposed splitting up the Sanskrit compounds into words, stems, and phonetic units. It motivated morphology and phonetics. During the next few centuries, clearness was reached in the organisation of sound units, which eventually led to the formation of systematic alphabet, 'Brāhmī', around sixth century BCE. In ancient times, the development of linguistics was initially motivated by the proper interpretation of classical liturgical language. Particularly that of Sanskrit grammar, beginning about the sixth century BCE, or by the development of logic and rhetoric in ancient Greece, which led to a grammatical tradition in Hellenism. China developed its grammatical traditions, starting around the fourth century BCE. Arabic and Hebrew grammar traditions also evolved in connection with religious texts during the Middle Ages. The development of contemporary linguistics started in the eighteenth century. The philology of the first half of the twentieth century was notable by the structuralist school. This school was based on the work of European scholar Ferdinand de Saussure and the United States' scholars Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield. In the 1960s, many new fields in linguistics emerged: - Noam Chomsky's generative grammar; - William Labov's sociolinguistics; - Michael Halliday's systemic functional linguistics; - and also, modern psycholinguistics.

93 Staal, J. F., The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science. North-Holland Publishing Company, 1986. p. 27 153

One of the first Sanskrit grammarian Śākaṭāyana (before c. 500 BCE) have proposed in semantics, that verbs represent ontologically preceding categories. He concluded that all nouns are etymologically derived from actions. - Semantics94 is the branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning. There are some branches and subbranches of semantics, including formal semantics, which studies the logical aspects of meaning, such as sense, reference, implication, and logical form, lexical semantics, which studies word meanings and word relations, and conceptual semantics, which studies the cognitive structure of meaning.

- Ontology is the branch of metaphysics dealing with the nature of being, becoming, existence, or reality. It includes, also, the basic categories of being and their interrelations. Ontology is, by tradition, listed as a part of the larger branch of philosophy known as metaphysics. It deals with questions regarding what entities exist or can be said to exist; how such entities can be grouped; related within a hierarchy and subdivided according to similarities and differences.

- Śākaṭāyana is the name of two Sanskrit grammarians. The first one was a predecessor of Yaska and Panini in Iron Age India, and the second one was a Jain Sanskrit grammarian (fl. c. ninth century). The etymologist Yāska (c. 5th century BCE) suggested that meaning exist mainly in the sentence, and the meaning of the words are derived based on sentential usage. He also supposed four categories of words: nouns, verbs, pre-verbs, and particles. - Yāska was an early Sanskrit grammarian who preceded Pāṇini. He is assumed to have lived in the sixth or fifth century BC. He is traditionally identified as the author of Nirukta. Nirukta is the discipline of "etymology" (explanation of words) within Sanskrit grammatical tradition. The 'nirukta - etymology' of Yaska tells of various attempts to interpret complicated Vedic mythologies. For example, the 'adhidaivata' - on the deities.

- Pāṇini is a Sanskrit grammarian. Sanskrit treatise on grammar written by Pāṇini set the linguistic standards for classical Sanskrit including syntax, morphology, and semantics. Pāṇini divided his work into eight chapters. In his works, the sutra style reached a perfection never achieved before. The sutra literature began before the rise of Buddhism, though the philosophical sutras all seem being composed afterwards. In opposition to Yāska's hypothesis that sentences are primary, Pāṇini (c. fourth century BCE), proposed a grammar for forming semantics from morphemic roots. Transcending the ritual text to consider living language, Pāṇini indicated an exhaustive set of about 4,000 aphoristic sutras (rules) which: - map the semantics of verb argument structures into thematic roles; - provide morphosyntactic rules for creating verb forms and nominal forms whose seven cases are called karaka (similar to case) that generate the morphology; - take morphological structures and consider phonological processes (e.g., root or stem modification) by which the final phonological form is obtained.

94 Oxford Dictionary. 154

Moreover, the Pāṇinian School gives a list of two thousand verb roots which form the objects on which these rules are applied. It is so-called Shiva-sutras - a list of sounds and a list of 260 words not obtainable by the rules. The extremely brief specification of these rules and their sophisticated interactions led to considerable commentaries and further observations over the following centuries. The phonological structure comprises determining a notion of sound universals. They are similar to the new phoneme, the systematisation of consonants based on oral cavity constriction, and vowels based on height and duration. Nevertheless, it is ambitious to map these from morpheme to semantics that is truly remarkable in modern terms. Series of debates have taken place over centuries on the issue. For example, are word-meaning mappings were conventional (Vaisheshika-Nyaya) or eternal (Kātyāyana-Patañjali-Mīmāṃsā). An ancient Indian text on philosophy the Nyaya Sutras identify three classes of meaning: 1. the individual - 'this cow'; 2. universal - 'cow hood'; and the image - 'draw the cow'. According to Bhartṛhari (c. 500 CE) the sound of a word also forms a class - 'sound-universal'. He also posits that language-universals are the units of thought close to the nominalist or even the linguistic determinism position. Bhartṛhari also considers the sentence to be ontologically primary and word meanings are learned according to their sentential use. - Vaisheshika or Vaiśeṣika is one of the 6 Hinduism schools of philosophy. Historically, it has been closely connected with the Hindu school of logic, Nyaya. Vaisheshika supports a hypothesis of atomism. It is a theoretical approach that regards something as interpretable through analysis into distinct, separable, and independent elementary components. Vaisheshika posits that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms.

- The Nyāya Sūtras is an ancient Indian text on philosophy written by Akṣapāda Gautama (c. 2nd century CE). The sutras include five chapters, each divided into two sections. The central part of the text dates to roughly 150 CE, although there are significant later interpolations. The Nyaya is sometimes called Tarka-Vidyā or the Science of Debate, Vāda-Vidyā or the Science of Discussion. Tarka is the special feature of the Nyāya.

- Mīmāṃsā is a study of the word meaning. It is the name of an astika school of Hindu philosophy.

Bhartṛhari (c. 5th century CE) is a Sanskrit author who is most likely to have written two significant Sanskrit texts: 1. On Sanskrit grammar and linguistic philosophy, a foundational text of the Sphoṭa theory in the Indian grammatical tradition - 'The Vākyapadīya'; 2. A work of Sanskrit poetry, comprising three collections of about 100 stanzas each - 'The Śatakatraya'.

In the medieval tradition of Indian scholarship, both texts were assumed to be written by the same person. Modern philologists were very sceptical of this affirmation. They argue that they date the grammar to a date after the poetry. Since the 1990s, however, scientists suggest that both works may have been simultaneous. In this case, there was likely only one Bhartrihari who wrote both texts. The grammar and the poetic works, both had an immense impact in their respective fields. Notably, the grammar takes a holistic view of language, contradicting to the compositionality position of the Mimamsakas and others. The poetry is based on short

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verses collected into three centuries of about a hundred poems each. In general, his poetry has been very highly appreciated both within the tradition and by modern scholarship. The name Bhrartrihari is also sometimes associated with Bhartrihari traya Shataka, the legendary king of Ujjaini in the 1st century. Out of the six canonic texts or Vedangas, which formed the core syllabus in Brahmanic education, starting from the first century CE until the eighteenth century, 4 dealt with language: 1. Shiksha – ‘śikṣā’: phonetics, phonology and morphophonology – ‘sandhi’ 2. Kalpa – ‘kalpa’: ritual 3. Vyakarana – ‘vyākaraṇa’: grammar 4. Nirukta – ‘nirukta’: etymology 5. Chandas – ‘chandas: meter 6. Jyotisha – ‘jyotiṣa’: astronomy Frits Staal95 considered the possible European impact of Indian ideas on language. Staal postulates the theory that the idea of formal rules in language based on the same formal rules introduced in computational languages, may, indeed, lie in the European exposure to the formal rules of Paninian grammar. It was first suggested by Ferdinand de Saussure in 1894 and finally evolved by Chomsky in 1957. Mainly, Ferdinand de Saussure, who delivered educational lectures on Sanskrit for three decades, might have been influenced by Pāṇini and Bhartrihari. His idea of the unity of signifier- signified in the sign is, somehow, corresponds to the notion of Sphoṭa. More significantly, the very idea that formal rules may be made applicable to areas outside of logic or mathematics might itself have been catalysed by Europe's contact with the work of Sanskrit grammarians. - Ferdinand de Saussure, born on November 26, 1857, in Geneva, Switz, and died on February 22, 1913, in Vufflens-le-Château. He is a Swiss linguist. His ideas on language structure set the foundation for much of the approach to linguistic sciences in the 20th century.

- Sphoṭa, which means in Sanskrit - "bursting, opening", "spurt", is a significant notion in the Indian grammatical tradition of Vyakarana, which is related to the problem of speech production, e.g. how the mind commands linguistic units into coherent discourse and meaning. The theory of sphoṭa is linked with Bhartṛhari. Bhartṛhari is the author of the Vākyapadīya - 'Words in a Sentence' regarded as one of the essential works on the philosophy of language, which granted him an eternal place in the śabdādvaita - 'word monistic' school of Indian thought. The Vākyapadīya is divided into three parts (books): 1. the Brahma-kāṇḍa - 'collection of traditions'; 2. the Vākya-kāṇḍa; 3.the Pada-kāṇḍa or Prakīrṇaka - 'miscellaneous'. He suggested that the act of speech is made up of three stages: 1. Conceptualisation by the speaker - Paśyantī "idea"; 2. Performance of speaking - Madhyamā "medium; 3. Comprehension by the interpreter - Vaikharī "complete utterance".

95 The science of language, Chapter 16, in Gavin D. Flood, ed. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism Blackwell Publishing, 2003, 599 pages ISBN 0-631-21535-2, ISBN 978-0-631-21535-6. p. 357-358 156

- According to the theory or doctrine 'Monism,' only one Supreme Being exists. Monism does not accept the existence of duality in a specific sphere, for example, between matter and mind, God and the World. Human beings seem, as a species, to be motivated by a desire to make meanings: above all, humans are surely - meaning-makers. Humans make meanings through formation and interpretation of 'signs'. According to Peirce, 'we think only in signs'96. Usually, signs are turned into the shape of words, sounds, images, aromas, objects, acts, etc. Nevertheless, such things have no inherent meaning and turn into signs only when we provide them with meaning. "Nothing is a sign unless it is interpreted as a sign", claims Peirce97. Everything may be a sign since someone explains the meaning of it as signifying something while referring to or standing for something other than itself. Humans interpret things as signs, mainly unconsciously by associating them with familiar systems of conventions. This meaningful use of signs is at the basis of the interests of semiotics. - Charles Sanders Peirce was born on September 10, 1839, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States and died on April 19, 1914, near Milford, Pennsylvania. He is an American scientist, logician, and philosopher who is famous for his work on the logic of relations and on pragmatism as a method of research. It is taking the word ‘Open’ as a linguistic example when it is inserted with meaning by someone who has seen it on a shop's front door. In this case, the word ‘Open’ is a sign consisting of a signifier: the word ‘open’; a signified concept: that the shop is ‘open for business’. We would propose to analyse the words from our System of Consciousness (e.g. English spelling and Chechen – Vaynoah oral language) applying the theory ‘signifier – signified’. Firstly, pay attention to some notions from the system of Chechen (Vaynoah) one-sound words. For example:98

Signifier: Signified: Йе’ [ye] or Йин [yin] - to give birth, to do, to kill (for women, animals, and inanimate objects), to plant. As we can see the same signifier Йе [ye] or Йин [yin] in the Chechen oral language is applied to the two, totally different and opposite towards each other, signified concepts to give birth, to kill.

96 Peirce 1931-58, p. 2.302 97 Peirce 1931-58, p. 2.172 98, Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. (As we use the oral form of Chechen language transcription given on dictionary may not correspond precisely to the one-sound words given in our research. The dictionary does not include some of these words) 157

Signifier: Signified: Йу [yu] - to be (for women, animals, and inanimate objects)., Ву [vu] - to be (for men). Ве’ [ve] - to give birth, to kill (for men)

Да’ [da] - father Де’ [de] - father's, to give birth, to do, to kill (for animals and inanimate objects)

Ка [ka] - a lamb, luck, a handful (a measure equal to a palm) Къа [ka] - labour, pity, mischief, sin КIа [ka] - wheat Кха [kha] - a field Къе [ke] - poor

Са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my, mine, a corner Си [si] - honour, dignity Со [so] - I

Ца [tsa] - sieve, not ЦIа [tsa] - a house, a family clan ЦIе [tse] - a name, flame ЦIе’ [tse] - red ЦIи’ [tsi] - blood

“Michael means ‘The One Who is Like God’". /Rajasthan, India, Brahma Kumaris Academy for a Better World/ According to religious doctrines, Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Michael and Gabriel are archangels. Compare: English Chechen Signifier: Signifiers: Michael Ма-цхьа-эл [ma tskha el] - What a Master, Lord!

Signifier: Signifiers: M мa [ma] - What! i c са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] -house, home цIе [tse] -name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood h ха [ha] - time, waistband, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain

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хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed еl эл [el] - Lord, Master

Signifier: Signifiers: Michael Ма-са-хьа-эл! - What a Spirit you are, Master! [ma-sa-kha-el] - What a Spirit is your, Master! - What a light you are, Master! - What light is your, Master! Compare: Аrabic Chechen Signifier: Signifiers: J жа [ja] - Lamb (Lambs) i - faster! h ха [ha] - time, waistband, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed d да [da] - father Signifier: Signifiers: J i h a d Джа хьа да - Faster, your father! [ja ha da] - Lamb (lambs), your father!

Reading the word backward, we get new Chechen words and new Chechen sentences: Signifier: Signifiers: Jihad Джа хьад [ja had] - Faster, get together! Lambs, get together!

Signifier: Signifier: Dahaj Дахьаж [dahaj] - Look there!

Signifiers: Da haj Да, хьаж! [da, haj] - Father, look! Dahaja Да, хьа джа! [da, ha ja] - Father, your Lamb(s)!

English Chechen Signifier: Signifiers: Isa И са [I sa] - This spirit, light, eye-sight, my Isaac Ис а aкъ [I sa ac] - This spirit/light is wonderful! - He is my wonderful! Achish Акъ и са [Ac i sa] - Wonderful this spirit/light is! Achish Акъиш/уьш [Ac h ish] - Wonderful they are!

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In the English version of the Old Testament, we read: "Isaac means he laughs."99 Compare now: English Chechen100 Signifier: Signifiers: I и [i] - this, he, she, it s са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my a си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood а с акъ [ak] - wonderful

Signifier: Signifiers: Isaac И са акъ! - This spirit is wonderful! [I sa ak] - This light is wonderful! - He is my wonderful!

Linguist F. de Saussure and philosopher Ch. S. Peirce have established the two predominant models of what composes a sign. F. de Saussure focused on the linguistic sign, which is a word, paying particular attention to it. F. de Saussure, phonocentrically, gave preference, as having advantages, to the spoken word, referring, particularly, to the sound-image. He saw writing as a secondary, sign system which is dependent and linked with sound-image101. Inside the separate system of written signs, a signifier, which is the written letter, for example, 'm' signified a sound in the initial sign system of language. Consequently, a written word would also signify a sound rather than a concept. According to F. de Saussure, writing refers to speech as signifier to signified. Most of the following scholars who have supported Saussure's model are content to treat the form of linguistic signs, either spoken or written. As we can see from the table of one-sound words, the founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos have associated artificially every sound with concepts. Analysing these words, we conclude that they (founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos) were monotheists. Alongside with the

99 Old Testament, Genesis, 21. 100 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 101 Saussure 1983, 15, 24-25, 117; Saussure 1974, 15, 16, 23-24, 119. 160 reconstruction of the first language system, so-called Proto-Human language, there was an attempt of non-violent introduction of monotheism in the consciousness of a society from the very beginning of its formation. For example, the Chechen (Vaynoah) one-sound words and their concepts: X1у [hu] -seed, Ха [ha] - time, Ц1и [tsi(n)] -blood, etc. are the ancient divinities. Introducing these words into the new forming Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language the founders of Chechen ethnos pointed out that X1у [hu], Ха [ha], Ц1и [tsi(n)] are not divinities. They are seed, time, blood, etc. The supporters of phonocentrism suppose that sounds and speech are intrinsically superior to, or more primary than, written language. Those scholars who maintain phonocentric views suppose that spoken language is the primary and most fundamental way of communication while writing is simply a derived way of capturing speech. Many scholars, also, consider that spoken language is intrinsically richer and more intuitive than written language. Some of the scholars argue that Plato, Rousseau, and Saussure have advanced phonocentric theory. - Plato was born in 428 BCE in Athens, Greece and died in 348 in Athens. He is an ancient Greek philosopher as well as mathematician. Socrates, which is considered to be one of the founders of Western philosophy, was Plato's teacher. Furthermore, Plato was a teacher of Aristotle and a founder of the Academy in Athens, which became the first institution of higher learning in the Western world.

- Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born on June 28, 1712, in Geneva, Switzerland and died on July 2, 1778, in Ermenonville, France. He is a philosopher, writer, and political theorist whose scientific works and novels inspired the leaders of the French Revolution and the Romantic generation. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was from one side the least academic out of contemporary philosophers but from the other side, in many ways, was the most influential. His ideas identified the end of the Age of Reason. He pushed political and ethical thinking into new channels. His reforms changed radically taste, first of all in music, then in the other arts. He had a profound impact on people's way of life. He taught parents to take a new interest in their children and to educate them differently. He promoted the expression of emotion rather than polite restraint in friendship and love. He established the cult of religious sentiment among people who had dismissed the religious dogma as inadequate. He revealed the beauties of nature among people, and he made liberty an object of almost universal aspiration and desire. Some scholars, including the philosopher Jacques Derrida, used the term 'phonocentrism' referring it, what they see as, a disdain for written language. According to Derrida, phonocentrism developed because immediacy of speech was regarded closer to the presence of subjects than writing.

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- Jacques Derrida was born on July 15, 1930, in El Biar, Algeria and died on October 8, 2004, in Paris, France. He is a French philosopher. His critique of Western philosophy and analysis of the nature of language, writing, and meaning was extremely controversial though immensely influential among scholars in the late 20th century. Proponents of phonocentrism. The philosopher John Searle has considered that Plato demonstrated some scepticism about the value of writing in relation with speech. The Jesuit priest, an American professor of English literature, cultural, religious historian and philosopher Walter Ong also considered that Plato was phonocentric. He argued that Plato had a distinct preference for 'orality' over 'writing'. Rousseau also had views which have been characterised as phonocentric. He wrote about the issue in 'Essay on the Origin of Languages' arguing that speech was a more natural form of communication than writing. He viewed writing as a somewhat parasitic and destructive consequence of speech. - John Searle was born on July 31, 1932, in Denver, United States of America. He is an American philosopher who is well known for his work in the philosophy of language, particularly 'speech act theory' and the 'philosophy of mind'. He also contributed significantly to epistemology, ontology, the philosophy of social institutions, and the study of practical reason. His works in these areas form a single picture of human experience and of the social universe where that experience takes place.

- Walter Jackson Ong was born on November 30, 1912 and died on August 12, 2003. He is a Philosophy Doctor (PhD), an American professor of English literature, cultural and religious historian and philosopher. Ong was Jesuit priest. His primary interest was in studying how the transition from orality to literacy influenced the culture and changed human consciousness. An American linguist Leonard Bloomfield also demonstrates the conviction that spoken languages are the primary form of language, and the written languages should be considered as derived from them. He argued that writing is not a language, but merely a way of recording language. His book "Language" was one of the most important general work of linguistics in the first half of the twentieth century. It almost alone determined the subsequent development of linguistics in the United States of America Saussure also considered that speech should be studied as the primary topic of linguistics. He suggested that it was given too much attention to writing in the field of linguistics. In his Work in General Linguistics, Saussure argued that language and writing are two separate systems of signs. He supposed that both systems influenced each other, but at the same time, writing could obscure language. He argued that because of its influence on pronunciation writing obscures the pronunciation forms. Saussure made a distinction between phonetic languages and languages such

162 as Chinese. As we know in Chinese, a single character represents a word. He argued that only phonetic languages cause problems for linguists. However, the first significant achievement of the Greeks was the creation of the alphabet based on previously used by the Phoenicians system. They added vowels and other consonants needed in Greek. Homeric poesy became written as an outcome of the introduction of writing. As a result, several published editions were made, and scholars’ reactions were commented on. It established the foundation of philology and criticism. In conjunction with written speech, the Greeks started to study its grammatical and philosophical conceptual structure. We can find a philosophical debate about the nature and origins of language in the works of Plato. A subject of issue was whether language was human-made, occurred from social interaction or supernatural in origin. Plato, in his Cratylus, presents the naturalistic view, that word meanings emerge out of a natural process, independent of the language user. Most modern scientists accept that Cratylus, which is the name of a dialogue by Plato, was written basically during Plato's so-called middle period. In this dialogue, Socrates was asked by two men, Cratylus and Hermogenes, to tell them whether names are conventional or natural, i.e. whether language is a system of groundless signs or whether words have an innate relationship to the things they signify. His evidence partly based on examples of compounding, in which the meaning of the whole relates to the constituents (components), although by the end, he admits a small role for conventionality. We want to give one example from Chechen oral language and English spelling in which the meaning of the whole is related to the constituents (components), and another one in which accepted conventionality. Compare: 1. "Michael means ‘The One Who is Like God’". /Rajasthan, India, Brahma Kumaris Academy for a Better World/. According to religious doctrines, Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Michael and Gabriel are archangels.

English Chechen Signifier: Signifiers: Michael Ма-цхьа-эл [ma tskha el] - What a Master, Lord!

Signifier: Signifiers: M мa [ma] - What! i c са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame

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цIи [tsi] - blood h ха [ha] - time, waistband, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed еl эл [el] - Lord, Master.

Signifier: Signifiers: Michael Ма-са-хьа-эл! - What a Spirit you are, Master! [ma-sa-kha-el] - What a Spirit is yours, Master! - What a light you are, Master! - What light is yours, Master!

Noahcho The Chechens call themselves as Noahcho. Linguistic analysis of ‘Noahch’o demonstrates that the Chechen language has preserved the Old Testament’s meaning of the name of Noah. Compare: “Не named him Noah and said," He will comfort us in the labour and painful toil of our hands caused by the ground..."102. Compare now: English Russian Chechen103 Noah Ной Нох [nokh] - Noah нох [nok] - to reap нох [nokh] - a plough нох(да) [nokh(da)] - to plough ной [noi] - trough нах [nakh] - people чо [cho] - a house, a womb Noahcho Нохчо [Nokh cho] - Noah’s House

Aristotle advocates the common origins of meaning. He distinguishes the logic of speech and the argument. Moreover, Aristotle's works on rhetoric and poetics were of the most considerable significance for the understanding of poetry, tragedy, public discussions etc. as far as the style (genres) of the text concerns. Aristotle's work on logic linked with his clearly defined interest in language. His work in this area was fundamentally significant for the development of the study of language. Logos, in Greek, means both language and logic reasoning. He distinguishes forms of speech as 1. simple form, without composition or structure, such as ‘man’, ‘horse’, ‘fights’, etc. 2. forms which have composition and structure, such as ‘a man fights’, ‘the horse runs’, etc. The Chechen name ‘Noahcho – Noah cho –The House of Noah’ belongs to words which have, according to Aristotle, composition and structure like ‘a man fights’, but we consider it as

102 The Old Testament, Genesis, 5:29 103 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 179, 227. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. Routledge Curzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 164 conventional because the meaning of the whole word ‘Noahcho’ is not related to its every constituent (component) as in the case with the name Michael. For Stoics, linguistics became a significant part of their understanding about the cosmos and humanity. The significant role of the Stoics in determining the linguistic sign terms were resulted later on by Ferdinand de Saussure theory like signified and signifier. The Stoics dealt with phonetics, grammar and etymology as detached levels of study. In phonetics and phonology, the articulators were determined. The syllable became a significant structure for the understanding of speech formation. - Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in Greek and Roman antiquity. It was one of the elevated and most dignified philosophies in the chronicles of Western civilisation. The Stoicism explained that destructive emotions, causing great harm or damage, resulted from errors in judgment. Stoics taught that a sage, or wise person of intellectual perfection, would not admit such emotions. There is another school of grammarians which is called Alexandrian grammarians. They studied speech sounds. They also differentiated parts of speech with concepts such as noun, verb, etc. Alexandrian school of grammarians, like their predecessors, were very interested in the metrical feet in poetry which was in Greek based on the length of time taken to pronounce each syllable. They were categorised according to their weight as either long syllables or short syllables which were also known as heavy and light syllables, respectively. It aimed to distinguish long and short vowels. The most significant classical meter as described by the Alexandrian school of grammarians is the dactylic hexameter, also, called the meter of Homeric poetry. - Dactylic hexameter is a form of meter (a rhythmic scheme) used in poetry. It is by tradition related to the quantitative meter in both Greek and Latin, classical epic poetry. It was consequently considered to be the Grand Style of classical poetry. The earliest examples of its use are Homer's Iliad, Odyssey and Virgil's Aeneid. Apollonius Dyscolus is one of the most famous scholars of Alexandria and the antiquity. He wrote more than thirty treatises on syntax, semantics, morphology, prosody, orthography, dialectology, and many more. Fortunately, four of them are preserved. We still have a Syntax in four books, and three one-book monographs on pronouns, adverbs, and connectives. - The Alexandrine grammarians were scientists in the fields of philology and textual study in Hellenistic Alexandria in the third and second centuries BCE. At that time, Alexandria was the centre of Hellenistic culture. Despite the name, the works of the Alexandrine grammarians was never limited to grammar. They did not include it, as far as grammar in the modern view did not exist until the 1st century BC. At that time, the Greek language was known as 'lingua franca' spoken in the Greek and Roman world. As a result, contemporary linguistics struggles to overcome it. The tradition of the study of language began with the Greeks. The Romans and the medieval world followed this

165 tradition and their laborious work which requires considerable effort and time is considered today as a part of our everyday language. Imagine, for example, the concepts such as the word, the syllable, the verb, the subject etc. We mentioned in our thesis the Alexandrian grammarians and their interest in the metrical feet in poetry and word formation. It is because, in the Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language, lots of words consist of just one syllable. Vowels attached to consonants are so short in length that we consider them as one sound-words. For example: Къа [ka] - labour, pity, mischief, sin КIа [ka] - wheat Кха [kha] - a field Къу [ku] - a thief Ма [ma] - what! a thing as it is Са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my, mine, a corner Со [so] - I Ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard Хьа [ha] - your, yours, look Хи [hi] - water Хьо [ho] - you Хьу [hu] - a forest, brain illness, enmity XIу [hu] - seed Ца [tsa] - sieve, not ЦIа [tsa] - a house, a family clan ЦIе [tse] - a name, flame Etc. Distinguishable strands in the contemporary ideas on universal languages took form only in Early Modern Europe. Gradual decline of Latin and the formation of a lingua franca, trade language which became an international auxiliary language was one of these strands. Literature in vernacular languages became important with the Renaissance. Over the eighteenth century, scientific works mostly ceased to be written in Latin. In the numerous works of Gottfried Leibniz, we can find many elements which relates to a possible universal language, particularly a constructed language, a concept which little by little came to replace that of a rationalised Latin as the fundamental basis for a projected universal language. - Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz born on July 1, 1646 and died on November 14, 1716. He is a German mathematician and philosopher. His works are written in several languages, but first in Latin, French, and German. The Renaissance is considered to be a time of great flowering. Without a doubt, the linguistic and philological developments of this period are exciting and vital. Two new directions which modern linguists tend to take for granted existed during this period:

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1. The newly acknowledged European vernacular languages. For their protection and cultivation there subsequently arose national academies and scientific institutions which have functioned to the present days; 2. The travellers discovered African, East Asian, the New World, later, Siberian, Central Asian, New Guinean, Oceanian, the Arctic, and Australian languages. Earlier, the only widely accessible non-Indo-European grammar was the Hebrews, and to some extent Arabic. Semitic has many common categories in its grammar with Indo-European languages. In fact, for many of the exotic languages, scholars barely passed beyond the most elementary collection of word lists and grammatical analysis was hardly approached. The Chechen language has also attracted the attention of scholars. The famous German linguist Joseph Karst wrote in his work ‘The Origins of the Mediterranean… Ethnolinguistic researches’: “The Chechens are not strictly speaking Caucasians, as they differ considerably, from an ethnic and linguistic point of view, from the other mountaineer peoples of the Caucasus.” One of the Chechen scholars Y.D. Decheriev made a significant contribution to addressing the problem of the origin of the Chechen language. The researchers have reached the following conclusion: "Although the Chechen language is, traditionally, included in a group of Ibero-Caucasian languages, it is a self-contained system that is unlike any other language in the world." The analysis of the book ‘Etymological studies of the Chechen language. Chechens are the conservers of the ancestral (Proto) language at the present stage’104 shows that this closed system was not formed spontaneously but deliberately imposed on the new forming Chechen ethnos based on patriarchal and clan relations. The Chechen ethnos has assembled representatives of ancient mountainous clans and tribes in the Caucasus. It is well-known that the Chechen people include clans of different origin: Frankish, Russian, Georgian, Tatar, Dagestani, the clan of the Terek Cossacks, etc. Far from being contrary to the works of the scholars mentioned above, this study reconstitutes a missing link that unites all language families of the world. It links with the story of the AchishBeth clan of the Chechen Republic originated from Shechem of Canaan, which is the subject of our research. We want to start with the characteristic of the historical periods, the European and the Caucasian ones, of the history of the AchishBeth clan.

104 S-E Kaguirov. Etymological studies of the Chechen language. Chechens are the conservers of the ancestral (Proto) language at the present stage». Moscow. 2003. ISBN: 5-9900164-1-7 167

The states of nomadic peoples were powerful, but they did not last long. The oppression of Slavs by the Avars provoked a great Slavic uprising led by Samo (622-623). The fight against the Slavs and the Franks caused the decline of the Avar power: in 803 the Frankish emperor Charlemagne won a final victory. The representative of the House of Achish ‘AchishBeth’ of the Shechemite clan of the generation of Joseph and later Franco-Gothic origin founded a village called AchishBeth on the territory of the modern Vedenski district of the Chechen Republic. It was how the clan of Achish, the King of Gath, was perpetuated. The analysis of events related to the disappearance of the Frankish Empire offers the opportunity to draw parallels that support not only the Franco-Gothic origin of one of the oldest Chechen clans, AchishBeth but also, the hypothesis of a deliberate creation of the Chechen ethnos to preserve the ancestral (proto) language. We are convinced that future studies will confirm the deliberate constitution not only of the Chechen ethnos but also of the Frankish ethnos to conserve the system of the ancestral (proto) language. This system served as the dynamic scientific basis for the development of various religious teachings such as the Indian religious teachings, the Old Testament, the New Testament and the Koran.

Role of the peoples and their languages in the Perfect World There is a set of beliefs about the superiority of specific languages over all other ones. Latin and Greek were for centuries considered as indicators of excellence in Western Europe. This opinion was related to the literature and intellection which these languages expressed. The study of modern languages is still under the influence of the traditions of the generations of classical linguistic scholars. A strong belief that one's language is superior to others is widespread, though the reasons given to support the superiority vary noticeably. A language might be regarded, for example: as the oldest, the most logical, the easiest to pronounce, the best for singing or the language of gods. For example, Arabic speakers believe that their classical language is the most beautiful and logical in the world and that it has different grammatical symmetry and lexical richness. It is associated closely with religion, as the language of the Quran held to provide supernatural evidence of the truth of Islam. From this point of view, they consider as self-evident the fact that God chose Arabic

168 as the medium of his revelation to his Prophet. They conclude that it must be the language used in heaven, and thus must be superior to all others. Nevertheless, the same argument was used concerning several other languages, such as Sanskrit and Classical Hebrew, especially, claiming that these languages are the oldest. J.G. Becanus argued that German was superior to all other languages, the language Adam spoke in Eden. He suggested that it was not affected in the Babel event, because the early German - the Cimbrians, did not serve in the construction of the Tower. Later God induced the Old Testament to be translated from the original German, no longer existing, into Hebrew. - Johannes Goropius Becanus, born on the 23rd of June 1519, died on the 28th of June 1572. He was a Dutch physician, linguist, and humanist. There have been many other mythical linguistic appraisals, which reflected the sociopolitical situation of the time. Charles-V who ruled Germany from 1519 to 1558 was said to have spoken French to men, Italian to women, Spanish to God, and German to horses! Swedish writer, Andreas Kempe (1622-89), satirised contemporary clerical attitudes in presenting the view that in Paradise Adam spoke Danish, God spoke Swedish, and the serpent spoke French. Humanity aspires to the Perfect World. In non-material Perfect World, the founders of English spelling and Chechen oral language would take the leading place. As far as the material world concerns, this language system is an obstacle which leads the people back to the period of occurrence of languages. English spelling and Chechen oral language would not be accepted by humanity as leading languages in a material world. It is because of the aspiration of people to materialism. It does not matter how perfect they are. We do not take into consideration the role of English language mostly introduced forcefully. The founders of French language decided - if in the non-material Perfect World, we could not be leaders, let us try to become leaders at least in the Material World. Thus, they began to create artificial sounds pleasant for hearing and introduced them into language. The basis of English spelling and Chechen oral language is above-mentioned primitive language system. All other languages of the world were created based on that system. Therefore, what language should we communicate with other peoples, not to lag in material world development? Our answer is: 'In French'. Therefore, proceeding from our study, the native languages of the Franco-Gothic Dynasty Kahir, AchishBeth, Shechemite clan must be Chechen (Vaynoah) and French. 169

PART III: THE GREATEST HISTORY’S TURNING POINTS

Chapter I: From Adam to Abraham

Adam and “Bow and arrow”

Bow and arrow creation was an evolutionary revolution in the consciousness of a person. The information about it is encoded in the Bible legend "Covenant between God and the Earth". The Old Testament Genesis, 9:13 says: "I have set my rainbow in the clouds, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and the earth". Why does a rainbow serve as a sign of the covenant between God and the Earth? Compare now: Adam English Chechen А [Ia] - breathing, rime, steam, winter; Да [da] - father; Iaд [ad] -a rainbow, a bow and an arrow. And consequently, the Chechen names and surnames: Адам [Adam] Iaд ма [Ad ma] - What a rainbow (bow and an arrow)! Мада [Mada] Ма Iад [Ma ad] - What a rainbow (bow and an arrow)!

English Chechen A d Iад [Ad] - a rainbow, a bow and an arrow. a m ма [ma] - what! Adam Iад ма [Ad ma] - What a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! - Like a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! - Rainbow (a bow and an arrow) it is!

The Chechen language gives a precise answer to the question: Iад [ad] simultaneously means rainbow, a bow and arrow. Iад [ad] gives Ia де [a de], where Iа [a] – breathing and де [de] – of father, i.e. Iад [a d] - Breathing of Father.

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The Old Testament, Genesis, 2:7 says: “... and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being.” It is evident that the contemporary Chechen language helps decipher both initial meaning of the name Adam ‘What a rainbow, a bow and arrow!’ and the earlier one - ‘Breathing of Father’ - because the language has preserved the general meaning of this name and the meaning of its each. In these words, and the name of Adam are encoded the transformation of human's consciousness, formation of a personality, which can be expressed by word combination ‘I am’. This transformation began after the acquisition of a bow and an arrow. Coran adds that a man obtained the personality, his ‘I am’ only after acquisition of a name: “And he has taught Adam to all names” (Coran, Cow, verse 29). Thus, according to the Bible, a person separated from animals after the invention of a bow and an arrow. Coran adds that names were necessary for full separation of a person from animals. “And He taught Adam all names…” /Cоrаn, Chapter 2 Cow, Verse 29/ 50 000 - 70 000 years ago, it is precisely the period of the invention of a bow and an arrow. For the same period is dated the occurrence of parking of people further than 50 km from caves. When a man invented a bow and an arrow, he could fight animals at a significant distance. During this period, a necessity in collective force, collective spirit for struggling against animals disappeared. First, a person had invented a bow and an arrow, and after it appeared a concept ‘I am’, ‘It is me’ — first – action, then - concept or a name to this action. The most significant phase in language evolution was its progress from pidgin-like communication (primitive) to a creole-like language with the grammar and syntax of modern languages. According to our research, whether it was necessary for the naming of subjects or the proper names, the first words should consist of one sound. When sounds were not enough for the definition of subjects or names, synthesis and combination of sounds began. A bow and an arrow was not the first invented composite propellent instrument. The spear throwers and the sling preceded it. Some cultures in historical periods lacked a bow and an arrow. The earliest arrowheads date back about sixty-four thousand years ago in South Africa, in Sibudu Cave. Practically, the first bow fragments are the Stellmoor bows (Northern Germany). They were dated to about 8,000 BCE but ruined in Hamburg during the 2nd World War. They were destroyed before “carbon-14 dating” was invented and their age is ascribed to the archaeological association.

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- Carbon-14 dating, also called radiocarbon dating, is the method of age determination. It depends upon the decay to nitrogen of radiocarbon 'carbon-14'. 'Carbon-14' is formed continuously in nature. It is the product of interaction of neutrons with 'nitrogen-14' in the Earth's atmosphere. Cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere produce the neutrons required for this reaction. The most ancient bows in one piece the elm Holmegaard bows (Denmark) dated to 9,000 BCE. High-efficiency wooden bows are currently made using the Holmegaard design. There is no one accepted system of classification of bows.105 Certain classifications categorise bows as long - bows and composite - bows. In this classification, a long - bow is any bow made from one material. Moreover, composite-bows are made from two or more layers of various materials. Some classifications divide bows into three types: composite, backed, and simple. Sibudu Cave is a cave in a sandstone cliff in northern Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. It is an important Middle Stone Age site related to the period of history - from 77,000 years ago to 38,000 years ago. Evidence of some of the earliest examples of modern human technology has been found here. The earliest known spears date back 400,000 years, including the earliest bone arrow - 61,000 years old, the earliest needle -61,000 years old, the earliest use of heat-treated mixed compound glueing - 72,000 years ago, and the earliest example of the use of bedding -77,000 years ago. The utilisation of glues and bedding are of specific interest because the complexity of their invention and processing was presented as evidence of continuity between early human cognition and modern human cognition.

Sibudu Cave106 The Sibudu Cave located 40 km north of the city of Durban and about 15 km inland, near the town of Tongaat. It is a rock shelter.

105 Paterson Encyclopaedia of Archery p. 37 106 www.google.com : Images for Sibudu Cave 172

- Tongaat is a settlement in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa with sugar cane growing agriculture. It is situated on the banks of the Tongaat River about 37 km north of Durban and 28 km south of Stanger. The cave was formed by erosional downcutting of the Tongati River, which now lies 10m below the cave. The cavern floor is 55m long, and about 18m in width. It consists of a big amount of Middle Stone Age deposits which are well conserved organically. They were accurately dated using optically stimulated luminescence. Its first excavations were carried out by Aron Mazel of the Natal Museum in 1983. Lyn Wadley of the University of the Witwatersrand renewed excavations in September 1998. There were around 10,000 years' gaps when it was not inhabited. These gaps were between the post-Howiesons Poort and the late Middle Stone Age stage, and the late and final Middle Stone periods. It was not inhabited during the Late Stone Age too, though there was a 1,000 BP Iron Age occupation. There are evidences which suggest that these were dry periods. Nevertheless, the cave was occupied only during wet periods. - Flake-based Middle Paleolithic tools by tradition mentioned as African Middle Stone Age are found in the oldest archaeological layers. About 70,000 years ago, a blade-based industry called Howieson's Poort began. This industry is a forerunner of Upper Paleolithic technology. In Sibudu Cave and elsewhere, innovations of artefacts such as arrows, piercing needles and shell beads were not progressively developed but appeared and then disappeared. For example, the shell beads were found in the Stillbay layers, but they are absent in the Howiesons Poort ones, in Sibudu and somewhere else. - Stillbay industry is a collection of Late Paleolithic stone tools which were found initially in Cape Province, S.Af. They were dating from about 30,000 to 50,000 years ago. The stone flake culture reached from Ethiopia to South Africa along the eastern coast. It produced a variety of stone tools which are similar to the Mousterian industry of North Africa. It gives uncertainty to the idea that the early development of technology by early humans was a process of accumulation of facilities. “Fossil and genetic evidence indicate the appearance of anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens, in sub‑Saharan Africa between 200 000 and 100 000 years ago. However, the first traces of symbolic Homo sapiens’ behaviour - a feature unique to modern humans - are not found until many tens of millennia later, and include items such as engraved ochres and eggshells, tools made from bone, and personal ornaments made of shell beads. These behavioural indicators appeared together with two innovational phases of Middle Stone Age technology. The phasis known as the Still Bay (SB) and Howieson’s Poort (HP) industries across a range of climatic and ecological zones in southern Africa. A remarkable feature of these 173 two industries is the spatial synchronicity of their start and end dates. Archaeological sites spread across a region of two million square kilometres. What were the catalysers for the SB and HP, and what was the outcome? Booth industries prospered at a time when tropical Africa had just entered a period of wetter and more stable conditions. Populations of hunter‑gatherers were expanding rapidly throughout sub‑Saharan Africa. It was before narrowing into geographically and genetically isolated communities. The SB and HP also immediately preceded the likely exit time of modern humans from Africa into southern Asia and across to Australia, which marked the beginning of the worldwide dispersal of our species.”107 The Bible, English spelling and Chechen oral language show the encoded in the name of Adam information which summarises the development of a bow combined with an arrow. Thus, we show one of the greatest turning points in history and the development of human consciousness. Compare. Adam English Chechen A d Iад [Ad] - a rainbow, a bow and an arrow. a m ма [ma] - what! Adam Iад ма [Ad ma] - What a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! - Like a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! - Rainbow (a bow and arrow) it is! Two biblical names have similar usage in Chechen: Adam means both the name of Adam and the word ‘адам(иш) - adam (ish)’ – man, people. Noah also means the name of Noah, and the word ‘noah – nakh’ – people.

Noah and a plough

Plough, also spelt plough, is the most important agricultural tool. Since the beginning of history, it has been used to turn and break up soil, to plant crops. The prehistoric digging stick preceded the plough. The earliest ploughs were, without doubt, digging sticks with handles. By Roman times, light, wheelless ploughs with iron blades were drawn

107 Jacobs Z, Roberts RG. (2009). Catalysts for Stone Age innovations: What might have triggered two short-lived bursts of technological and behavioural innovation in southern Africa during the Middle Stone Age? 174 by oxen. These tools could work out the topsoil of the Mediterranean regions but could not handle the dense soils of north-western Europe. The wheeled plough, which was at the beginning drawn by oxen but later by horses, made possible the northward spread of European agriculture. The design of the ploughs developed slowly. The moldboard for turning over the earth appeared only in the 11th century CE. Horse-drawn moldboard ploughs are no longer commonly used. They have a single bottom, while tractor-drawn ploughs have from one to fourteen hydraulically lifted and controlled bottoms staggered in tandem. Disk ploughs usually have three or more individually mounted concave disks inclined backwards to achieve maximum depth. They are for use in hard, dry soils, shrub or bushland, or on rocky land. Disk tillers also called harrow ploughs, as well, or one-way disk ploughs, usually consist of a set of many disks mounted on one axle. They are used after grain harvest. Reversible, two-way, ploughs have discs or moldboards which can be either opposed the way that one fills the trench made by the other or throw the soil to the right or left. Rotary ploughs or tillers, sometimes called rototillers, have crooked cutting knives. These knives mounted on a horizontal power-driven shaft. Deep tillage tools used chiefly to break up condensed soils include the subsoiler and the chisel ploughs. The subsoiler must be pulled by a massive tractor because its steel-pointed shank can penetrate the subsoil to a depth of three feet. The chisel plough, also called ripper, has several sturdy or spring-toothed shanks with double- pointed shovels mounted on a transverse bar at intervals of one to three feet. Ploughing depths vary from a few inches to 1.5 feet. The English spelling and Chechen oral language summarise the development of plough encoded in the Biblical name Noah. Thus, the invention of a plough was one of the greatest turning points in history and the development of human consciousness. Compare. The Chechens call themselves as Noahcho. Linguistic analysis of the name Noahcho demonstrates that the Chechen language has preserved the meaning of the name of Noah. “Не named him Noah and said: He will comfort us in the labour and painful toil of our hands caused by the ground...".

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Compare now: English Russian Chechen Noah Ной Нох [nokh] - Noah нох [nokh] - to reap нох [nokh] - a plough нох(да) [nokh(da) ] - to plough ной [noi] - trough нах [nakh] - people чо [cho] - a house, a womb Noahcho Нохчо [Nokh cho] - Noah’s House

Two biblical names have similar usage in Chechen: Adam means both the name of Adam and the word ‘адам(иш) - adam (ish)’ – man, people. Noah also means the name of Noah, and the word ‘noah – nakh’ – people.

Genesis narrative in the light of recent scholarship

Religion and language system of Abraham, Isaac, Israel, Joseph in Shechem of Canaan gave a push to another greatest turning point in history and development of human’s consciousness.

Abraham The System of Consciousness consists of a large number of meaningful elements which are made up of a conveniently small number of independently meaningful elements too. Compare: The Old Testament, Genesis 17:5: “No longer will you be called Abram; your name will be Abraham, for I have made you a father of many nations”. Abraham English Chechen Ab Iaб [ab] - father r гIа [ra] - leaves, dream, descendants a гIад [rad] - family tree, stalk h ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed m ма [ma] - what! Abraham Iaб гIа хьа ма! - What a father of descendants you are! [Ab ra ha ma] - Father of descendants you are!

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A research on the patriarch Abraham is based on religious scripture and particularly on Genesis. One should, therefore, pay attention to the translation of the first book of the Old Testament in different languages. In our research, we use the translation into modern English. It is because English spelling and Chechen oral language show us the information encoded in the religious scripture about Abraham, Isaac, Israel, Josef's monotheism. It was preserved by the House of Achish (AchishBeth). There are numerous works about the World of the patriarchs. The latest of them which consider recent archaeological findings include: “The Biblical Period from Abraham to Ezra by William F. Albright. It includes: Hebrew Beginnings; The Age of Moses; Tribal Rule and Charismatic Leaders; The Conquest of Palestine; The United Monarchy; From the Disruption of the Monarchy to the Revolt of Jehu; From Jehu to the Fall of Samaria to the Captivity; Captivity and Restoration; From Nehemiah to the Fall of the Persian Empire”; ‘Ancient Israel’ by Roland de Vaux offers a fascinating, full-scale reconstruction of the social and religious life of Israel in Old Testament times. A modern classic R. de Vaux first provides a broad introduction to the nomadic nature of life of the ancient Israelites and then traces in detail the development of Israel's most prestigious institutions: family, civil, military, and religious - and their influence on the nation's life and history. He illustrates it principally from the text of the Old Testament itself, as well as from archaeological evidence and information gathered from the historical study of Israel's neighbours108; “Abraham: Recent Discoveries and Hebrew Origins” by Leonard Woolley; “Abraham and His Times” by André Parrot109. “Abraham in History and Tradition” by John Van Seters includes a discussion of literary tradition and divides into two sections. The first critically evaluates the testimony that the Abraham material accurately describes a second millennium BCE milieu. The second section shows the traditions themselves as equally ancient. Van Seters concludes that the material fails in accurately reflecting the historical facts of the Bronze Age Levant. Moreover, there are no reasons to assume

108 Roland de Vaux – “Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions”. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1997. 109 “Abraham and His Times” by André Parrot. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1968. 177 that the traditions originated in a preliterate oral stage. These conclusions are convincingly argued and as powerful today as ever.110 Archaeologists are the active participators in the effort to prove the historical truth of the Bible text. Some of them have gone so far in search of Noah's ark or the walls of Jericho as if the finding of these artefacts would make the events of scripture more true or real. As far as Noah concerns, English spelling and Chechen oral language demonstrates the hidden in the Bible information which reveals one of the greatest turning points in history and the transformation of the human consciousness after the invention of the plough111. Critical appraisals of Abraham as a historical figure include112 - The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: ‘The Quest for the Historical Abraham’113. Thomas Thompson is one of the most vocal contemporary critics of biblical archaeology. His simple but powerful thesis is that archaeology cannot be used in the service of the Bible. Focusing on the patriarchal narratives, with the stories about Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob he demonstrates that archaeological findings cannot prove these stories historically. Furthermore, Thompson suppose that archaeological findings should never be dated or evaluated based on written texts. As far as the patriarchal narratives in Genesis concern, he concludes that these stories are neither historical nor were they supposed to be historical. Instead, these stories are written as an illustration of Israel's relationship to God. According to our study, the Word is the witness of history, though there are no exact dates, there exist a chronology of the events in the Genesis narratives. Otherwise, they would be unlinked to each other, chronologically, stories. Abraham, called Abram initially flourished early 2nd millennium BC. He is the figure worshipped by the three great monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. As described in Genesis, Abraham left Ur, in Mesopotamia, because God called him to found a new nation in a new land that he later learned was Canaan. He obeyed unquestioningly the commands of God, who had repeatedly promised and made covenant that his 'seed' would inherit the land.

110 “Abraham in History and Tradition” by John Van Seters. Publisher: Yale Univ. Press; 1st edition (June 1975). ISBN-10: 0300017928, ISBN-13: 978-0300017922. 111. Compare. The Chechens call themselves as Noahcho. Linguistic analysis of “Noahcho” demonstrates that the Chechen language has preserved the Old Testament’s meaning of the name of Noah: “Не named him Noah and said," He will comfort us in the labour and painful toil of our hands caused by the ground...". 112 Thomas L. Thompson is Professor of Old Testament, University of Copenhagen. His books include The Mythic Past and The Early History of the Israelite People. 113 The Quest for the Historical Abraham. By Thomas L. Thompson. ISBN: 9781563383892. Trinity Press Int. 178

There cannot exist Abraham's biography in the conventional meaning. The most that can be done is to use the interpretation of recent historical findings to the biblical records to achieve a probable judgment of the background and patterns of events in his life. Several dissertations were advanced to explain the narratives that the patriarchs were mythical beings, the personifications of tribes, folkloric or etiological, explanatory, figures. They were created to account for various social, juridical, or cultic stereotypes. Nevertheless, in the 20th century, archaeological research made enormous progress in discovering the monuments and documents, many of which date back to the period designated to the patriarchs in the traditional account. The digging of a Royal palace at Mari discovered thousands of cuneiform tablets of official archives, correspondence and religious and juridical texts and thereby proposed a new interpretation. Specialists used them to show that, in Genesis, narratives fit absolutely with other sources which are known today of the early second millennium BC but not with a later period. A biblical scholar in the 1940s pronounced this result as the rediscovery of the Old Testament. - Mari is an ancient Mesopotamian city situated on the right bank of the Euphrates River called Tall al-Ḥariri nowadays. Excavations, initially directed by André Parrot and begun in 1933, uncovered archaeological findings belonging to the period extending from about 3100 BC to the 7th century AD. The most famous of the findings was the great palace of Zimri Lim. Zimri Lim was a local King who ruled prosperously for almost 30 years. His rule ended when Hammurabi of Babylon conquered and destroyed the city in the 18th century BC. The palace includes nearly 300 rooms. In the palace were concentrated all of the most important administrative offices. Numerous murals and hundreds of small objects were found. Thousands of archives were found in various scribal chambers. They include diplomatic correspondence and reports sent in from all parts of the country. There were found historical archives and letters exchanged between King Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria and his two sons before 1800 BC. Moreover, there were also plenty of economic and legal texts. Altogether the texts illustrate the knowledge of Assyrian geography and history and give a picture of life of that period. Therefore, there are two main sources for reconstructing of the character of Abraham - the book of Genesis, from the genealogy of Terah, Abraham’s father, and his departure from Ur to Haran in chapter eleven to the death of Abraham in chapter twenty-five. The other sources are the recent archaeological findings and interpretations which describe the area and era in which the biblical narrative takes place. Abraham is described with different characteristics: - as a righteous, sincere man committed to God; - a man of peace for example, in settling a boundary controversy with his nephew Lot; - merciful - while he argues and making a bargain with God to spare the people of Sodom and Gomorrah;

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- perceptive - when he welcomes three visiting angels; - a fast-acting warrior - when he rescues Lot and his family from a raiding party. He seems to be both, a man of high spiritual strength and a person with usual human weakness and needs. The Abraham's saga develops between two turning points, the exodus from Ur of the Chaldeans of the family of Terah and purchase of the cave of Machpelah and the burials. Tradition seems especially keen on this point. The Hebrew text locates the departure specifically at Ur Kasdim, the Kasdim being none other than the Kaldu of the cuneiform texts at Mari. It is manifestly a migration where one tribe is in the centre. The leader of the migrating group is designated by name, Terah, who takes them out from Ur: Abram his son, Lot the son of Haran, another son of Terah, and their wives, better known as Sarah, the wife of Abram. The existence of another son of Terah, Nahor, who appears later, is noted. Ur Kasdim or Ur of the Chaldees is a biblical place mentioned in the Book of Genesis. It refers to a location from which the Patriarch Abraham may have been from. Most scientists agree that Ur Kasdim or Ur of the Chaldees was the Sumerian city of Ur called today as Tall al-Muqayyar. It was located about 200 miles southeast of Baghdad in lower Mesopotamia. The native land of their ancestors was the site of a vigorous polytheism. Its memory had not been lost, and their undoubted master in Ur was Nanna (or Sin), the Sumero-Akkadian god of moon. “They served other gods” Joshua recalled, speaking to Abrahams descendants at Shechem. - Ur (modern 'Tell el-Muqayyar' in Iraq) was a significant city of ancient Mesopotamia or Sumer. It was located about 225 km southeast of Babylon and about 16 km west of the present bed of the Euphrates River. In antiquity, the river was flowing much closer to the city. The first serious excavations at Ur were conducted after World War I Leonard Woolley's directorship from 1922 until 1934. It was a result of a joint expedition formed by the British Museum and the University of Pennsylvania. The findings have illustrated almost every period of the city's lifetime. Thus, the knowledge of Mesopotamian history was significantly enlarged. After the migration from Ur, the first important stop was in Harran, where the caravan stayed for some time. This city was located in upper Mesopotamia between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in the Balikh valley. This valley was located on the site of the modern Haran in Turkey. Haran is described as a pilgrimage city because it was a centre of the Sin cult and, therefore, closely related to the moon-god cult of Ur. The Mari tablets shed new light on the patriarchal period, especially as far as the city of Harran concerns. There are many exciting items in the thousands of tablets found in the palace at

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Mari. There are not only the Ḫapiru ‘Hebrews’ mentioned but, surprisingly, the Banu Yamina ‘Benjaminites’ too. It is not the family of Benjamin, a son of Jacob. This name appears in these non-biblical sources in the eighteenth-century BC. The Bible does not give any information on Abraham’s travel between Ur and Haran. Scientists suppose that the caravan went up the Euphrates, then up the Balikh. After pointing out a stay of indefinite time in Haran, the Bible indicates that Terah died there, at the age of 205. Abraham was 75 when he took up the journey again with his family and his goods. This time the migrating group moved went from east to west first as far as the Euphrates River. They may have crossed it at Carchemish. It can be crossed during low-water periods. - Carchemish was an ancient city-state situated in what is now southern Turkey, along the boundary with Syria. Carchemish laid on the west bank of the Euphrates River near the modern town of Jarabulus in northern Syria, and 61 km southeast of Gaziantep, Turkey. It was a strategic crossing of the Euphrates River for caravans which were engaged in Syrian, Mesopotamian, and Anatolian trade. The location which occupies more than 93 hectares, was excavated in 1911–1920 by David G. Hogarth and later by Sir Leonard Woolley. The Mari texts, also, have a reference which indicates that there were Benjaminites on the right bank of the river, in the lands of Yamhad "Aleppo", Qatalum "Qatar", and Amurru. The ancient pathways mostly were marked with sanctuaries. It is noteworthy that Nayrab, near Aleppo, was like Haran and Ur, a centre of the Sin cult. South of Aleppo, on the road to Ḥamah there is still a village that holds the name of Benjamin. The pathway is in the direction of the land of Canaan, which was the destination of the journey. In the Chechen language, the letter 'n' mostly is written at the end of the word but not pronounced. As far as we use the English spelling and oral Chechen language in our research, we do not show this letter 'n". Compare now: са(н) [sa (n)] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си(н) [si (n)] - honour, dignity со [so] - I цIа(н) [tsa (n)] - house, home цIе(н) [tse(n)] - name, flame цIи(н) [tsi(n)] - blood These examples show that the founders of the Chechen ethnicity used this deity in determining that ‘sin’ is not a deity but, simply light, eyesight, my, honour, dignity, etc., which confirms that they were monotheists from the very beginning of the formation of Chechen ethnos.

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Shechem Shechem dates back to about four thousand years. Abraham’s journey to Shechem. After his stop in Damascus, the caravan must next cross the land of Bashan, the Ḥawran of today, first crossing the Jabboq, then the Jordan River at the ford of Damiya. After arriving in the centre of the Samaritan country, he arrived at last in the plain of Shechem, today Balaṭah, at the foot of the Gerizim and Ebal mountains. Shechem was at that time a political and religious centre in the region. Its importance is understood more clearly as a result of recent archaeological discoveries. From the mid-thirteenth to the mid-eleventh century BC, Shechem was the place of the cult of the Canaanite God Baal-Berit "Lord of the Covenant". The architecture which was found in that area by archaeologists would date to the 18th century BC. In this historical period, we could place the presence of the patriarchs in Shechem. The next stopping place was in Bethel114, identified with nowadays Baytin, north of Jerusalem. Bethel was also a sacred town, with a cult centred on El, the Canaanite god. Its name does not induce itself to confusion, because it proclaims that the town is the Beth -"house," or "temple" of El (God). The Canaanite temple was taken over without doubt by Abraham. He built an altar there and sanctified it to God. - Bethel, called Luz initially, is an ancient Palestine city located just north of Jerusalem. Bethel was a significant location in the times described of the Old Testament frequently linked with Abraham and Jacob. Archaeological excavations conducted by the American School of Oriental Research and Pittsburgh-Xenia Theological Seminary suggest that Bethel could be the scene of the events described in the Old Testament during the Israelite conquest of Canaan. Abraham had not yet come to the endpoint of his journey. Between Shechem and Bethel, he had been walking about thirty-one miles. According to the Genesis account, it was Hebron, or more precisely to the oaks of Mamre, which are at Hebron. The location of Mamre was the subject of some lack of certainty. Nowadays, there is a joint agreement in setting it one and a half miles

114 AchishBeth – House of Achish. Achish is the King of Gath. AchishBeth is a symbol of the preservation of the family tree from Adam to Noah, from Noah to Abraham, from Abraham to Shechem, from Shechem to Achish (The king of Gath), from Achish to Kahir. Kahir is our grandfather. AchishBeth is a symbol of preservation of information encoded in religious doctrines during different periods of the history in the Middle East, Europe and Caucasus. Compare now: The Old Testament, 1 Samuel. 27:2 So David114 and the six hundred men with him left and went over to Achish, son of Maoch king of Gath. 27:3 David and his men settled in Gath with Achish. Each man had his family with him…. 27:4 When Saul was told that David had fled to Gath, he no longer searched for him. 27:5 Then David said to Achish, "If I have found favour in your eyes, let a place be assigned to me in one of the country towns, that I may live there. Why should your servant live in the royal city with you?". 27:6 So on that day Achish gave him Ziklag, and it has belonged to the kings of Judah ever since.

182 northwest of Hebron at Ramat al-Khalil. Ramat al-Khalil is an Arabic name which means the Heights of the Friend. The friend of God is Abraham. Mamre is marked as the place of Abraham’s encamping, but this does not eliminate his casual travels in the direction of the Negeb (Negev), to Gerar and Beersheba. His life depended on the economic conditions of the moment, and he was obliged to look for the pastures. Thus the patriarchs moved back and forth between the land of Canaan and the Nile River delta. They were shepherds. It was in Mamre that Abraham got the revelation that his descendants would be perpetuated. It was there that he learned that his nephew Lot had been taken captive. It is an enigmatic episode, a strange block in a story for which nothing made the way. All at once, the life of the patriarch was inserted into a period of history in which several important persons, kings, step in Amraphel of Shinar, Arioch of Ellasar, Ched-or-laomer of Elam, and Tidal of Goiim. Scientists of the previous generations tried to match these names with famous historical figures - e.g. Amraphel with Hammurabi of Babylon - but little remains today of this hypothesis. Chapter 14 of Genesis described differs entirely from what has preceded and follows. Maybe it is an extract from some historical annals which belongs to an unknown source. The meeting of Melchizedek, king of Salem and priest of God Most High ‘El Elyon’ and Abraham is impressive. The king-priest greets Abraham with bread and wine on his victorious return and blesses him in the name of God Most High. - Code of Hammurabi - the most complete and perfect extant collection of Babylonian laws, developed during the reign of Hammurabi (1792–1750 bc) of the 1st dynasty of Babylon. It consists of his legal decisions collected toward the end of his reign and inscribed on a diorite stela set up in Babylon's temple of Marduk, the national God of Babylonia. These 282 case laws include economic provisions (prices, tariffs, trade, and commerce), family law (marriage and divorce), as well as criminal law (assault, theft) and civil law (slavery, debt). Penalties varied according to the status of the offenders and the circumstances. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Shechem is Canaanite city mentioned in the Amarna letters. In the Amarna Letters of about 1350 BC, Shachmu, i.e. Shechem, was the centre of a kingdom cut out by Labaya, a Canaanite warlord who recruited mercenaries from among the Habiru. Labaya was the author of three Amarna letters, and his name appears in eleven of the other 382 letters, referred to twenty-eight times. The primary topic of the letter is Labaya himself, and his relationship with the rebelling, countryside Habiru. It may be, also, identified with the Sakama mentioned by the ancient Egyptian traveller Mohar in a narrative dated to the 14th century BCE.

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- Amarna Letters are clay tablets discovered at Tell el-Amarna in Egypt and dating to the reigns of kings Amenhotep III and Akhenaton of the 18th dynasty. They provide invaluable insight into the nature of diplomatic relations among the great nations and petty states of the 14th-century BCE, as well as an incomplete and tantalising hint of the strategic manoeuvring that occupied them.

The tablets represent part of the correspondence between the Egyptian court and other states and vassals of the ancient Middle East. Letters from the great powers (Babylonia, Assyria, Mitanni, and the Hittite court) are often preoccupied with the exchange of gifts and diplomatic marriages. Those from the vassal states of Syro- Palestine deal with the local political and military situation and are often filled with complaints of inattention on the part of the Egyptian court. The tablets have been preserved in various museums around the world. The majority of them are distributed among institutions in Berlin, London, and Cairo. They are written in an archaic and provincialised form of Babylonian cuneiform. (Encyclopedia Britannica) The Old Testament mentions it as an Israelite city of the tribe of Manasseh and the first capital of the Kingdom of Israel. Being traditionally associated with Nablus, it is now identified with the region of Tell Balatah in Balata al-Balad in the West Bank. According to the Bible, it locates north of Bethel and Shiloh. It is on the high road which goes from Jerusalem to the northern districts (Judges xxi, 19), not far from Michmethath (Joshua 17:7) and of Dothan (Genesis 37:12-17). These narratives were completed by Josephus, who says that the city locates between Mount Ebal and Mt. Gerizim. The Madaba map places Sychem, also called Sikima between the mountains Ebal and Gerizim, too. Shechem is almost firmly matched with or located close to the town of Nablus/Flavia Neapolis in patristic sources. Shechem is mentioned in the third millennium Eblaite Tablets found at Tell Mardikh, too. - Eblaite language is an archaic Semitic language, probably the most ancient to survive in substantial form, dating from the third quarter of the third millennium BC. As a Northern Central Semitic language, Eblaite is affiliated with the Afro-Asiatic (formerly Hamito-Semitic) family of languages.

Archaeological excavations in the mid-1970s in Tall Mardīkh, near Aleppo in Syria, yielded substantial written documentation of Eblaite in the form of cuneiform tablets. These fragments of tablets that constituted the state archives of the ancient city of Ebla. The writing of the archives is classic Mesopotamian cuneiform using many Sumerian logograms. Eblaite is part of the Northern Central Semitic group of languages, which includes Amorite, and is thus distinct from Northern Peripheral Semitic languages such as Old Akkadian. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Shechem was a trading centre for its location in the middle of important trade routes. It traded with local olives, wheat, grapes, livestock and pottery. Shechem was the place designated, after Solomon's death, for the meeting of the people of Israel. In Shechem, the meeting of the Israelites ended in the secession of the ten northern tribes, and Shechem fortified by Jeroboam became the capital of the new Kingdom of Israel (1 Kings 12:1; 14:17; 2 Chronicles 10:1).

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Shechem has lost its significance since the kings of Israel relocated first to Tirzah, and afterwards to Samaria, and it is not mentioned until the fall of Jerusalem (587 BC - Jeremiah 12:5). The events associated with the restoration were to bring it again into eminence. During the First Jewish–Roman War, Shechem was ruined and a Neapolis, new city, was built nearby by Vespasian in 72. Over time, this name became the Arabic Nablus. The binding of Isaac in Shechem is mentioned in the Old Testament and the New Testament. The story about the binding of Isaac is one of the greatest turning points in the development of human consciousness. It does not matter what happened in reality in Shechem. The most important thing is that this story teaches that God does not need sacrifices of children practised at those times as one of the strongest devils of paganism.

Chapter II: Birth and fall of the Empires. Tragedies. Movements

We want to show some later history's greatest turning points which had not only social, economic, political, but mostly philosophical impact on the development of human consciousness. As we show in this research, the System of Consciousness is a common root of all languages and religions of the world, including ancient ones. All languages are derived not from the Proto- family language, and all language families are derived not from Proto-Humanity language. They all derived from this System of Consciousness, which has been preserved during the Modern Age with the help of holy names and words in English spelling and the Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language. It gave rise to different philosophies, including religions and newly forming languages after every greatest history's turning point. However, we can find fragments of the System of Consciousness in all the new forming languages, philosophies, and religions. Here are some of the greatest histories' turning points which had a significant impact on the development of human consciousness.

History's Turning Point - Battle of Actium

The Battle of Actium was the determined confrontation of the conclusive war of the Roman Republic. Octavian (known as the Emperor Augustus after 27 BC), by his crucial victory over Mark Antony, became the indisputable master of the Roman World. It was a naval rendezvous fighting 185 between the forces of Octavian and the united forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII. The battle took place on the 2nd of the 31st of September BC, on the Ionian Sea not far from the city of Actium. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa led Octavian's fleet, while Antony's fleet was maintained by the ships of Queen Cleopatra115 of Ptolemaic Egypt. - Ionian Sea, Latin Mare Ionium, Italian Mare Ionio, part of the Mediterranean Sea, lying between Greece (east), Sicily (southwest), and Italy (West and Northwest). Though considered by ancient authors to be part of the Adriatic Sea, the Ionian Sea is now seen as a separate body of water. In the Ionian Sea, south of Greece, the Mediterranean reaches its greatest depth (16,000 feet - 4,900 m). (Encyclopedia Britannica) Octavian's victory allowed him to strengthen his power over Rome and its dominions. To that end, he created the title of Princeps ("first citizen") and some years after the victory he was rewarded the title of Augustus by the Roman Senate. It became the name by which he was known in later times. As Augustus, he would retain the trappings of a restored Republican leader. Nevertheless, historians view this power consolidation and the initiation of these honorifics as the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. - Princeps, (Latin: “first one,” or “leader”) the unofficial title used by the Roman emperors from Augustus (reigned 27 bc–ad 14) to Diocletian (reigned ad 284–305). This period in Roman history is known as principate (principatus), whereas the governments under Diocletian and his successors are known as the dominate, from dominus ("lord," or "master"). The title Princeps originated under the Roman Republic when held by the leading member of the Senate (Princeps Senatus). Thus, Augustus' use of the title lent plausibility to his claim to be the restorer of republican institutions. It is the story of the birth of the Roman Empire. Out of the anarchy that followed Julius Caesar's murder, two powerful men found themselves fighting for control of the nomad world. They are Mark Antony, the victorious Roman general and senator and the young and ambitious Octavia, one of the world’s most successful politician. After thirteen years, their final confrontation would come at the battle of Actium, one of the history's greatest turning points. - Julius Caesar, in full Gaius Julius Caesar (born July 12/13, 100? bc, Rome [Italy]—died the 15th of March, 44 bc, Rome), celebrated Roman general and statesman, the conqueror of Gaul (58–50 bc), victor in the Civil War of 49–45 bc, and dictator (46–44 bc). He was launching a series of political and social reforms when a group of nobles assassinated him in the Senate House on the Ides of March.

115 Cleopatra, (Greek: "Famous in Her Father") in full Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator ("Cleopatra the Father-Loving Goddess") (born 70/69 bce—died August of 30 bce, Alexandria), Egyptian queen, famous in history and drama as the lover of Julius Caesar and later the wife of Mark Antony. She became queen on the death of her father, Ptolemy XII, in 51 bce and ruled successively with her two brothers Ptolemy XIII (51–47) and Ptolemy XIV (47–44) and her son Ptolemy XV Caesar (44–30). After the Roman armies of Octavian (the future Emperor Augustus) defeated their combined forces, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide, and Egypt fell under Roman domination. Cleopatra actively influenced Roman politics at a crucial period, and she came to represent, as did no other woman of antiquity, the prototype of the romantic femme fatale. 186

Caesar changed the course of the history of the Greco-Roman world. The Greco-Roman society has been extinct for so long that most of the names of its great men mean little to the average, educated modern man. However, Caesar's name, like Alexander's, is still on people's lips throughout the Christian and Islamic worlds.

Even those who know nothing of Caesar as a historic personality are familiar with his family name. It is as a title signifying a ruler who is, in some sense uniquely supreme or paramount - Kaiser in German, tsar in the Slavonic languages, and qayṣar in the languages of the Islamic world. (Encyclopedia Britannica) After a long and bloody civil war Julius Caesar Rome’s greatest general emerged victorious. He now hoped that peace would return to Rome. It was not to be. As Julius Caesar walked out of the packed Senate, he was hacked to death by forty of his fellow senators. The assassins immediately declared their act “atrium of liberty over tyranny". However, to most other Romans, Julius Caesar had been their God, within hours of his funeral this city of a million people was in up roll. Rome was in danger of falling into anarchy. Mark Antony Caesar’s close friend and second in command stepped in to put down the riots. Caesar’s murderers were forced to flee Rome. Mark Antony took complete control over Rome. He honestly expected that Caesar’s will would grant him the power and the prestige that he needed to rule. He had a noble dignity of form; and a trim beard, a broad forehead, and an aquiline nose were thought to show the virile qualities peculiar to the portraits and statues of Hercules. Moreover, there was an ancient tradition that the Antonii were Heracleidae, being descendants of Anton, a son of Heracles116. Antony supposed that he confirmed this tradition, both by the shape of his body and by his attire. Whensoever he was going to be seen by people, he put on his tunic girt up to his thigh, a big sword hung at his side, and a heavy cloak which enveloped him. Nevertheless, what others considered offensive, for example, his friskiness and vainglory - it is amazing how much grace and affection for him all this produced in his soldiers. Drinking-horn as a proof, sitting by a comrade who was eating, or standing to eat at a soldier's table. But, as the will was read to the citizens of Rome, Mark Antony realised that most of Caesar’s wealth and the name Caesar had not been left to him but to an unknown eighteen-year-old relative Dios Octavian. As far as Caesar had no rightful living children, he adopted his grand-nephew Octavius as his son and principal inheritor. As a result of the adoption, Octavius obtained his grand- uncle's name, Gaius Julius Caesar. At that time Octavia was studying and experimenting with

116 The Cicero, xxii. 187 military coaching in Apollonia, Illyria, and news was sent there. Though this heritage came with a total surprise to him; young Octavian reacted quickly. He wanted to return to Rome to claim his risky inheritance. - Illyria, northwestern part of the Balkan Peninsula, inhabited from about the 10th-century bc onward by the Illyrians, an Indo-European people. At the height of their power, the Illyrian frontiers extended from Danube River southward to the Adriatic Sea, and from there eastward to the Šar Mountains. (Encyclopedia Britannica) He rejected some of the army officers’advice to take refuge with the troops in Macedonia. He sailed to Italia to find out if he had any potential political successes or security. After reaching the Lupiae near Brundisium, he was introduced with the contents of Caesar's will. So he decided to become Julius Caesar's political successor and inheritor to two-thirds of his estate. - Brindisi, ancient (Latin) Brundisium, city, Puglia (Apulia) region, southeastern Italy, on the Adriatic coast between the arms of a Y-shaped sea inlet that admits oceangoing ships, southeast of Bari. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Mark Antony was quiet by Octavian’s arrival. Antony was twenty years older than Octavian, the prosperous Roman senator. The unpreventable confrontation came in the gardens of Pompeii when Octavian found himself treated with patronising content by Antony. Antony was at first inclined to contemn Octavia. Moreover, he did everything possible to humiliate him, someone, he considered a mere boy. He is being irritated by Antony's treatment Octavian’s lobby rouse influential citizens quickly gathering support from senators who were against Antony. In a gesture, charged with political significance, he changed his name to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian). He even had coins printed combining his and Caesar’s head “God and the Son of God”. These actions broke Antony’s control over Rome and more importantly, the army. He had surely underestimated his young adversary. Hoping to regain the initiative, Antony decided to march with his loyal Romanian legions and confront Caesar's murderers in Northern Italy. However, it was the wrong time for Antony to be away from Rome. With many members of the Senate deeply implicated in Caesar's murder, Octavian took advantage of these political divisions to lobby for support. He was able to convince enough senators that Antony's political ambitions posed a danger to their safety. The Senate authorised him to use force against Antony. When these rivals for power met in Northen Italy, the battle began.

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Nevertheless, Antony's army was unwilling to fight their former comrades. The battle turned into a rut, and Antony was defeated. However, Antony was still a powerful force, and both men realised that only by acting together could they avoid another civil war. They agreed to join forces and destroy any potential opposition to their alliance. Overnight, lists of their rivals over four hundred senators and two thousand landowners appeared all over Rome. Four who were on the list were put to death. There was no appeal, no trial and all wealth was confiscated. Those who were lucky enough to see the list before the legionnaires arrived had gone home and committed suicide. This way, they could save their estate for their children. Thus, Rome was pacified. All their immediate enemies had been murdered. With Caesar's assassins representing the only challenge to the new dictators' power, Antony and Octavian marched out of the city with a colossal army determined to crush assassins. They found them in northern Greece. It was a close fight, and Antony’s troops won and crushed the last supporters of the old Republic. With their unlikely alliance, having achieved its goal, Octavian and Antony agreed to divide the Republic into two. Antony would make his capital in Athens with control of the eastern provinces, while Octavian would control the West and the city of Rome. In Octavian ruling Rome its citizens hoped that they now would be in the age of peace. However, the storm between Octavian and Antony since Julius Caesar’s will was about to erupt. The spark came from the ancient civilisation of Egypt and its brilliant and ambitious queen Cleopatra. Once the mysterious of Julius Caesar, now Cleopatra was a successful ruler in her own right. Her beauty, so we are told was not of that disparate, but the charm of her presence was irresistible. She was descendant of the Greek Ptolomei conquerors of Egypt. - The Ptolemaic dynasty, sometimes also known as the Lagids, from the name of Ptolemy, Lagus) was a Macedonian Greek royal family which ruled the Ptolemaic Empire in Egypt during the Hellenistic period. Their rule lasted for 275 years, from 305 BC to 30 BC. They were the last dynasty of ancient Egypt117.

Furthermore, the fire of her forefather Alexander the Great burned in her veins. Egypt had become the key to Rome’s continuing survival. Several centuries earlier the Egyptians had affected the art of irrigation, making it the breadbasket of the world. As long as Egypt remains under Roman influence, she felt secure. Cleopatra had a son to Caesar. His name was Caesarion. Through

117 Redford, Donald B., ed. (2000). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. "Cleopatra VII was born to Ptolemy XII Auletes (80–57 BCE, ruled 55–51 BCE) and Cleopatra, both parents being Macedonian Greeks." 189

Caesarion, she had her claim to the name and power of Caesar. While Cleopatra and her son were alive, there was a severe threat to Antony's and Octavian's power both in Athens and in Rome. - Ptolemy XV Caesar, in full Ptolemy Philopator Philometor Caesar, byname Caesarion (born June 47 bc— died 30 bc), king of Egypt (reigned 44–30 bc), son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra VII. Ptolemy was his mother's co-ruler, killed by Octavian, later the Emperor Augustus, after Cleopatra's death in 30.

Ptolemy was the child of Cleopatra and Caesar, although a few classical authors, perhaps for political reasons, expressed doubts about his paternity. After Cleopatra's arrival in Rome in 46, Caesar himself, however, officially recognised the child as his son. When his father was assassinated in 44, Cleopatra returned with the boy to Egypt. She probably arranged the death of her younger brother, Ptolemy XIV Theos Philopator II, to make room for her son on the throne. Her ambition was to make Caesarion Caesar's successor, although in the meantime she remained first in the royal succession. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Antony saw an opportunity to use Cleopatra to his advantage. They met on her elaborate pleasure boat, and this meeting was to change the Roman World. Cleopatra saw herself founding a new Greco-Roman Dynasty and rebuilding the Empire of Alexander the Great. Antony believed the relationship with Cleopatra would give him an even stronger claim to the name and the Dynasty of the Great Caesar. Back in Rome, Octavian used Antony's new alliance with Cleopatra as an excuse to start a war. He set out a break to support Antony with a vicious propaganda campaign. He claimed about Rome’s real fear of Egypt, where half-human demons were worshipped. He claimed that Egypt was a land of sorcerous and black magic and human sacrifices, and unspeakable acts. He held numerous games in the public stadiums where he denounced his rivals. Using the great perverts of the day, he created a picture of Mark Antony, as the great warrior brought to his knees by a sorcerous, deprived of his manhood and his soul. Octavian was conducting one of the most successful political propaganda campaigns in the history Within weeks the crowds were demanding that he declared war on Egypt. Antony’s supporters in Rome still more than half of Senate were forced to leave. Even after the huge success of his propaganda campaign Octavian did not want to risk a war on Italian soil. He wanted to fight Antony at a place chosen by himself. However, he needed a fleet to match Antony and Cleopatra’s. Years of civil war and pirate attacks had left Rome without active navy. To overcome this, Octavian used the protected volcanic lake. At this side, safe from attack, he would create a vast fleet. When the ships were built, and the crews trained, he led the fleet by canal to the sea half a mile away. Meanwhile, in Athens and Alexandria, thousands of men were

190 also put to work. Antony and Cleopatra were preparing their army for fleet. The Ptolemy of Egypt was the most significant shipbuilding cultures of all time. That, combined with Antony's Romans army, made them confident of victory. However, it was two years before the opposing forces finally confronted each other. Antony had established his base near a small town called Actium. Octavian spies told him of this. So, he landed his troops further up the coast and achieved his first objective. He had trapped Antony. Like two warrior gladiators, the armies of Antony and Octavian looked for the weakness in the other. The tension was broken when Antony's fleet was ambushed while bringing desperately needed supply to Actium. He had been forced to burn the ships because he lacked to sail them. In their camp, Antony and Cleopatra had a hard decision to make. With both their fleet and army tracked by Octavian, they had two options either they attack Octavian by land or try to break through the naval blockade and save as many men and supplies as possible. Antony's soldiers argued that they should fight a land where the strength should win the day, but Cleopatra believed that they only had hope at sea. In her tent, they made a final decision. Next morning Antony ordered his remaining ships to prepare for battle though numbered almost two to one. In this last major naval battle of the Roman era, two hundred ships fought individual and multiple battles over an area of several square miles. Soon Octavian smaller and faster ships were inflicted heavy casualties on Antony's larger vessels. When the wind suddenly changed, Cleopatra saw an opportunity to save herself and escaped with her fleet. Antony fled north and joined her, leaving his men to fight alone. Without the experienced leader, Antony's fleet was easy to fight for Octavian’s ships. As the day wore on the casualties grew. From the shore, Antony's massive land army could only watch. Within a week, all had surrendered. The image of the Roman general fleeing battle with his lover was to give Octavian the decisive psychological advantage. For Antony and Cleopatra, it was a devastating defeat. Their dream was shattered. Within a year Octavian arrived victorious in Alexandra, Cleopatra’s capital. Mark Antony rather than to face Octavian committed suicide. Cleopatra, a prisoner in her palace, came before Octavian and offered him an alliance. When he said no, she begged that her son Caesarion be speared, but the plea was too late. Caesarion had been already put to death. Cleopatra also committed suicide. Soon after it

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Octavian formally declared that Egypt, the crocodile kingdom, was part of the new Roman Empire. Victory left Octavian an undisputed control of Rome. Again, he showed his political awareness. He knew that his predecessor Julian Caesar had been murdered because he flaunted his power. Thus, he kept the republican Rome in peace. The Senate and its consuls were seen to rule the Empire. He called himself the first citizen. However, it was Octavian who held absolute power. The battle of Actium was one of history’s turning points and there followed a golden age for Rome’s fortunes. Octavian’s authority proved to be a rock on which Empire would grow, an Empire that would unite Europe for the next four hundred years. Rome's new power was characterised by great architecture and by the Roman rule. Just four years after the battle of Actium the Senate voted Octavian a new name Augustus Caesar, the final stage in metamorphosis from a boy to a God. He was to live for another forty years, during which time he turned Rome into the most magnificent city in the world. After two thousand years still, there is testimony to his extraordinary achievements. The reign of Augustus initiated an era of continuing peace called the Pax Romana - The Roman Peace.

- Pax Romana, (Latin: "Roman Peace") is a state of comparative tranquillity throughout the Mediterranean world from the reign of Augustus (27 bc–ad 14) to that of Marcus Aurelius (ad 161–180). Augustus laid the foundation for this period of concord, which also extended to North Africa and Persia. The Empire protected and governed individual provinces, permitting each to make and administer its laws while accepting Roman taxation and military control.

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Despite the continued wars of imperial expansion on the Imperium's frontiers and a year-long civil war over the imperial succession, the Mediterranean World remained at peace during more than two centuries. Octavian vastly enlarged the Empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia118, Pannonia119, Noricum120, and Raetia121. He expanded possessions in Africa, expanded into Germania, and ended the conquest of Hispania. Outside the frontiers, he ensured security to the Empire with a buffer neighbourhood of client states and made peace with the Parthian Empire (Parthian Empire (162– 226) - ancient Iran) through diplomacy. He converted the Roman system of taxation, elaborated networks of roads with an official messenger system, made a standing army. He made the Praetorian Guard, established official police and fire-fighting services for Rome, and reconstructed much of the city during his reign. - Praetorian Guard, Latin Cohors Praetoria is the household troops of the Roman emperors. The cohors praetoria existed by the 2nd-century bc, acting as bodyguards for Roman generals.

Rome inherited what the Greece elaborated and applied to the task of imperial governance. As the Roman Empire extended, it often conducted negotiations with representatives of defeated areas, to which it granted partial self - governance by way of a treaty. While making treaties with other states, Greek international law was applied. During the Roman Republic, foreign policy was conducted by the Senate, through a department for foreign affairs. Later, under the Empire, the Emperor was the definitive decision maker in foreign affairs. Ambassador and envoys were received with ceremony and magnificence. Ambassadors or envoys and their assistants were granted immunity.

118 Britannica Encyclopedia online - Dalmatia, Serbo-Croatian Dalmacija, region of Croatia, comprising a central coastal strip and a fringe of islands along the Adriatic Sea.

119 Britannica Encyclopedia online - Pannonia is a province of the Roman Empire, corresponding to present-day western Hungary and parts of eastern Austria, as well as portions of several Balkan states, primarily Slovenia, Croatia, and Serbia (Vojvodina). The Pannonians were mainly Illyrians, but there were some Celts in the western part of the province.

120 Britannica Encyclopedia online - Noricum, region of Europe north of what is now Italy, roughly comprising modern central Austria and parts of Bavaria, Ger. Noricum was originally a kingdom controlled by a Celtic confederacy that dominated an earlier Illyrian population.

121 Britannica Encyclopedia online - Raetia, also spelt Rhaetia, ancient Roman province comprising Vorarlberg and Tirol states in present-day Austria, the eastern cantons of Switzerland, and parts of Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg states in Germany. Its native inhabitants were probably of mixed Illyrian and Celtic stock. The area was conquered by Rome in 15 bc and became an essential part of the Empire, but not for its economic value, which was small; instead, Raetia blocked the most convenient routes for an invader of Italy from the north by its control of a network of highways between Italy and the Danube River and between Gaul and the Balkan Mountains. 193

The Roman World had a face-to-face nurture, where it was supposed that communication and negotiations would be done in person. It can be observed in Rome’s contacts with other cities, states, and kingdoms: dependent, independent, friendly or hostile. It can be observed, also, in the development of a diplomatic practice with its pulse and protocols incorporated into a self-sustaining system of communication. Ambassadors or envoys of the Roman Empire were sent abroad with written instructions from their government. Sometimes a messenger, or nuntius, were sent to towns. For broader responsibilities, an embassy of 10 or 12 ambassadors was organised under a President. The legati122, who were advanced citizens chosen for their proficiency at oratory, were untouchable. Rome Empire also established sophisticated archives, which were staffed by trained archivists. Palaeographical techniques were developed to decode and certify ancient documents. Some archivists specialised in diplomatic events and procedures, which became formalised. For centuries these archive-based practices were the major undertaking of diplomacy in and around Rome. Roman law became the basis of treaties and accentuated the sainthood of contracts. During the Republican era, the laws introduced by the Romans to foreigners and foreign envoys coincided with the Greek concept of natural law. It was a perfect code applying to all people, to create a “law of nations.” The sainthood of treaties and the law of nations were conserved by the Roman Catholic Church in the centuries after the Western Roman Empire fell. Thus, was providing a basis for the more sophisticated doctrines of international law which began to appear along with the European national laws a millennium later. The influence of Disciples Paul and Peter throughout the early Church, beyond doubt, impacted the history of Christianity of the Roman Empire too. The Disciple Peter established his headquarters in the city, following his thirty-year ministry in the East. He was martyred in Rome. - Тhe position of Peter in the Apostolic Church : Given the information supplied by the Gospels, it is not unexpected that Peter should emerge immediately after Jesus' death as the leader of the earliest Church. For approximately 15 years after the Resurrection, the figure

122, Legate also called Papal Legate, in the Roman Catholic Church, a cleric sent on a mission, ecclesiastical or diplomatic, by the Pope as his personal representative. Three types of legates are recognised by canon law. A legate a latere (a legate sent from the Pope's side, as it were) is a cardinal who represents the Pope on some assignment with such powers as are delegated to him. Nuncios, pronuncios, and internuncios are sent to countries that have diplomatic relations with the Holy See; they promote friendly relations and observe and report to the Pope on the state of the Church in that region. Apostolic delegates are prelates who are appointed by the Pope as his representatives to the Church of a region. They channelled information between the local ecclesiastical hierarchy and the Holy See. /Online - Encyclopedia Britannica/ 194

of Peter dominated the community. He presided over the appointment of Matthias as an Apostle (Acts 1:23– 26) to take the place of Judas, who had betrayed Christ and later died. It was Peter who first "raised his voice" and preached at Pentecost, the day when the Church came into being (Acts 1:14–39). It was Peter who served as an advocate for the Apostles before the Jewish religious court in Jerusalem (Acts 4:5–22). He exercised the role of judge in the disciplining of those who erred within the Church (Acts 5:1–10).

- Saint Paul is the Apostle, original name Saul of Tarsus (born 4 bc—died 62–64 ad), one of the leaders of the first generation of Christians. He is often considered to be the second most important person in the history of Christianity. Although he was a significant figure within the very small Christian movement, he had many enemies and detractors. His contemporaries probably did not accord him as much respect as they gave Peter and James. Paul was compelled to struggle, therefore, to establish his worth and authority. His surviving letters, however, have had enormous influence on subsequent Christianity and secure his place as one of the greatest religious leaders of all time. (Encyclopedia Britannica) In the beginning, the Christian Church was scattered throughout the Roman Imperium. Keeping the community unified was a primary concern of the Christian Church leaders. The framework and organisation of the Roman Imperium affected the character of the early Church. There were lots of cities scattered throughout the Imperium, and Christianity spread within the urban centres populated by slaves and the weaker members of society. Christianity soon became known as "a religion of slaves". During the 1-st century, Imperial authority used the Christians who resided in Rome as political scapegoats. Christians were responsible and were punished, for everything from plagues and economic inflation to hostile raids of vandals. Under the Imperator Nero, the public execution of Christians became sports events in which the early believers were torched, fastened to crosses and torn to pieces by dogs. - Emperor Nero is the fifth Roman Emperor (54–68 ce), stepson and heir of the Emperor Claudius. He became infamous for his debaucheries and extravagances and on doubtful evidence, for his burning of Rome and persecutions of Christians.

In the face of these persecutions, the Church in the Roman Empire gave birth to writers to defend the religion. These writers were known as "Apologists." The early apologists tried to explain Christian doctrine in philosophical terms to pagan intellectuals and Greek philosophers. Their writings provided a defence that served to extinguish the hysterical attacks of the faithless but failed to convert the Empire to Christianity. Imperator Constantine (r. 306-337) began the reforms after, nearly three centuries of hostility by Roman emperors, the persecution and martyrdom of Christians in Rome. Constantine was responsible for legalising Christianity throughout the Roman Imperium. Constantine became a patron and protector of the Church.

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- Constantine-I, byname Constantine the Great, Latin in full Flavius Valerius Constantinus (born the 27th of February, after ad 280, died the 22nd of May, 337) is the first Roman Emperor to profess Christianity. He initiated the evolution of the Empire into a Christian state which provided an impulse for a distinctively Christian culture. It prepared the way for the growth of Byzantine and Western medieval culture. (Encyclopedia Britannica) In 380, the Theodosius I (r. 379-395) made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. In the beginning of the IV century, most Roman Empire citizens were converted into Christianity. When the political power of the Imperators collapsed with the fall of the Roman Imperium, in 410, the Church and its leaders had the dominant influence in Roman culture and politics. - Theodosius I, by name Theodosius the Great, in full Flavius Theodosius is a Roman Emperor of the East (379– 392) and, then, sole Emperor of both East and West (392–395). In vigorous suppression of paganism and Arianism, established the creed of the Council of Nicaea (325) as the universal norm for Christian orthodoxy and directed the convening of the second general council at Constantinople (381) to clarify the formula.

Troyan Legend and AchishBeth123 Troy is an ancient city in northwestern Anatolia that holds a stable place in both literature and archaeology. The legend of the Trojan War is the essential theme from ancient Greek literature and forms the basis of Homer's Iliad. - Homer, (flourished ninth or eighth-century BCE), presumed author of the Iliad and the Odyssey. These two great epic poems of ancient Greece have been attributed to shadowy figure Homer. However, we know little of him beyond the fact that this was the name attached in antiquity by Greeks themselves to poems. There was an epic poet called Homer, and he played the first part in shaping the Iliad and the Odyssey—so much may be said to be probable. If this assumption is accepted, then Homer must assuredly be one of the greatest of the world's literary artists. (Encyclopedia Britannica) According to Greek mythology, the Trojan War was conducted against the Troy by the Greeks when Paris of Troy took out Helen from her husband Menelaus, King of Sparta. The war is one of the most significant events in Greek mythology and has been narrated through many works of Greek literature. Homer's Iliad and the Odyssey were the most famous ones. The Iliad narrates the last year of the siege of Troy. The Odyssey describes his journey home. Other events of the war are described in a series of epical poems, which have survived through fragments. Scenes from the war gave material for the Greek literature and Roman poets, including Vergilius Maro and Ovidius Naso.

123 The Old Testament, 1-Samuel, 27:2. The Old Testament, Genesis, 28:19 196

- Virgil124, also spelt Vergil, Latin in full Publius Vergilius Maro (born October 15, 70 BC, Andes, near Mantua [Italy]—died September 21, 19 BC, Brundisium), Roman poet, best known for his national epic, the Aeneid (from c. 30 BC; unfinished at his death). The Romans regarded Virgil as their greatest poet, an estimation that subsequent generations have upheld. His fame rests chiefly upon the Aeneid, which tells the story of Rome's legendary founder and proclaims the Roman mission to civilise the world under divine guidance. His reputation as a poet endures for music and diction of his verse and skill in constructing an intricate work on the grand scale. He also embodied in his poetry aspects of experience and behaviour of permanent significance.

- Ovid125, Latin in full Publius Ovidius Naso (born March 20, 43 BCE, Sulmo, Roman Empire [now Sulmona, Italy]—died 17 CE, Tomis, Moesia [now Constanţa, Rom.]), Roman poet noted especially for his Ars amatoria and Metamorphoses. His verse had immense influence both by its imaginative interpretations of classical myth and as an example of supreme technical accomplishment. Publius Ovidius Naso was, like most Roman intellectuals, a provincial. He was born at Sulmo, a small town about 90 miles (140 km) east of Rome. The main events of his life are described in an autobiographical poem in the Tristia (Sorrows). His family was old and respectable, and sufficiently well-to-do for his father to send him and his elder brother to Rome to study. At Rome, he embarked, under the best teachers of the day, on the study of rhetoric. Ovid was thought to have the makings of a good orator, but despite his father's admonitions, he neglected his studies for the verse- writing that came so naturally to him.

As a member of the Roman knightly class (whose rank lay between the commons and the Senate), Ovid was marked by his position, and intended by his father, for an official career. First, however, he spent some time at Athens (then a favourite finishing school for young men of the upper classes) and travelled in Asia Minor and Sicily. Afterwards, he dutifully held some minor judicial posts, the first steps on the official ladder. However, he soon decided that public life did not suit him. From then on he abandoned his official career to cultivate poetry and the society of poets.

Ovid’s first work, the Amores (The Loves), had an immediate success and was followed, in rapid succession, by the Epistolae Heroidum, or Heroides (Epistles of the Heroines), the Medicamina faciei (“Cosmetics”; Eng. transl. The Art of Beauty), the Ars amatoria (The Art of Love), and the Remedia amoris (Remedies for Love), all reflecting the brilliant, sophisticated, pleasure-seeking society in which he moved. The ruins of Troy at Hisarlık (Turkey), are an important archaeological site, though the real size and nature of the historical settlement remain matters of scholarly debate. Many of its layers are the illustration of the consistent development of civilisation in Northwestern Asia. - Hisarlık, archaeological mound lying on the Küçük Menderes River near the mouth of the Dardanelles in Turkey. Long known to bear the remains of the Hellenistic and Roman town called Ilion or Ilium, in 1822 Charles Maclaren identified it as the site of Homeric Troy. Heinrich Schliemann in excavations between 1870 and 1890 adopted this identification and demonstrated as correct. Following Schliemann's death, work at the site continued under his assistant Wilhelm Dörpfeld (1893–94) and later under Carl W. Blegen (1932–38). Some 50 years later, a team led by University of Tübingen archaeologist Manfred Korfmann resumed excavations. He led work at the site until his death in 2005. (Encyclopedia Britannica) The matter of articulating on its origins became important for Rome in the late fourth century. The aftermath of the Latin war and expanded contacts with Hellenic (Greek) World provided the driving force. Political and cultural motivations united to develop a narrative that would bring mutual consideration to Romans and Latins and constituted a pedigree that connected Rome to the

124 Virgil (Roman poet) - Encyclopedia Britannica. 125 Ovid (Roman poet) - Encyclopedia Britannica. 197

Hellenic World. The concept of a Trojan rather than a Greek origin proved especially attractive. It was appropriate for the Romans within the format of Greek legend that stretched back to remote antiquity. It symbolised a differentiation and projecting a separate identity. The absence of contemporary Trojans intensified the appeal. The tale was malleable and adjustable to national needs. We suppose that its people and direct descendants of the Prince, Paris of Troy, formed a new tribe and preserved the memory of their ancestor by giving name to the city Paris. The adoption of Trojan roots, however, did not entail unification of the tradition. Imaginary manipulation of the legend for political purpose deserves a closer look. A series of episodes in the third and early second centuries refers to the link between Troy and Rome in the context of diplomacy and war. The accumulation of instances has fostered a cynical conclusion: - that Roman establishment exploited the legend to facilitate intervention and expansionism in the Greek East; - that study misplaces the emphasis and misconceives the motivation.

The scenes themselves, upon further examination, present a very different picture. The legend’s first appearance as a diplomatic or military instrument lends valuable insight. A Greek employed the method. King Pyrrhus, the ruler of Epirus, cited the Trojan connection in 281 to obtain support against Rome among the Greeks of the West. Pyrrhus announced to his allies the expectation of a successful outcome that, as a descendant of Achilles, he would recreate the Achaean victory at Troy by subjugating colonisers of Troy. This propaganda may or may not have had affected, but it was Hellenic propaganda. - Pyrrhus, (born 319 BCE—died 272, Argos, Argolis), king of Hellenistic Epirus whose costly military successes against Macedonia and Rome gave rise to the phrase "Pyrrhic victory." His Memoirs and books on the art of war were quoted and praised by many ancient authors, including Cicero. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

- Achilles, in Greek mythology, son of the mortal Peleus, king of the Myrmidons, and the Nereid, or sea nymph, Thetis. He was the bravest, handsomest, and greatest warrior of the army of Agamemnon in the Trojan War. According to Homer, Achilles was brought up by his mother at Phthia with his cousin and inseparable companion Patroclus. One of the non-Homeric tales of his childhood relates that Thetis dipped Achilles in the waters of the River Styx. Thus he became invulnerable, except for the part of his heel by which she held him— the proverbial “Achilles’ heel.” (Encyclopedia Britannica)

- Achaean, Greek Achaios, any of the ancient Greek people, identified in Homer, along with the Danaoi and the Argeioi, as the Greeks who besieged Troy. Their area as described by Homer—the mainland and western isles of Greece, Crete, Rhodes, and adjacent isles, except the Cyclades—is precisely that covered by the activities of

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the Mycenaeans in the 14th–13th-century BC, as revealed by archaeology. From this and other evidence, some authorities have identified the Achaeans with the Mycenaeans. (Encyclopedia Britannica) At the same time, those who revised the Aeneas tale in contradictory and allegedly unflattering ways were engaged in political propaganda as well as in conventional scholarly arguing, too. The notion of a canonical story remained remote. Roman writers (historians and philosophers) themselves more strikingly confirmed this conclusion. Philosophers, historians and poets felt free to extemporise, retrieve, conflate and deviate. The diversified fragments of the tradition, long after the embrace of Troy, give insight into a mentality that appreciated inventiveness over conformity. - Aeneas, mythical hero of Troy and Rome, son of the goddess Aphrodite and Anchises. Aeneas was a member of the royal line at Troy and cousin of Hector. He played a prominent part in the war to defend his city against the Greeks, being second only to Hector in ability. Homer implies that Aeneas did not like his subordinate position, and from that suggestion arose a later tradition that Aeneas helped to betray Troy to the Greeks. The more common version, however, made Aeneas the leader of the Trojan survivors after the Greeks took Troy. In any case, Aeneas survived the war, and his figure was thus available to compilers of Roman myth. The association of Homeric heroes with Italy and Sicily goes back to the 8th-century bc, and the Greek colonies founded there in that and the next century frequently claimed descent from leaders in the Trojan War. Legend connected Aeneas, too, with specific places and families, especially in Latium. (Encyclopedia Britannica) According to Erich S. Gruen126, “advertisement of the Trojan association had cultural, rather than political and diplomatic goal. Allusions to the legend in interstate relations of the third and early second centuries represented either Greek initiative or Roman posturing and did not issue in concrete benefits. However, in a broader sense, the distinctions dissolve, and the objectives are mutually reinforcing. The circumstances attendant upon Rome's new status in late fourth-century Latium and Magna Graecia127 gave impetus for adoption of the Trojan heritage. Moreover, the parading of that heritage a century later closely accompanied the display of Roman might in the Mediterranean. The attachment of Troy and Rome carried a comparable symbolism in each case. Dominance in the peninsula went hand in hand with the embrace of traditions which gave the suzerain a cultural legitimacy. Moreover, demonstration of military power abroad prompted insistence on the antiquity and the refined credentials of the conqueror".

126 Erich S. Gruen. Culture and National Identity in Republican Rome. Page 51. The making of the Troyan Legend. Cornell University in 1992. First published in Great Britain in 1993 by Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd.

127 Britannica Encyclopedia online - Magna Graecia, (Latin: “Great Greece”) Greek Megale Hellas, group of ancient Greek cities along the coast of southern Italy; the people of this region were known to the Greeks as Italiotai and to the Romans as Graeci.

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The embrace of Troy had subtler and more significant importance. It enabled Rome to associate itself with rich and complex composition of Hellenic tradition. Thus, it entered that broader cultural world, just as it had entered the broader political world. Nevertheless, at the same time, it also announced Rome's distinctiveness from that world. The Roman upper classes welcomed incorporation into the cultural legacy of Hellas but preferred to create their niche within it. They sharpened a sense of their identity, its people no longer existing, its city but a shell of its former self. Aeneas’ part of the legend was, of course, as much a Greek creation as Odysseus, but it could come later and could be slow to gain domination. A substantial barrier stood in the way: the authority of Homer. In book 20 of the Iliad, Poseidon128 predicts that “the power of Aeneas and the sons of his sons shall rule over Trojans. Much the same statement circulates in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite. The goddess here predicts for Anchises129 the glorious future of his descendants: his son and descendants will reign among Trojans. That prediction would seem to prevent western migration on the part of Aeneas, or at least to dissuade speculations along those lines. The Homeric verses, it may be concluded, represent prevailing opinion on the subject in archaic Greece. - Poseidon, in Greek religion, god of the sea (and of water generally), earthquakes, and horses. He is distinguished from Pontus, the personification of the sea and the oldest Greek divinity of the waters. The name Poseidon means either "husband of the earth" or "lord of the earth." Traditionally, he was a son of Cronus (the youngest of the 12 Titans) and Cronus's sister and consort Rhea, a fertility goddess. Poseidon was a brother of Zeus, the sky god and chief deity of ancient Greece, and Hades, god of the underworld. When the three brothers deposed their father, the kingdom of the sea fell by lot to Poseidon. His weapon and main symbol was the trident, perhaps once a fish spear. According to the Greek poet Hesiod, Poseidon's trident, like Zeus's thunderbolt and Hades' helmet, was fashioned by the three Cyclopes. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

128 Britannica Encyclopedia online - Poseidonius, (born c. 135 bc - died c. 51 bc), Greek philosopher, considered the most learned man of his time and, possibly, of the entire Stoic school. Stoicism, a school of thought that flourished in Greek and Roman antiquity. It was one of the loftiest and most sublime philosophies in the record of Western civilization. In urging participation in human affairs, Stoics have always believed that the goal of all inquiry is to provide a code of conduct characterized by tranquillity of mind and certainty of moral worth.

129 Kagirov Sayd-Emi «Le mot, témoin de l’histoire» pp. 81-93 in Russian, pp.94-106 in French ISBN: S-9900164-3-3 200

Poseidon, marble statue from Melos, 2nd-century BCE; in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens

Practically, they remained as an enormous stumbling block for long after that. When the link between Aeneas and Rome’s origins had been forged, the Homeric lines turned into an embarrassment. Greek historians, philosophies and writers spent considerable energy to reinterpret or to explain them away. Some of them tried to conciliate the traditions by postulating two men named Aeneas, one of whom went to Italy, while the other remained in the Troy. A different version had Aeneas brought the Trojans to Italy, then returned to Troy to reign there and handed the kingdom over to his son. According to our studies which need to be clarified Aeneas was invented to mislead the information about the tribe members of which were real heirs of Troy, descendants of the Prince Paris of Troy. We suppose that the ruling Dynasty in Troy was descendants of Achish, and it was the last kingdom where the philosophy of the Dynasty Achish was a state philosophy. That is why a personage with the name Anchises appeared. The further research would answer this hypothesis. We are going to produce a feature and documentary film ‘Paris of Troy. Dynasty’s Continuation’. We are going to answer the question of why Paris’s descendants are preservers of the Dynasty but not Alexandra, the Firstborn crown prince. We can compare it with the AchishBeth’s (Chechens) custom where the heir of the father’s house is a youngest son. “Lamb Harold writes in his book ‘Charlemagne. Founder of the Carolingian Empire’:” Then something unique happened to the West! The vanished empire remained engraved for centuries in the memory that created a new world to the West. Charlemagne was a legend that grew and spread over all Christian lands. It was not a simple reminiscence of an imaginary golden age or an extraordinary monarch; it was something that belonged to all humanity. In a short time, this Monarch made his subjects attain unheard-of achievements. The memory of this man has gone beyond the walls of palaces and churches, entered simple homes and began to roam the roads…”.

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“Charlemagne wanted to preserve the language and traditions of songs of his ancestors …”. “After hearing stories of adventures of the Trojans, described by William, Charlemagne remembered that one of his ancestors bore the name of Ankhiz or something of the sort. ‘Anchises - Anhous’Anhus (in English / French Achish / Akish). OT, 1 Samuel, 27-2’. Is it possible, thought Charlemagne, that the ancient Franks were wandering Trojans, who came by mystery from the sea, led by Ankhiz, the father of Eney …”? “At the time, the names characterized the man himself, at least in the Rhine region …”. The comparison of these lines with Chechen history shows lasting relationships: “The hardcore of Frankish culture broke into fragments that gave birth to the present-day European peoples. Since the departure of the representatives of the House of Achish’ Anhous’, AchishBeth and their installation in the mountains called Caucasian, it took 1200 years for these people to understand that it is possible and necessary to live together. One of the reasons of departure of the House of Achish’ AchishBeth’ and installation in the Caucasus was rupture of patriarchal and clan relations in Frankish society, hence the impossibility of preservation of the system of ancestral language in these conditions”130.

History's Turning Point - Battle of Salamis

The Battle of Salamis, the great naval battle was fought between Greece and Persia in 480 BC in the narrow sea passageway between Salamis and Attica. The Persian fleet was diminished somewhat because of a storm, but it was still a much larger force than the Greeks. The Persians had around 700 ships, the Greeks around 300 ships. The Spartans and other allies were encamped in the Isthmus of Corinth, waiting result of sea battle, in straits between mainland and Salamis, an island in the Saronic Gulf near Athens. It symbolised the high point of the second Persian invasion of Greece which had begun in 480 BC. - Corinth, Greek Kórinthos is an ancient and a modern city of the Peloponnesus, in south-central Greece. The remains of the ancient city lie about 50 miles (80 km) west of Athens, at the eastern end of the Gulf of Corinth, on a terrace some 300 feet (90 metres) above sea level. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

130 Kagirov Sayd-Emi«Le mot, témoin de l’histoire» pp.81-93 in Russian, pp.94-106 in French. ISBN: S-9900164-3-3 Inter-university seminar : « Linguistique et civilisation: méthodes d’analyse, techniques d’enseignement » tenu au MGIMO (U) MID de la FR, le 10 et 11 juin 2004. Le rapport est entériné par le Conseil scientifique de MGIMO (U)

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- Isthmus is a narrow strip of land connecting two large land areas otherwise separated by the sea. Unquestionably the two most famous are the Isthmus of Panama, connecting North and South America, and the Isthmus of Suez, connecting Africa and Asia. Historically the Isthmus of Corinth was of significance because it connected what otherwise would be the island of the Peloponnese with the rest of the Greek peninsula. Isthmuses are of great importance in plant and animal geography because they offer a path for the migration of land plants and animals between the two landmasses they connect. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

To prevent the Persian advance, a small force of Greeks blocked the pass of Thermopylae, while an Athenian-dominated. Allied naval forces engaged the Persian fleet in the nearby passageway of Artemisium. In the resulting Battle of Thermopylae, the rearguard of the Greek forces was ruined, whereas in the Battle of Artemisium the Greeks had heavy casualties and retreated after the loss at Thermopylae. It enabled the Persian forces to conquer Boeotia and Attica. The Allies prepared to shield the Isthmus of Corinth while the fleet was withdrawn to nearby Salamis Island. - Thermopylae is a narrow pass on the east coast of central Greece between the Kallídhromon massif and the Gulf of Maliakós, about 85 miles (136 km) northwest of Athens. In antiquity, its cliffs were by the sea, but silting has widened the distance to more than a mile. Its name, meaning "hot gates," is derived from its hot sulfur springs. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

- Battle of Artemisium, (480 bc), during the Greco-Persian Wars, a Persian naval victory over the Greeks in an engagement fought near Artemisium, a promontory on the north coast of Euboea. The Greek fleet held its own against the Persians in three days of fighting but withdrew southward when news came of the defeat at Thermopylae. (Encyclopedia Britannica) After the Battle of Thermopylae, Athenians were in despair. They knew that the Persians would destroy their city. There was merely no space between the Athens and Persians where the Greeks dared to venture a battle. Most of Athenians escaped on the island of Salamis where they watched the burning of their city and placed their belief in the fleet.

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Xerxes-I knew that winter would soon arrive and decided on a naval onslaught on the remaining Athenians and their naval forces placed at Salamis. Themistocles, an Athenian statesman who was responsible for the elaboration of the strategy used during the battle, led the Greek forces. Though hugely outnumbered, the Greek Allies were urged by the Athenian general Themistocles to bring the Persian fleet to battle again. He believed that a victory would prevent naval fighting against the Peloponnese. Nevertheless, he was not the general who realised the plan; Eurybiades, a Spartan commander, realised it. - Xerxes I, Old Persian Khshayarsha, byname Xerxes the Great (born c. 519 BCE – died 465, Persepolis, Iran), Persian king (486–465 BCE), the son and successor of Darius I. He is best known for his massive invasion of Greece from across the Hellespont (480 BCE), a campaign marked by the battles of Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

- Peloponnese is a peninsula of 8,278 square miles, a large, mountainous body of land jutting southward into the Mediterranean. Since antiquity, it has been a significant region of Greece, joined to the rest of mainland Greece by the Isthmus of Corinth. The name derived from Pelopos Nisos (Island of Pelops, a legendary hero) does not appear in Homer, who preferred to apply the name of Árgos, a Mycenaean city-state, to the whole peninsula. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Many of the skippers of ships of Athenian's allies were afraid of sailing away to protect their city-states. They were afraid that the much larger Persian fleet would ruin them. Themistocles used a stratagem to prevent them from fleeing. A spy was sent to the Persians telling them that they should come as soon as possible and block the passageway so the Greeks could not run away. The Persians took the enticement and sailed into the harbour. There was nothing to do now for the Greek naval forces but to fight. Xerxes-I was also anxious for a decisive battle. The Persian naval forces sailed into the passageway of Salamis and tried to block both entrances. In the constrained conditions of the passageway, the high Persian numbers were an obstruction, as ships exerted themselves to manoeuvre and became disorganised. Using the opportunity, the Greek naval forces shaped in line and scored a decisive victory, sinking or capturing at hundreds of Persian ships. As a result, Xerxes-I draw back to Asia with much of his army. He left Mardonius to complete the conquest of Greece. Nevertheless, the following year, the rest of the Persian army was decisively destroyed at the Battle of Plataea and the Persian naval forces at the Battle of Mycale. The Persian made no more attempts to conquer Greece. - According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Mardonius was one of those who encouraged King Xerxes I, Darius' successor, to invade Greece. After the Achaemenid defeat at Salamis, he persuaded Xerxes to return to Asia, and himself stayed behind with a large army. He unsuccessfully attempted to separate Athens from the other Greek allies, and, withdrawing from Attica, he finally was defeated and killed in battle at Plataea in September 479. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

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Because the Battle of Salamis saved Greece from being absorbed into the Persian Empire, it guaranteed the emergence of Western civilisation as a major force in the World. Therefore, many historians have classified the Battle of Salamis as one of the most crucial military engagements of all time. However, the battles of Salamis and Plataea mark a turning point in the course of Greco- Persian wars as a whole. Some of the historians suppose that a Persian victory would have disabled the development of Ancient Greece, and extension of the Western civilisation. It has led them to assert that Salamis is one of the most critical battles in human history.

History's Turning Point - The Black Death

Another history’s turning point that changed the World was a Black Death. Black Death is the pandemic which devastated the European continent between 1347 and 1351, taking proportionally greater losses than any other epidemic or war up to that time. It is widely believed that the Black Death was the result of plague, caused by the virus with the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Present genetic analyses specify that the strain of Yersinia pestis introduced during the Black Death is ancestral to all circulating Yersinia pestis strains which cause disease in humans. Therefore, the origin of modern plague epidemics lies in the medieval period. - Infectious fever caused by the bacillus Yersinia pestis; a bacterium transmitted from rodents to humans by the bite of infected fleas. Plague was the cause of some of the most devastating epidemics in history. It was the disease behind the Black Death of the 14th century when as much as one-third of Europe's population died. Massive pandemics also arose in Asia in the late 19th. (Encyclopedia Britannica) There were several contesting theories as far as the aetiology of the Black Death concerns. However, recent analysis of DNA from victims in southern and northern Europe point out that responsible pathogen was Yersinia pestis bacterium. It causes the Bubonic plague, though these were different, preliminarily unknown ancestral variants of those learned in the 20th century. The Black Death is supposed to have started in central Asia or China, before spreading west. The plague, afterwards, moved along the Silk Road and reached the Crimea by 1346. From there on, it was probably carried by Eastern rat fleas which were living on the black rats. These black rats were ordinary passengers on tradesmen ships. “An international team of scientists, led by Dr Mark Achtman of University College Cork, studied 17 strains of Yersinia Pestis, the bacterium that causes the plague, from sites around the world. They then used their data to draw up a common family tree, showing how the different

205 strains had mutated, over time, from a common root. The tree shows a branch of the disease splitting off about 728 years ago, around the time the Black Death struck”131.

"We do not know, however, how the Black Death travelled to Europe. Historical records say that it reached Italy via sailors coming from the Caspian Sea, but how it got to the Caspian we do not know." Dr Achtman played down the possibility that the Black Death may have been carried into Europe by the caravans of the Silk Route. "Our dating suggests the plague along the Silk Route was relatively recent, probably after the Black Death," he said. Wu Hao is an infectious disease specialist and bubonic plague expert at You An hospital in Beijing. He said: “There had been no outbreak of rat-born plague in China during the 14th century. There have been theories of China being the origin of the Black Death, but these are just theories. There is no physical evidence or accurate description on record." Dr Achtman published in China in the 1930s detailed historical records of "massive" plague infections around the same time as the Black Death. All in all, the plague reduced the world population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in the 14th century. The Black Death was the medium of three high waves of plague. The first strain appeared in the VI century during the reign of the Byzantine Imperator Justinian. Historians supposed that the

131 Black Death may have originated in China. Daily Telegraph. 1 Nov 2010. 206 plague peaked in the 14th century and killed up to third of the population of Europe. The plague recurred from time to time in Europe until the nineteenth century. The outcome of the plague built a series of religious, social and economic cataclysms which had significant effects on the course of European history. It took a hundred and fifty years for Europe's population to recuperate.

History's Turning Point - The fall of Constantinople

Byzantium was the ancient Greek city on the site that later became Constantinople, modern Istanbul. Greek colonists founded it from Megara in 657 BC. The city was rebuilt and re- inaugurated as the new capital of the Roman Imperium by Imperator Constantine I in 330 AD and subsequently renamed Constantinople. The city remained the capital of the Byzantine Imperium until 1453 when it was conquered and became the capital of the Ottoman Imperium. - Megara, Modern Greek Mégara is an ancient and modern settlement on the Saronikós Gulf within Attica (Modern Greek: Attikí) nomós (department) of Greece. Modern Megara sits on the southern slopes of two hills that served as the acropolises (citadels) of the ancient town. The early inhabitants were annihilated during the Dorian invasion (c. 1100–c. 1000 BCE). In the 8th century BCE, Megarian commercial colonies were established on Sicily. Megara also colonised northward and eastward on the Bosporus River and Sea of Marmara at Chalcedon (676) and Byzantium (660), the latter being the most significant in later history. The chief colonies, however, were Astacus and Heraclea in Bithynia in northwestern Asia Minor and a second Heraclea in the Crimea. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Byzantine diplomacy concerned the ideals, methods, principles, mechanisms, and techniques which Byzantine Imperium maintained and used to negotiate with other states and to facilitate the goals of its foreign policy. Byzantium created the first professional diplomats. Written instructions were issued for them. They should be polite, entertain as generously as funds allowed, and sell Byzantine manufactures, lower their costs and stimulate trade. After the fall of Rome, the key challenge to the Byzantine Imperium was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its varied neighbours, including the Germanic peoples, the Bulgars, the Slavs, the Armenians, the Huns, the Avars, the Franks, the Lombards, the Georgians, Iberians, and the Arabs, that embodied and supported its imperial status. All these neighbour states lacked a key opportunity that Byzantine had taken over from Rome, specifically a formalised legal structure. When they set about establishing formal political institutions, they were dependent on the Empire.

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While classical writers are fond of making a significant distinction between peace and war, for the Byzantine’s diplomacy was a form of war by other way. Anticipating Niccolo Machiavelli and Carl von Clausewitz, Byzantine historian John Kinnamos wrote: “Since many and various matters lead toward one end, victory, it is a matter of indifference which one uses to reach it”. - Niccolò Machiavelli, (born May 3, 1469, Florence, Italy—died June 21, 1527, Florence), Italian Renaissance political philosopher and statesman, secretary of the Florentine republic, whose most famous work, The Prince (Il Principe), brought him a reputation as an atheist and an immoral cynic. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

- Carl von Clausewitz, in full Carl Philipp Gottlieb von Clausewitz (born June 1, 1780, Burg, near Magdeburg, Prussia [Germany]—died Nov. 16, 1831, Breslau, Silesia [now Wrocław, Pol.]), Prussian general and military thinker, whose work Vom Kriege (1832; On War) has become one of the most respected classics on military strategy. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

- John Cinnamon flourished 12th century, Byzantine historian, secretary to the emperor Manuel I Comnenus, whom he accompanied on campaigns in Europe and Asia Minor. Cinnamon's history of the period 1118–76, continuing the Alexiad of Anna Comnena, covers the reigns of John-II and Manuel-I down to unsuccessful campaign against the Turks of Iconium when the Byzantines were routed (1176) at Myriocephalon. Cinnamon was probably an eyewitness to the events of the last ten years of the period he describes. The work breaks off abruptly and appears to be incomplete. The author's hero is Manuel, but, despite his conviction that the Greek East was superior to the Latin West and opposition to papal claims, he retains considerable objectivity. (Encyclopedia Britannica) With a regular army of 120,000-140,000 men, after the losses of the seventh century the imperium's security relied on activist diplomacy. From the twelfth century, their role in the collection of information about the situation in their host states became more and more vital to the survival of the Byzantine Imperium. Byzantium used diplomats as licensed spies. It employed gathered information to develop skilful and sophisticated policies, recompense a lack of real power, influence surrounding peoples, Persians, Arabs, and Turks, as well as the Italian city-states. After the Byzantine Imperium's collapse, significant elements of its diplomatic tradition lived on in the Ottoman Imperium and Renaissance Italy. Byzantines were skilled at using diplomacy as a weapon of war. To drive this process, the Byzantines profited of some mostly diplomatic practices. For example, embassies to Constantinople would often stay on for years. Members of other royal families would frequently be requested to stay in Constantinople. They were potential hostages and useful guarantee in case if political conditions, where they came from, would change. Another principal practise was to overwhelm visitors by gorgeous demonstrations. Constantinople's

208 wealth maintained the state's diplomatic intentions as the means of propaganda, and as a possibility to impress foreigners. The Fall of Constantinople was the seizure of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Imperium. It occurred after a siege by the Ottoman Imperium, under the command of twenty-one- year-old Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, against the defending Byzantine army commanded by Imperator Constantine XI. The siege lasted from six of April 1453 until twenty-ninth of May 1453, according to the Julian calendar, when the Ottomans conquered the city. - Mehmed II, byname Mehmed Fatih (Turkish: Mehmed the Conqueror) (born March 30, 1432, Adrianople, Thrace, Ottoman Empire—died May 3, 1481, Hunkârçayırı, near Maltepe, near Constantinople), Ottoman sultan from 1444 to 1446 and from 1451 to 1481. A great military leader, he captured Constantinople and conquered the territories in Anatolia and the Balkans that comprised the Ottoman Empire’s heartland for the next four centuries. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

- Constantine (XI) Lascaris, (died 1205?), titular Byzantine emperor, 1204–05. While the Latin crusaders were besieging Constantinople in April 1204, Emperor Alexius-V slipped away into exile. Constantine, one of the city's leading defenders, was proclaimed Emperor in the Cathedral of St. Sophia. Quickly, however, the city fell, and Constantine and other refugees fled to Nicaea, where they set up a rival empire. After his death, his brother Theodore-I Lascarishe succeeded him. (Encyclopedia Britannica) The seizure of Constantinople and two other Byzantine splinter territories soon afterwards symbolised the end of the Roman Imperium, an imperial state which had lasted for nearly 1,500 years. It was also a massive blow to Christian World, and Ottomans afterwards were free to move into Europe without an opponent to their rear. After the conquest, Mehmed II made Constantinople the Ottoman Imperium's new capital. Some of the Greek and non-Greek intelligentsia fled the city before and after the siege. They migrated notably to Italy. It is argued that they helped fuel the Renaissance. Some consider the end of the Middle Ages by the fall of the city and Imperium132. The city was defended by, at most, ten thousand men. The Turks had between a hundred thousand and a hundred and fifty thousand men on their side. The siege lasted for fifty days. The Turks used different war tactics in capturing the city. They used giant cannon to destroy the city walls and warships were used to block the city's sea defence. They also used a large infantry to overwhelm the city. After using his heavy artillery to form a breach in the wall, the first attack was launched upon Constantinople on a May morning at one o’clock a.m. The shout of people was heard miles away. The Bashi-bazouk led this first assault. They tried to attack the weakest part of the walls. They

132 Crowley, Roger (2006). Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453. Faber. ISBN 0-571-22185-8. (Reviewed by Foster, Charles (22 September 2006). "The Conquest of Constantinople and the end of empire". Contemporary Review. "Some say the Middle Ages ended then") 209 understood that they were outnumbered and inexperienced. Nevertheless, they still fought with enthusiasm. After fighting for two hours, they were called to retreat. - Бashi-bazouk, Turkish Başibozuk, ("corrupted head," or "leaderless"), mercenary soldier belonging to the skirmishing or irregular troops of the Ottoman Empire, notorious for their indiscipline, plundering, and brutality. The term bashi-bazouk initially was used to describe homeless beggars who reached Istanbul from the provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The term was later applied to all Muslim subjects who were not members of the armed forces. Finally, it was applied to units of irregular volunteers (both infantry and cavalry) attached to the army but under independent officers and providing their weapons and horses. These forces became notorious for their lawlessness. They appeared at the end of the 18th century and fought in Egypt against Napoleon. During the Crimean War, the allied generals made fruitless attempts to discipline them. Their excesses during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, at last, forced the Ottoman government to abandon their use. (Encyclopedia Britannica) The Anatolian Turks from Ishak's army made the second assault. Its specialised uniforms could quickly identify this army. It was also more organised than the first one. They used their cannons to break the walls of the city. By using trumpets and other noises, they succeeded in breaking the concentration of their enemies. It was the first army which entered the city. The Christians were ready to fight them as they entered. They were able to assassinate much of the army from this attack. This assault was called off at dawn. Before the Constantinople’s army could obtain order and strength, Mehmet's favourite set of troops which were called the Janissaries undertook an attack. They launched bullets, arrows, stones and javelins at opponents. They achieved perfect unity in this attack, in contradistinction to other efforts and it was a long tiring battle for the two armies. The soldiers struggled in hand-to-hand fighting. The Turks remembered a port called the Kerkoporta. They paid attention that it had been left open by the Christians by accident. The Christians time after time used that gate to try to penetrate the flank of the Ottoman army. They assaulted the gate, but the Christians stopped them before wholly entering the City. - Janissary also spelt Janizary, Turkish Yeniçeri, (New Soldier, or Troop), member of an elite corps in the standing army of the Ottoman Empire from the late 14th century to 1826. Highly respected for their military prowess in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Janissaries became a powerful political force within the Ottoman state. The Christian youths from the Balkan provinces converted to Islām on being drafted into the Ottoman service initially staffed the Janissary corps. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Although battles were being fought on land, the Ottoman army were also trying to take control over the sea. Lots of ships were located in the Golden Horn and off of the Marmora coast to assist siege the City. Lots of soldiers came from these ships to help the army on the land. Once the signal was given, troops ran off these ships to take down the harbour walls and start marauding the City.

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The City was now completely taken over by the Ottomans. Sultan of the Ottoman Imperium, Mehmed II renamed the city Istanbul. To further dignify the City he built palaces, mosques, monuments and a system of aqueducts. The City officially affirmed Islam. New rules and regulations came about for the conquered. The Greeks could form communities within the Imperium. The Christians were still allowed to practice their religion but had to dress in distinctive clothes and could not bear arms. So came the end to the great city of Constantinople133.

Walls of Constantinople Reconquest of Constantinople by Christianity remained a glamorous and desired event in Western Europe for years to come. Rumours of Constantine's survival and subsequent salvation by an angel led many to expectation that the city would one day return to Christianity. Nevertheless, as Western Europe entered the fiftieth century, the age of Crusade began to come to an end. At the beginning, the fall of the City seemed to cause a boom of crusading passion in the West. Apart from religious sentimentality, Renaissance had been fuelling interest in the cultural and intellectual inheritance of classical antiquity, and the role that Byzantium had played in conserving that inheritance. The outstanding humanist Aeneas Silvius grieved that with the fall of Constantinople Homer and Plato have died a second death. This statement was not right for scholarship in the fallen city. Moreover, refugees from Constantinople to Italy brought with them ancient texts that further inbreathed humanist investigation of ancient philosophy and esotericism, mainly Platonic and Neo- Platonic thought. Pope Pius II, the same Aeneas Silvius announced a crusade in 1459 to fight back

133 Runciman, Steven. The Fall of Constantinople. (London; Cambridge University Press, 1965).

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Constantinople. However, any actual enthusiasm that existed was of short duration, and a crusade never came into effect. - Pius II, original name Enea Silvio Piccolomini (born Oct. 18, 1405, Corsignano [now Pienza], Republic of Siena [Italy]—died Aug. 14/15, 1464, Ancona, Papal States), outstanding Italian humanist and astute politician who as pope (reigned 1458–64) tried to unite Europe in a crusade against the Turks at a time when they threatened to overrun all of Europe. He wrote voluminously about the events of his day. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Guillaume Dufay composed several songs lamenting the fall of the Constantinople. Philip III, the duke of Burgundy, avowed to take up arms against the Turks. However, as the growing Ottoman power from this date on coincided with the Protestant Reformation and subsequent counter-reformation, to fight off Constantinople became a more distant dream. Even France, once an impassioned participant of the Crusades, became an ally of the Ottomans. Nonetheless, depictions of Christian coalition’s taking the city and of the late Emperor's resurrection by Leo the Wise persisted134. - Guillaume Dufay, Dufay also spelt Du Fay, born c. 1400—died Nov. 27, 1474, Cambrai, Bishopric of Cambrai is a French composer noted for both his church music and his secular chanson. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

- Philip III, byname Philip The Good, French Philippe Le Bon, born July 31, 1396, Dijon, Burgundy [now in France]—died June 15, 1467, Bruges [now Brugge, Belg.] is the most important of the Valois dukes of Burgundy (reigned 1419–67) and the real founder of the Burgundian state that rivaled France in the 15th century. (Encyclopedia Britannica) In the 17th century, the Fall of Constantinople had a role in ferocious theological and political polemic between adherents and opponents of the reforms in the Orthodox Church of Russia. These reforms were carried out by Patriarch Nikon and were intended to bring the Russian Church closer to the norms and practices of other Orthodox churches. Archpriest Avvakum and other of the old believers considered these reforms as a perversion of the Russian Church, which they believed to be the “True Church of God”. Though the other Churches, too, were more closely linked with Constantinople in their liturgies, Archpriest Avvakum argued that Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Imperium because of these heretic beliefs and practices. - Avvakum Petrovich, (born 1620/1621, Grigorovo, Russia—died April 14, 1682, Pustozersk), archpriest, leader of the Old Believers, conservative clergy who brought on one of the most severe crises in the history of the Russian church by separating from the Russian Orthodox church to support the "old rite," consisting of many purely local Russian developments. He is also considered to be a pioneer of modern Russian literature. In 1652 he went to Moscow and joined others in their struggle against Patriarch Nikon. Nikon's high-handed methods and brutal treatment of dissidents made unpopular his reforms of adopting Greek Orthodox Church customs to unite the entire Orthodox Church. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

134 Mango, Cyril (2002). The Oxford History of Byzantium. New York: Oxford, UP. p. 280. 212

History's Turning Point – Renaissance

The Renascence is a phase in the European civilisation, right away following the Middle Ages, conventionally characterised by an explosion of interest in classical sciences and values. It also testified the discovery and exploration of new continents, the replacement of the Copernican for the Ptolemaic system of astronomy, the decline of the feudal system and the development of commerce. It testified the invention or application of such potentially powerful novelty as paper, printing, the sailors' compass, and gunpowder. To contemporary scholars and thinkers, however, it was first of all a time of the revival of classical studies and wisdom after a long period of cultural decline and stagnation. There is debate about the extent of the Renascence's influence on the culture of the Middle Ages. Both Michelet and Burckhardt were keen to describe the progress made in the Renascence towards the modern age. Burckhardt considered a veil being removed from man's eyes during Renascence, which allowed him to see clearly. “The historian's first duties are sacrilege and the mocking of false gods. They are his indispensable instruments for establishing timetables for the truth”. Jules Michelet. - Jules Michelet, born on 21 August 1798, Paris, France—died on 9 February 1874, Hyères, French nationalist historian best known for his monumental Histoire de France (1833–67). Michelet's method, an attempt to resurrect the past by immersing his personality in his narrative, resulted in a historical synthesis of great dramatic power. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

- Jacob Burckhardt, in full Jacob Christopher Burckhardt, born 25 May 1818, Basel, Switzerland—died 8 August 1897, Basel), one of the first great historians of art and culture, whose Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien (1860; The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy, 1878, reprinted 1945) became a model for the treatment of cultural history in general. (Encyclopedia Britannica) In the Middle Ages, both sides of human consciousness – turned inside and outside at the same time – lay being lost in reverie or half-awake underneath a global veil. The veil was fabricated of faith, illusion, and childish preconception, through which the world and history were seen covered with strange shades. On the other hand, lots of historians suppose that most of the negative social factors were associated with the Renascence period. They include religious and political persecution, poverty, warfare, which seem to have made worse in this era. This era saw the rise of Machiavellian politics, the wars of religion, the corrupt Borgia Popes, and the increased witch-hunts of the 16th century. - Niccolo di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was an Italian historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. He was for many years an official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs and a founder of modern political science and more specifically political ethics. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His correspondence is

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renowned in the Italian language. He was Secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when the Medici were out of power. He wrote his masterpiece, The Prince after the Medici had recovered power and he no longer held a position of responsibility in Florence.

- Borgia Family, Spanish Borja, descendants of a noble line, originally from Valencia, Spain, that established roots in Italy and became prominent in ecclesiastical and political affairs in the 1400s and 1500s. The house of the Borgias produced two popes and many other political and Church leaders. Some members of the family became known for their treachery. Four Borgias became especially noteworthy in a historical sense. Alfonso de Borgia (1378–1458) established the family's influence in Italy and became Pope Calixtus III in 1455 (see Calixtus III). Rodrigo Borgia became a cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and, later (1492), Pope Alexander VI (see Alexander VI under Alexander [Papacy]). As cardinal and Pope, Rodrigo fathered several children by his mistress Vannozza Catanei. Cesare Borgia (q.v.; c. 1475/76–1507), son of Rodrigo, achieved political power while ruthlessly attempting to establish an earthly kingdom in central Italy. Lucrezia Borgia (1480–1519), a daughter of Rodrigo and a patron of the arts, became famous for her skill at political intrigue. The family produced many other persons of lesser importance. One, St. Francis Borgia (1510–1572), a great- grandson of Rodrigo, was canonised. The family began to decline in the late 1500s. By the middle of the 18th century, it had disappeared. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Many people who lived during the Renascence did not consider it as the "golden age" as supposed by some 19th-century authors. These social disorders preoccupied them. However, the artists, writers, and encouragers involved in the cultural movements believed that they were living in a new era that was a breakthrough from the Middle Ages. Some of the Marxist historians and philosophers prefer to describe the Renascence in material expressions. They suppose that the changes in art, literature, and philosophy were part of an overall economic tendency from feudalism towards capitalism, resulting in a bourgeois class with leisure time to devote to the arts. Humanist historians argued that contemporary scholarship regenerated direct links to the classical period, thus evading the Medieval period, which they named for the first time the "Middle Ages". The term first appears in Latin in 1469 as “media tempestas - middle times”. In the fifteenth century, Renascence spread with high speed from its place of birth in Florence to the rest of Italy and the rest of Europe. The invention of the printing press allowed the speedy transfer of these new ideas. As it spread, its ideas varied and changed, being fitted to local cultures.

Renaissance Art

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History's Turning Point - The scientific revolution

Two different worlds through the eyes of two different scientists Aristotle

Aristotle differentiated the theoretical sciences into three groups: mathematics, physics, and theology. Physics, as he supposed, was equivalent to what would now be called "natural philosophy,” or the study of nature, physics. In this sense, it comprised not only the new field of physics but also chemistry, biology, psychology, geology, and even meteorology. Metaphysics, nevertheless, is notably absent from Aristotle’s classification. Indeed, he never used the word, which first appeared in the posthumous catalogue of his papers as a name for the works listed after the Physics. He did, nevertheless, recognise the branch of philosophy which is now called metaphysics. He called it - first philosophy - and defined it as the subject that studies being as being. - Aristotle, Greek Aristoteles, born 384 bce, Stagira, Chalcidice, Greece—died 322, Chalcis, Euboea is an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, one of the most significant intellectual figures of Western history. He was the author of a philosophical and scientific system that became the framework and vehicle for both Christian Scholasticism and medieval Islamic philosophy. Even after the intellectual revolutions of the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Enlightenment, Aristotelian concepts remained embedded in Western thinking. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Aristotle’s novations to the physical sciences are less significant than his study of the life sciences. His works ‘On Generation and Corruption’ and ‘On the Heavens’ introduces with a

215 world-picture that includes characteristics inherited from pre-Socratic predecessors. From philosopher Empedocles, he adopted the belief that the Universe is eventually composed of different combinations of the four fundamental elements of earth, water, air, and fire. Each element is characterised by the possession of a unique pair of the four primary qualities of cold, heat, wetness, and dryness. Earth is cold and dry. Water is cold and wet. Air is hot and wet. Fire is hot and dry. Each element has a natural place in an orderly universe, and each has an inherent tendency to move toward this natural place. Therefore, earthy solids by nature fall, when fire, unless prevented, rises higher. Other movements of the elements are possible but are forcible. A relic of Aristotle’s distinction is preserved in the modern-day contrast between natural and violent death. - Empedocles, (born c. 490 bc, Acragas, Sicily—died 430, the Peloponnese, Greece), Greek philosopher, statesman, poet, religious teacher, and physiologist. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Aristotle’s vision of the Universe also owes much to Plato’s dialogue Timaeus. According to that work, the earth is at the centre of the Universe. The Moon, the Sun, and the other planets turn around the earth. The celestial bodies are not the composition of the four terrestrial elements. They made up of a superior fifth element or quintessence. Moreover, the heavenly bodies have souls, or divine intellects, which guide them in their travels through the Universe. - Timaeus (dialogue by Plato) concerns the creation of the world by a Demiurge, initially operating on forms and space and assisted after he has created them by lesser gods. Earth, air, fire, and water are analysed as ultimately consisting of two kinds of triangles, which combine into different characteristic solids. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Even the best of Aristotle’s scientific work has now only a historical interest. The lasting value of tractates such as Physics lies not in their particular scientific statements but their philosophical analyses of some of the concepts. These concepts cover the physics of different epochs, such notions as time, place, causality, and determinism. Copernicus

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Nicolaus Copernicus finished reading the arguments of his great work in 1543, as he lay on his deathbed. He died the moment it was published. His ‘Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs’ was the opening shot in a scientific revolution consequence of which were higher than those of any other intellectual event in the history of Mankind. The scientific revolution radically changed the conditions of thought and of material existence in which Mankind lives, and its effects are not yet depleted. All this was caused by Nicolaus Copernicus’ adventurous placing the Sun, not the earth, at the centre of the Univers. Copernicus cited Hermes Trismegistos135 to justify this idea, and his language was completely Platonic. He considered his work as a substantial work in astronomy, but not philosophy. So, he forwarded to justify it by experiments and mathematically. The results were impressive. - Nicolaus Copernicus, born 19 February 1473, Torun, Poland—died 24 May 1543, Frauenburg, East Prussia [now Frombork, Poland]. He proposed that: -the planets have the Sun as the fixed point to which their motions are to be referred; -the earth is a planet which, besides orbiting the Sun annually, turns once daily on its axis, and prolonged, long-term changes in the direction of this axis account for the precession of the equinoxes. This representation of the heavens is usually called the heliocentric, or "Sun-centred," system—derived from the Greek Helios, meaning "Sun." Copernicus's theory had significant consequences for later thinkers of the scientific revolution, including such significant figures as Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, and Newton. Copernicus probably hit upon his main idea sometime between 1508 and 1514, and during those years he wrote a manuscript usually called the Commentariolus (Little Commentary). However, the book that contains the final version of his theory, "Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs", did not appear in print until 1543, the year of his death. (Encyclopedia Britannica) At one stroke, Nicolaus Copernicus reduced a complexity which is at the edge of chaos to graceful simplicity. The apparent back-and-forth movements of the planets, which required fantastic ingeniousness to adapt within the Ptolemaic system, could be explained for just in terms of the earth's orbital motion. This combination of motions also explained variation in planetary brightness. A phenomenon that Venus and Mercury were never found in front of the Sun in the sky Nicolaus Copernicus explained by positioning their orbits closer to the Sun than Earth. Copernicus

135; (" the thrice greatest Hermes "), an honorific designation of the Egyptian Hermes, i.e. Thoth, the God of wisdom. In late hieroglyphic the name of Thoth often has the epithet " the twice very great," sometimes " the thrice very great "; in the popular language (demotic) the corresponding epithet is " the five times very great," found as early as the 3rd century B.C. Egyptians and Phoenicians applied it to the inventor of letters, and all the useful arts and sciences. The Egyptians called him also Thot, Tiaut, Thoyt or Theut, and placed his image, like that of a benevolent god, by the side of the images of Osiris and Isis, his contemporaries. According to Diodorus, he was the friend and counsellor of the great Osiris. He formed the Egyptian language, and invented the first written characters; he was, moreover, the inventor of grammar, astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, music, medicine 217 could place planets in order of their distances from the Sun according to their speeds. Thus, to structure a System of the planets, something that had avoided Ptolemy. - Ptolemaic system, mathematical model of the Universe formulated by the Alexandrian astronomer and mathematician Ptolemy about ad 150 and recorded by him in his Almagest and Planetary Hypotheses. The Ptolemaic system is a geocentric cosmology; that is, it starts by assuming that the earth is stationary and at the centre of the Universe. The "natural" expectation for ancient societies was that the heavenly bodies (Sun, Moon, planets, and stars) must travel in uniform motion along the most "perfect" path possible, a circle. However, the paths of the Sun, Moon, and planets as observed from the earth are not circular. Ptolemy's model explained this "imperfection" by postulating that the irregular movements were a combination of several regular circular motions seen in perspective from a stationary Earth. The principles of this model were known to earlier Greek scientists, including the mathematician Hipparchus (c. 150 bc), but they culminated in an accurate predictive model with Ptolemy. The resulting Ptolemaic system persisted, with minor adjustments, until the earth was displaced from the centre of the Universe in the 16th and 17th centuries by the Copernican system and by Kepler's laws of planetary motion. (Encyclopedia Britannica) In the twentieth century, scientists began to consider the Renascence as regional and national movements. A Catholic Church was the most significant force in Europe in the 14 and 15th centuries. During the Renaissance, a time when Europeans experienced a cultural and spiritual awakening, people studied to develop new attitudes about themselves and the world around them. Some began to question the authority and wealth of the Church, believing that it was corrupt. The invention of the printing press in the mid-1400 allowed opinions and ideas just spread rapidly. In 1570 a German Augustinian friar Martin Luther nailed to a church door in the university town of Wittenberg a list of 95 complaints against the Catholic Church. Soon, printed copies of Luther's complaints spread throughout Germany. Luther's bold act sparked the Reformation, a movement whose followers thought to reform the Churches infractions. This reform divided the Church. They produced a new form of Christianity known as Protestantism, which spread across Europe. In England, King Henry – VIII broke with the Catholic Church declaring himself, not the Pope, the divine ruler of the English Church. By the middle of the 16th century, Europe was divided into a Protestant North and a Catholic South. Protestantism has become one of the principal European religions. To count the Protestant challenge, Catholics decided to respond for some of Luther's complaints. The movement became known as counterreformation. With the official teachings of the Church, the strict rules of behaviour were defined. At the same time, a group which became known as Jesuits launched a movement to reclaim the former members of the Catholic Church. The Jesuits strongly believed education and established mini schools and universities across Europe.

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From establishing a new religion to building universities, Martin Luther's action sparked a chain of events resulting in an effect we still see today. Luther's propositions challenged some portions of Roman Catholic doctrine and some specific practices. Luther was criticising an overall Church practice - the selling of indulgences. In Catholic doctrine, an indulgence was the full or partial forgiveness of punishment due for sins which had already been forgiven. However, Pope Leo-X had announced that indulgences were not only for the remission of temporal punishment but also for guilt itself. Luther considered that selling indulgences was equivalent to selling salvation. It is something that he felt was against both Biblical teaching and Roman Catholic doctrine. At that time, Rome was using the sale of indulgences as a means to raise money for a big Church project, for the building of St. Peter's Basilica. - Leo X, originally Giovanni de' Medici, born 11 December 1475, Florence, Italy - died 1 December 1521, Rome is one of the leading Renaissance popes (reigned 1513–21). He made Rome a cultural centre and a political power, but he depleted the papal treasury, and, by failing to take the developing Reformation seriously, he contributed to the dissolution of the Western Church. Leo excommunicated Martin Luther in 1521 (Encyclopedia Britannica) The debate of Doctor Martin Luther on the “Power and Efficacy of Indulgences” - commonly known as the 95 theses - was a request for a formal polemic that criticised the practice of selling indulgences. This kind of controversy was a typical academic exercise during that era. The three fundamental principles of traditional Protestantism are the following: Scripture Alone The belief in the Bible as the supreme source of authority for the Church. The early churches of the ReformationReformation believed in a critical, yet serious, reading of Scripture and holding the Bible as a source of authority higher than that of Church Tradition. The many abuses occurred in Western Church before Protestant Reformation led the Reformers to reject much of the Tradition of Western Church. Though, some would maintain tradition has been maintained in liturgy and confessions of the Protestant Churches of the Reformation. Justification by Faith Alone The subjective principle of the Reformation is justification by faith alone, or, preferably, by free grace through faith. It has reference to personal appropriation of Christian salvation. It aims to give all glory to Christ, by declaring that the sinner is justified before God solely on the ground of the all-enough merits of Christ as apprehended by a living faith. Thus, opposing to the theory which makes faith and good works co-ordinate sources of justification, laying the chief stress upon works.

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Protestantism does not depreciate good works, but it denies their value as sources or conditions of justification and insists on them as the necessary fruits of faith, and evidence of justification." Universal Priesthood of Believers The universal priesthood of believers implies the right and duty of Christian laity to read the Bible in the vernacular. It implies to take part in the government and all the public affairs of the Church as well. It is opposed to the hierarchical system which puts the essence and authority of the Church in an exclusive priesthood and makes ordained priests the necessary mediators between God and the people.

History's Turning Point - The Anglo-Zulu War

By the 1870s the British Imperium had colonies in Southern Africa bordering on various Boer settlements, native African kingdoms such as the Zulus, and many indigenous tribal regions and states. Different interactions with them resulted in an expansionist policy. Cape Colony was formed after the British-Dutch Treaty of 1814 permanently passed the Dutch colony of Cape Town to Britain. Its territory extended substantially through the 1800s. The Colony of Natal was a British colony in South-Eastern Africa. It was proclaimed a British colony in 1843 after the British government had annexed the Boer Republic of Natalia. - By the end of the 18th century, Cape settlers—called Boers (Dutch 'boer' "farmer")—were far more numerous than their Portuguese counterparts, mainly because of natural increase. Men outnumbered women 3 to 2. The settlers were of different European origins and shared vicissitudes. The company insisted that all settlers speak Dutch and practice Calvinism. It led to a particular cultural uniformity and a sense of group identity. The settlers began to call themselves "Afrikaners"—Africans. (Encyclopedia Britannica) The finding of diamonds in 1867 near the Vaal River, some 890 km northeast of Cape Town, ended the segregation of the Boers and changed South African history. The discovery triggered a

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‘diamond rush’ that engaged people from all over the world. It turned Kimberley into a town of fifty thousand within five years and draw the attention of British imperial interests. In the 1870s, the British annexed West Griqualand, region of the Kimberley diamond discoveries. - Kimberley, city, diamond-mining centre, and capital of Northern Cape province, South Africa. It lies near the Free State province border. Founded after the discovery of diamonds on farms in the area in 1869–71, the mining camp of Kimberley grew as a result of the intensive digging of the diamond-bearing pipe at the hill called Colesberg Koppie. The camp was named after John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley, who was then British colonial secretary. The town of Kimberley was created in 1878 and incorporated into the Cape Colony in 1880. In 1885 the Cape Town Railway reached Kimberley, and during the South African War, the town was besieged by the Boers for 126 days until relieved by Gen. John French on 15 February 1900. (Encyclopedia Britannica) In 1874, Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Carnarvon, who had felicitously brought about federation in Canada in 1867, thought that the same scheme might be introduced in South Africa. The South African plan called for a ruling white minority over an enslaved black majority providing a large variety of cheap labour for the Boer farmers and British sugar settlements and mines. Lord Carnarvon attempted to extend British influence in 1875 appealed to the Boer states of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republic and tried to establish a federation of the British and Boer territories. The Boer leaders rejected his plan. In 1877, Sir Bartle Frere was appointed as High Commissioner for Southern Africa by Lord Carnarvon. Lord Carnarvon appointed Sir Frere to the position considering that he would work to enforce Lord Carnarvon's confederation plan. In return, Frere could afterwards become the first British governor of a federated southern African dominion. Sir Bartle was sent to South Africa as High Commissioner to fulfil this plan. Some of the barriers to such a scheme was the presence of the independent states of the South African Republic, informally known as the Transvaal Republic, and the Zulu Kingdom. Sir Bartle Frere wasted no time in putting the scheme forward and manufactured a casus belli (the reason for a declaration of war) against the Zulu by artificially exaggerating the significance of the number of recent incidents. The terms of the ultimatum. The following terms were included in the ultimatum and delivered to the representatives of Zulu King Cetshwayo on the banks of the Thukela River on 11 December 1878. The time limits for compliance were subsequently altered so that all expired on 10 January 1879. - Cetshwayo, also spelled Cetewayo (born c. 1826, near Eshowe, Zululand [now in South Africa]—died 8 February 1884, Eshowe), last great king of the independent Zulus (reigned 1872–79), whose strong military leadership and political acumen restored the power and prestige of the Zulu nation, which had declined during the reign of his father, Mpande (Panda). As the absolute ruler of a rigidly disciplined army of 40,000 men, Cetshwayo was considered a threat to British colonial interests. The Anglo-Zulu War (1879) and subsequent destruction of Zulu power removed that threat. (Encyclopedia Britannica) 221

- Tugela River, principal river of KwaZulu/Natal province, South Africa. It rises as a stream on the 10,000-foot- (3,050-metre-) high Mont-aux-Sources plateau near the merger point of the Lesotho–Free State province borders. Its upper course, which lies within Royal Natal National Park, flows through the Drakensberg range before hurtling down in a series of waterfalls having a total drop of 3,110 feet (948 m). (Encyclopedia Britannica) - Surrender of Sihayo’s three sons and brother to be tried by the Natal courts. - Payment of a fine of five hundred heads of cattle for the outrages committed by the above and for Cetshwayo's delay in complying with the request of Natal Government for surrender of offenders. - Payment of a hundred head of cattle for the offence committed against Messrs. Smith and Deighton. - Surrender of the Swazi chief Umbilini and others to be named hereafter, to be tried by the Transvaal courts. - Observance of the coronation promises. - That the Zulu army be disbanded, and the men allowed to go home. - That the Zulu military system be discontinued, and other military regulations adopted, to be decided upon after consultation with the Great Council and British Representatives. - That every man, when he comes to man’s estate, shall be free to marry. - All missionaries and their converts, who until 1877 lived in Zululand, shall be allowed to return and reoccupy their stations. - All such missionaries shall be allowed to teach and any Zulu, if he chooses, shall be free to listen to their teaching. - A British Agent shall be allowed to reside in Zululand, who will see that the above provisions are carried out. - The king shall hear all disputes in which a missionary or European is concerned in public and presence of the Resident. - No sentence of expulsion from Zululand shall be carried out until the Resident has approved it. For his part, King Cetshwayo tried very much to avoid war with Britain and, in the case if it would occur, limit its scope and effects. He required his troops to defend their country only if it would be attacked and not to conduct the war beyond its borders. He ordered them to avoid killing any of the enemies other than the ordinary British soldiers in red coats.

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The war is significant for several particularly bloody battles, including overwhelming opening victory by the Zulu at Isandlwana, as well as for being a reference point in the timeline of imperialism in the region. The war finally resulted in a Great Britain’s victory and the end of the Zulu national independence. - Battles of Isandlwana and Rorke's Drift, Isandlwana also spelt Isandhlwana, (Jan. 22–23, 1879), first significant battles of the Anglo-Zulu War in Southern Africa. In December 1878 Sir Bartle Frere, the British high commissioner for South Africa, issued an ultimatum to Cetshwayo, the Zulu king, that was designed to be impossible to satisfy: the Zulu were, among other things, to dismantle their "military system" within 30 days. As expected, the ultimatum was not met, and three British columns invaded Zululand in January 1879. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

History's Turning Point - The Conquest of the Incas

The Spanish conquest of the Inca Imperium was one of the most critical campaigns in the Spanish colonisation of the Americas. - Inca are South American Indians of the time of the Spanish conquest in 1532. They ruled an empire that extended along the Pacific coast and Andean highlands from the northern border of modern Ecuador to the Maule River in central Chile. The Inca established their capital at Cuzco (Peru) in the 12th century. They began their conquests in the early 15th century and within 100 years had gained control of an Andean population of about 12,000,000 people. (Encyclopedia Britannica) After years of preliminary survey and military firefights, Spanish soldiers under Francisco Pizarro and their native allies captured the Sapa Inca Atahualpa in the 1532 Battle of Cajamarca. - Francisco Pizarro, (born c. 1475, Trujillo, Extremadura, Castile [Spain]—died 26 June 1541, Lima, now in Peru), Spanish conqueror of the Inca empire and founder of the city of Lima.

- Atahuallpa, also spelled Atahualpa (born c. 1502—died 29 August 1533, Cajamarca, Inca empire, now in Peru), 13th and last emperor of the Inca, who was victorious in a devastating civil war with his half brother, only to be captured, held for ransom, and then executed by Francisco Pizarro.

- Cajamarca is an ancient Inca in northern Peru, lying at 9,022 feet (2,750 metres) above sea level on the Cajamarca River. It was the site of the capture, ransom, and execution of the Inca chief Atahuallpa by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro in 1532. (Encyclopedia Britannica) The first stage in a long campaign took decades of fighting and ended in Spanish triumph. It resulted in colonisation of the region as the Viceroyalty of Peru. The conquest of the Inca Imperium led to campaigns into nowadays Chile and Colombia as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin.

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Machu Picchu

Ancient Inca ruins at the foot of the peak of Machu Picchu in south-central Peru

When the Spanish reached the borders of the Inca Imperium in 1528, the Imperium extended to a considerable distance. The Imperium included some of the most mountainous land on earth, extending southward from the Ancs Maya, meaning Blue River, which is now known as the Patia River in southern Colombia to the Maule River in Chile, and eastward from the Pacific Ocean to the edge of the Amazonian jungles. The Imperium had grown in extent from about 155,000 sq. mi/400,000 km2 in 1448, to 690,000 sq mi/1,800,000 km2 in 1528, during less than 100 years, just before the arrival of the Spaniards. This large area of land varied greatly, both in climate and culture. Because of the greatly varying cultures and geography, many areas of the Imperium were left under local leaders’ control. These local leaders were watched and monitored by Inca officials. However, under the administrative arrangements established by Incas, all parts of Imperium were eventually under the direct control of the Imperator. Scholars supposed that the population of the Inca Imperium most likely numbered over 16,000,000. The Inca Imperium was one of the most amazing human civilisations ever to exist. The reign of the actual Imperium was from 1438-1532, and in just this short time, they conquered almost the entire Eastern Coast of South America. Lands conquered include parts of present-day Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. They overcame the severe climate obstacles of the three regions of terrain: desert, mountain, and rain forest. However, the Incas never developed a system of writing to record this. The only reports we currently have of the Incas are from documents of the Spanish conquistadors. There are lots of different stories of the origin of the Incas from the people, but the 224 most common one is the Pacariqtambo Legend. According to the legend, the first Inca was Manco Capac, and he was created by the Viracocha who was the creator, and the sun god Inti. - Viracocha also spelt Huiracocha or Wiraqoca, creator deity initially worshipped by the pre-Inca inhabitants of Peru and later assimilated into the Inca pantheon. He was believed to have created the Sun and moon on Lake Titicaca. According to tradition, after forming the rest of the heavens and the earth, Viracocha wandered through the world teaching men the arts of civilisation. At Manta (Ecuador) he walked westward across the Pacific, promising to return one day. He was sometimes represented as an older man wearing a beard (a symbol of water gods) and a long robe and carrying a staff.

- Inti, also called Apu-punchau, in Inca religion, the sun god; he was believed to be the ancestor of the Incas. Inti was at the head of the state cult, and his worship was imposed throughout the Inca Empire. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Some scholars, such as Jared Diamond, professor of geography at the University of California, consider that Spanish conquest was the direct cause of the drop of the Inca Imperium. Nevertheless, it may very well have been past its peak of development and in the process of decline. In 1528, Imperator Huayna Capac (Young Lord) ruled the Inca Imperium. The Incas called it, Tahuatinsuyu, or the "Land of the Four Quarters", which referred to the four main administrative areas into which the Imperium was divided. He could trace his pedigree back to a "stranger king" named Manco Cápac, the mythological founder of the Inca clan. More significantly, Huayna Capac was the son of the preceding ruler, Túpac Inca, and the grandson of Pachacuti. Pachacuti was the Imperator who had begun the impressive expansion by conquest of the Inca Imperium from its basis in the area around Cuzco. - Cuzco also spelt Cusco or Kosko, Quechua Qosqo, city and Inca región (region), south-central Peru. It is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the Western Hemisphere. Formerly the capital of the extensive Inca Empire, it retains much of its highly crafted early stone architecture, typically preserved in the foundations and lower stories of Spanish colonial structures. Cuzco was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983. (Encyclopedia Britannica) On his accession to the throne, Huayna Capac had continued the policy of expansion by forwarding Inca armies north into what is today Ecuador. He had to suppress several insurrections during his reign. By the time of his death, his legitimacy was unquestioned. Expansion had caused problems, however. Many parts of the Imperium maintained their cultural identity and were capricious participants in the imperial project. Large extent of Imperium seems to have caused increasing difficulty in administering effectively. Much of the terrain was tough, and all communication and travel had to take place on foot. Among the most substantial aspects of Huayna Capac's reign were his sons. While he had many legitimate and illegitimate children (legitimate meaning born of his sister-wife), two sons are

225 historically essential. The first was Prince Túpac Cusi Hualpa. He was, also, known as Huáscar, whose mother was Coya, meaning Empress, Mama Rahua Occllo. The second was Atahualpa. He was an illegitimate son possibly born of a daughter of the last independent King of Quitu, a King of one of the states, conquered by Huayna Capac during the great expansion of the Inca Imperium. The two sons would play cardinal roles in the last years of the Inca Imperium. Pizarro and his men were greatly assisted in their undertaking by the fact that they arrived when the Inca Imperium was amid a war of succession between princes Huáscar and Atahualpa. Atahualpa seems to have spent more time with Huayna Capac during the years when he was in the north with the army conquering Ecuador. Atahualpa was thus closer to the army and had better relations with it and its leading generals. Both Huayna Capac and his eldest son and designated heir, Ninan Cuyochic, died suddenly in 1528 from what was most likely smallpox. This disease was brought in by the Spaniards into the Americas during their conquest of Mexico. The question of who would succeed as Imperator was left open because Huayna had died before he could assign the new heir. At the time of Huayna Capac's death, Huáscar was in the capital Cuzco, while Atahualpa was in Quitu with the major forces of the Inca army. Huáscar had himself announced Sapa Inca, i.e. ‘Only Imperator’, in Cuzco. However, the army declared its fidelity to Atahualpa. The followed dispute led to the Inca Civil War. The Civil War between Huáscar and Atahualpa weaken, and perhaps more significantly, distracted the Imperium right away before its fighting with the Spanish. However, it is unclear the difference a united Inca Empire would have made in the long term due to factors as disease, brought in by the Spaniards into the Americas. Moreover, the Inca military technology extremely less developed to that of the Spaniards. The Spaniards owned primitive, but effective, firearms, horses, metal armour, swords, and cannons. It happens that of the two brothers, Atahualpa was more popular with the people, and so with the army, the core of which was based in the lately conquered northern province of Quitu. At the outbreak of the conflict, each brother controlled his respective region. Atahualpa was secure in the north. Huáscar controlled the capital of Cuzco, and the vast region to the south, including the area around Lake Titicaca which delivered significant numbers of troops for his forces.

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After a period of diplomatic posturing and trickery for position, open fighting soon broke out. Huascar seemed to be ready to bring the war to a rapid conclusion, when troops loyal to him prisoned Atahualpa, while he was attending a festival in the city of Tumebamba. - Tumebamba or Tumipampa (Kichwa) was a former city-state in the Inca federation, held by the ethnic Cañaris people; roughly translating to "plain of knives". Because of its high-quality architecture, it was given to Atahualpa when the Empire was divided in 1527. At that time, the city was the most important of the northern part of the Еmpire. Nevertheless, Atahualpa quickly ran away and returned to Quitu. There he was able to assemble what is supposed to be at least thirty thousand soldiers. Though Huáscar managed to get together about the same number of soldiers, his soldiers were less experienced. Atahualpa forwarded his forces South under the command of two of his principal generals, Challcuchima and Quisquis. These two generals won an ongoing series of victories which soon led them to the very gates of Cuzco. On the first day of the battle for Cuzco, the forces loyal to Huascar achieved an early advantage. Nevertheless, on the second day, Huascar personally led surprise attack, knowledge of which had been acquired by Challcuchima and Quisquis. In the ensuing battle, Huascar was seized, and resistance collapsed. The triumphant generals right away sent word north by messenger to Atahualpa, who had moved south from Quitu to the royal resort springs outside Cajamarca. The messenger arrived with news of the definite victory. The same day Pizarro and his small group of adventurers, together with some Indian allies, came down from the Andes into the town of Cajamarca. A struggle for power was followed by a long civil war between Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro in which Almagro was killed. Almagro's descendants later avenged his death by killing Pizarro. - Diego de Almagro, (born 1475, Almagro, Castile [Spain]—died 1538, Cuzco, Peru), Spanish soldier who played a leading role in the Spanish conquest of Peru. Following service in the Spanish navy, Almagro arrived in South America in 1524 and, with his intimate friend Francisco Pizarro, led the expedition that conquered the Inca Empire in what is now Peru. Almagro and Pizarro became joint captains general of these conquests, which the Spaniards called New Castile. Bitter enmity soon arose between Almagro and Pizarro, however, leading to much political instability in the new colony. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Despite the war, the Spaniards did not ignore the colonising process. Its most impressive act was the foundation of Lima in January 1535, where the political and administrative institutions were established. The necessity of strengthening of the Spanish royal authority on these territories led to the creation of a “Royal Audience”. In 1542, the Spanish set the Viceroyalty of New Castile. Shortly after, it would be called Viceroyalty of Peru. However, the Viceroyalty of Peru was not organised until the arrival of the

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Governor-general Francisco de Toledo in 1572. Toledo ended the native state of Vilcabamba, executing the Inca Tupac Amaru. The long-term effects of Spanish arrival on the population of South America were utterly appalling. Though this is the case for every group of Native-Americans that encountered Europeans from the fifteenth century onwards, the Incan population experienced a dramatical and quick decline following contact. It is estimated that during the years of 1520–1571 parts of the Empire, notably the Central Andes, suffered a population decline ratio of 58:1. The single utmost cause of the death of native populations was disease. The colonists and conquistadors brought over unknowingly from the Old-World diseases which wreaked devastation on native populations at a higher rate than any army or armed conflict. The fact that the Inca did not have a writing tradition as the Aztecs or Maya is one of the reasons why it is more challenging to figure out the population decline after conquest. - Aztec is a Nahuatl-speaking people who in the 15th and early 16th centuries ruled a vast empire in what is now central and southern Mexico. The Aztec is from Aztlán ("White Land"), an allusion to their origins, probably in northern Mexico.

- Maya, Mesoamerican Indians occupying a nearly continuous territory in southern Mexico, Guatemala, and northern Belize. Before the Spanish conquest of Mexico and Central America, the Maya possessed one of the greatest civilisations of the Western Hemisphere (see pre-Columbian civilisations: Pre-Classic and Classic periods). They practised agriculture, built significant stone buildings and pyramid temples, worked gold and copper. They used a form of hieroglyphic writing that has now largely been deciphered.

- The Temple of Inscriptions, Palenque, Mexico. The mountain element was represented by the Mayan culture in pyramidal stone temples. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

However, illness from the Spaniards predated their real presence in the region by several years. The outbreak supposed to be haemorrhagic smallpox, brought in the Andes in 1524. Numbers are unavailable, but Spanish records specify that the population was so ruined by disease that their forces could hardly resist.

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There was the downfall of the local populations by disease. There was also substantial enslavement, robbery, pillaging and disintegration from warfare. Thousands of women were taken from the local populations by the Spanish and used by conquistadors as personal servants. As Pizarro and his men took over parts of South America, they pillaged and enslaved uncountable people. Some Spanish documents specify that the local populations entered into vassalage willingly, but these are probably cases of people being menaced with death after the destruction of their region. The basic policy of the Spanish towards local populations was that unconstrained vassalage would bring security and coexistence while ongoing resistance would lead to more death and destruction. Another considerable effect on the people in South America was the introduction of Christianity. As Pizarro and the Spanish subjugated the continent and put it under their control, they forcefully converted many of the local population to Christianity, pretending to have educated them in the ways of the true religion. With the destruction of the local populations together with the surrender of the Inca Imperium, the Spanish missionary work, after colonisation began, was able to continue untrammelled. It took only a generation for the entire continent to be under Christian influence.

History's Turning Point - The Conquest of Spain

Al-Andalus under the Umayyads The Christian Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania centred in the Iberian Peninsula known under the Arabic name al-Andalus was conquered initially by the Islamic Ummayad Caliphate between 711 and 718.

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- Umayyad dynasty also spelt Omayyad is the first great Muslim dynasty to rule the Empire of the Caliphate (661–750 CE). Sometimes it is referred to as the Arab kingdom (reflecting traditional Muslim disapproval of the secular nature of the Umayyad state). The Umayyads, headed by Abū Sufyān, were mostly a merchant family of the Quraysh tribe centred at Mecca. They had initially resisted Islam, not converting until 627, but subsequently became prominent administrators under Muhammad and his immediate successors. In the first Muslim civil war (fitnah; 656–661)—the struggle for the Caliphate following the murder of ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān, the third caliph (reigned 644–656)—Abū Sufyān's son Muʿāwiyah, then governor of Syria, emerged victorious over ʿAlī, Muhammad's son-in-law and fourth caliph. Muʿāwiyah then established himself as the first Umayyad caliph. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

- Hispania, in Roman times, the region comprising the Iberian Peninsula, now occupied by Portugal and Spain. The origins of the name are disputed. When the Romans took the peninsula from the Carthaginians (206 BCE), they divided it into two provinces: Hispania Ulterior, present Andalusia, Extremadura, southern León, and most of modern Portugal and Hispania Citerior, or Tarraconensis, all of what is now northern, eastern, and south-central Spain. (Encyclopedia Britannica) The subjugation began with a raid by an army that (according to traditional accounts) constituted mainly of Berber North West Africans and was led by Tariq ibn Ziyad. They landed in early 711 at Gibraltar and campaigned their way to the North. - Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād, also spelt Tarik Ibn Zeyad (died c. 720), general who led the Muslim conquest of Spain. Mūsā ibn Nuṣayr, the Arab conqueror of Morocco, left his general Ṭāriq to govern Tangier in his place. Spain at this time was under Visigothic rule but was rent by civil war. The dispossessed sons of the recently deceased Visigothic king of Spain, Witiza, appealed to the Muslims for help in the civil war. The Arabs quickly responded to this request to conquer Spain for themselves. In May 711 Ṭāriq landed on Gibraltar with an army of 7,000 men, mostly Berbers, Syrians, and Yemenis. Gibraltar henceforth became known as Jabal Ṭāriq (Mount Tarik), from which the Anglicised form of the name is adapted. (Encyclopedia Britannica) The Battle of Guadalete took place in 711 or 712 at an unidentified location between the Christian Visigoths of Hispania under their king, Roderic, and invading troops of Muslim Berbers under the Berber commander Ṭāriq ibn Ziyad. The battle was decisive as the culmination of a series of Berber attacks and the beginning of the Islamic conquest of Hispania. After the decisive Battle of Guadalete against the usurper Roderic and the defection to the Saracens136 of the rightful heirs to the throne, the Visigothic Kingdom split into parts. Over the following decade, most of the Iberian Peninsula was occupied and put under Muslim sovereignty. However, the mountainous areas in the North-West (Galicia, Asturias) and northern mountainous areas were defended successfully by the Basques with the help of the Franks. Successfully preserved conquered territory became the Emirate (later Caliphate) of Córdoba137. At the beginning, it was part of the Umayyad Empire, and after the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate, it became a separate state.

136 Saracen - in the Middle Ages, any person - Arab, Turk, or other - who professed the religion of Islām /Encyclopedia Britannica/ 137 Córdoba, conventional Cordova, city, capital of Córdoba province, in the north-central section of the autonomous community of Andalusia in southern Spain. It lies at the southern foot of the Morena Mountains and on the right 230

First, the invaders had moved northeast across the Pyrenees to invade Septimania. However, concentrating a more massive army they continued their advance to the northwest, defeating Odo at the Battle of Bordeaux. Charles Martel at the time held the high office of mayor of the palace in Francia. Odo saw no choice but to look for the help of his former enemy. He swore an oath of loyalty to him and joined the Frankish military forces, who defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Tours (Poitiers) in 732. Muslim control of territory in what became France was discontinuous and ended in 759. - Septimania, French Septimanie, is an ancient territory in what is now southwestern France, between the Garonne and Rhône rivers and between the mountains of the Pyrenees and the Cévennes. During the reign of the Roman emperor Augustus, a colony of veterans of the Seventh Legion (Septimani) settled it; hence probably the name, which persisted into the early Middle Ages. Septimania was the last Gallic holding of the Visigoths of Spain after Clovis drove them from most of the Frankish kingdom. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

- Charles Martel, born c. 688—died Oct. 22, 741, Quierzy-sur-Oise [France], mayor of the palace of Austrasia (the eastern part of the Frankish kingdom) from 715 to 741. He reunited and ruled the entire Frankish realm and stemmed the Muslim invasion at Poitiers in 732. His byname, Martel, means “the hammer.” (Encyclopedia Britannica) Though Muslim armies dominated the Iberian Peninsula for centuries afterwards, Pelayo of Asturias's victory at the Battle of Covadonga in 722 preserved at least one Christian principality in the North. This battle later assumed major symbolic importance for Iberian Christians as the beginning of the Reconquista. Perhaps because of the Muslim perception of Christians and Jews as People of the Book (those who believe in the God of Abraham), numerous Jewish and Christian communities survived through the centuries of Muslim rule in al-Andalus138. What happened in Iberia in the early VIII-century is subject to much incertitude. There is only one contemporary Christian source, the Chronicle of 754, which ends on that date, considered as reliable but obscure. There are no contemporary Muslim accounts. Muslim information there comes from later compilations much coloured by the writers' points of view of what was proper and contemporary politics. The most distinguished such compilation is that of Al-Maqqari, which dates from the 17th century. This insufficiency of sources means that any particular or accentuated claims need to be regarded with precaution. Only several stories are available, and they might more appropriately be described as legends.

(North) bank of the Guadalquivir River, about 80 miles (130 km) northeast of Sevilla. In 711 Córdoba was captured and destroyed mainly by the Muslims. Tribal rivalries impeded its recovery until ʿAbd al-Raḥmān I, a member of the Umayyad family, accepted the leadership of the Spanish Muslims and made Córdoba his capital in 756. ʿAbd al- Raḥmān I founded the Great Mosque of Córdoba, which was enlarged by his successors and completed about 976 by Abū ʿĀmir al-Manṣūr. (Encyclopedia Britannica) 138 Fletcher, Richard (2006). Moorish Spain. Los Angeles: University of California Press.p.35. ISBN 0-520-24840-6 231

As far as the initial nature of the expedition concerns, historical opinion regards four directions: 1. that a force was sent to aid one side in a civil war in the hope of robbery and a future alliance; 2. that it was a secret force sent for testing the military strength of the Visigothic kingdom; 3. that it was the first wave of a full–scale invasion; 4. that it was an unusually sizeable raiding expedition with no direct strategic intentions. According to traditional Islamic accounts, in the early 8th century an army estimated at some 10,000–15,000 combatants led by one Tariq Ibn Ziyad crossed from North Africa. Ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥakam was an Egyptian Muslim historian who wrote a work generally known as The Conquest of Egypt and North Africa and Spain. This work is considered one of the earliest Arabic Islamic histories to have survived to the present day. Ibn Abd-el-Hakem reports one and a half centuries later that the people of Andalus did not observe them, thinking that vessels crossing and recrossing were trading vessels. For their benefit, they plied backwards and forwards. So, they defeated the Visigothic army, led by King Roderic, in a decisive battle at Guadalete in 712. The forces of his superior Emir Musa ibn Nusair reinforced Tariq's forces and went on to take control of most of Iberia. During the time of the second (or first, depending on the sources) Arab governor, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa (714-716) the main urban centres of Catalonia surrendered. Muslim troops reached Pamplona. - Pamplona, Basque Iruña, capital of both the province and the autonomous community of Navarra, northeastern Spain. It lies on the western bank of the Arga River in the fertile La Cuenca region. Situated in an irrigated cereal-producing area, Pamplona is a flourishing agricultural centre. (Encyclopedia Britannica) It was submitted, too, after a compromise was brokered with Arab commanders to respect the town and its inhabitants. This practice seems to have been common in many towns of the Iberian Peninsula139. The Muslim troops found little resistance. Given the situation of the communications, three years seems to have been a reasonable lapse of time to cover the distance to almost the Pyrenees after making the necessary arrangements for the towns' submission and their future governance. Roderic is believed to have been killed, and a crushing defeat would have left the Visigoths largely leaderless and disorganised. In this regard, the ruling Visigoth population is estimated at a

139 Collins, Roger (1990). The Basques. Basil Blackwell. Pp. 116. ISBN 0-631-17565-2. 232 mere 1 to 2% of the total population, which on the one hand led to 'a reasonably strong and effective instrument of government’. However, it was highly 'centralised to the extent that the defeat of the royal army left the entire land open to the invaders'. The resulting power vacuum, which may have indeed caught Tariq completely by surprise, would have aided the Muslim conquest immensely. Indeed, it may have been equally welcome to the Hispano-roman peasants who, as D. W. Lomax claims, were disillusioned by the prominent social divide between them and the 'barbaric' and 'decadent' Visigoth royal family.140 The conquest led to a period of several hundred years during which the Iberian Peninsula was the province of Al-Andalus. It was dominated by Muslim rulers, with only a few small Christian states surviving in the mountainous North. In 756, Abd ar-Rahman I, a survivor of the then-recently overthrown Umayyad Dynasty, seized power in Al-Andalus. He founded an independent dynasty which survived until the 11 century. The Almoravide (1002 AD) and Almohad (1138) dynasties followed until 1269 when the Marinids took over. The Muslim possessions in Spain were divided into small emirates. As a result, they continuously received the attacks of the Reconquista. The last Muslim fortress of Granada fell in 1492.

History's Turning Point - The Great Wall of China

At the end of this part of this thesis, we would like to compare two greatest turning points in history: the Great Wall of China and the Russian revolutions. These two state systems had the most significant impact on the formation and development of Chechen ethnicity. Lots of people do not know that these two different systems have lots in common, beginning with the mausoleums and ending with the forced deportation (resettlement) of peoples. The construction of the Great Wall of China is one of the greatest turning points in history. China's written records, extending back nearly three thousand years, form the longest uninterrupted tradition of historical documentation of any civilisation. No other pre-modern society was aware of the past or evolved such careful provision for recording what is considered crucial among the events of its own time.

140 Lomax, D.W. (1978). The Reconquest of Spain. Longman. Pp. 15–16. 233

The first records of Chinese and Indian diplomacy originate from the 1st millennium BC. By the 8th century BC, the Chinese had alliances, delegacies, missions, and well-developed system of polite discourse between their many ‘warring states’. Resident envoys served as hostages to the excellent conduct of those who sent them. The elegance and sophistication of this tradition, which accentuated on the practical virtues of ethical behaviour in relations between states is well documented in the Chinese classics. Its nature is possibly best captured by the advice of Zhuangzi141 to diplomats at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. He recommended them that if relations between states are friendly, they may constitute mutual trust through daily collaboration. However, if relations are remote, mutual trust can only be set up by exchanges of messages. Messengers, diplomats must deliver messages. Their contents may be either heart-warming to both sides or likely not to generate anger between them. The most challenging task under the heavens is honestly conveying such messages. If the words are such as to cause a positive response on both sides, there will be a temptation to exaggerate them with cajolery. If they are unpleasant, there will be a tendency to make them even more severe. In both cases, the truth will be lost. If truth is lost, mutual confidence will also be lost. If confidence is lost, the messenger himself may be jeopardised. Therefore, I say to you that it is a wise rule: “always to speak the truth and never to embellish it. In this way, you will avoid much harm to yourselves.” The country’s unification under the Qin Emperor (221 BC) ended the practice of equal diplomatic intercommunications between struggling states within China. The Han dynasty in 206 BC strengthened this unification. China appeared as the largest, most crowded, technologically most innovative, and best-governed society in the world under the Han and successive dynasties. The arguments of earlier Chinese philosophers, such as Mencius142, predominated. The best way for

141 Zhuangzi, (Chinese: "Master Zhuang") Wade-Giles romanisation Chuang-tzu, original name Zhuang Zhou (born c. 369, Meng [now Shangqiu, Henan province], China—died 286 BCE). He was the most significant of China's early interpreters of Daoism, whose work (Zhuangzi) is considered one of the definitive texts of Daoism and is thought to be more comprehensive than the Daodejing, which is attributed to Laozi, the first philosopher of Daoism. Zhuangzi's teachings also exerted a significant influence on the development of Chinese Buddhism and had a considerable effect on Chinese landscape painting and poetry. Encyclopedia Britannica. 142 Mencius, (Latin), Chinese (Pinyin) Mengzi or (Wade-Giles) Meng-tzu, original name (Wade-Giles) Meng K'o (born c. 371, ancient state of Zou, China—died c. 289 BCE, China), early Chinese philosopher whose development of orthodox Confucianism earned him the title "second sage." Chief among his basic tenets was an emphasis on the obligation of rulers to provide for the ordinary people. The book Mencius records his doings and sayings and contains statements on the goodness of human nature, a topic warmly debated by Confucianists up to modern times. Encyclopedia Britannica.

234 a state to practice influence abroad, they said, was to develop a moral society worthy of imitation by delighting foreigners, surely for them to come to China to learn.

China, the nation, which was created by Chin143, has lasted for over two thousand years. From 770 BC until 476 BC was the Spring and Autumn Period of China. During the period, princes that held land from the Zhou Kingdom established themselves states. Among all the 149 states, the most powerful were the Qi, Jin, Chu, Qin (Chin), Lu and Zheng States. For the overall use of iron tools and farm cattle, the social production of this period developed considerably. The higher-rank people commenced to obtain private croplands. The land was privatised. The underlying social system of that time, i.e. the Well Field System, began to crash. It cracked Zhou Kingdom's governance over its princes and raised among them wars for dominance. Stronger states made frequent wars upon others to subjugate them. Only a few out of more than a hundred finally survived and were worried for a new round of war. These states included Qin (Chin), Wei, Yan, Zhao, Han, Qi, Chu, also referred to as ‘the Seven Powers’, and others less active. The history came to the Warring States Period (BC 475 - 221). - Zhou dynasty, Wade-Giles romanisation Chou, (1046–256 bc) was a dynasty that ruled ancient China for almost a millennium. It established the distinctive political and cultural characteristics that were to be identified with China for the next 2,000 years. The beginning date of the Zhou has long been debated. Traditionally, it has been given as 1122 BC. That date has been successively revised as scholars have uncovered more archaeological evidence. The most recent findings have placed the outright start of the dynasty at 1046 bc.

143 Qin dynasty also spelt Kin, Wade-Giles romanisation Ch'in, (221–207 BCE), Dynasty that established the first vast Chinese Empire. The Qin, from which the name China is derived, established the approximate boundaries and basic administrative system that all subsequent Chinese dynasties were to follow for the next 2,000 years. This dynasty was originated in the state of Qin, one of the many small feudal states into which China was divided between 771 and 221 BCE. Occupying the strategic Wei River valley in the extreme north western area of the country, the Qin was one of the least Sinicized of these small states and one of the most martial. Between the middle of the 3rd and the end of the 2nd- century BCE, the rulers of Qin began to centralise state power, creating a rigid system of laws that were applicable throughout the country and dividing the state into a series of commanderies and prefectures ruled by officials appointed by the central government. Under these changes, Qin slowly began to conquer its surrounding states, emerging into a significant power in China. Encyclopedia Britannica.

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- Well-field system144, Chinese (Pinyin) jingtian or (Wade-Giles romanisation) ching-t'ien is the communal land organisation supposedly in effect throughout China early in the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE). The well- field system was first mentioned in the literature of the late Zhou dynasty (c. 4th-century BCE), especially in the writings of the famous Confucian philosopher Mencius. He advocated it as an ideal to which the government of his day should return.

According to Mencius, each unit of the well-field system was divided between eight peasant families. Each family had its outlying field around a central shared field, and all the families jointly worked a ninth central plot for their lord. Although it is doubtful that the actual system worked this smoothly, it does seem to represent a time when land and goods were communally shared in China. New land was cleared when the old land became infertile, or the population increased.

The name for the system is derived from the Chinese character for well (jing, or ching), which provides a graphic representation of the central shared field surrounded by eight outlying fields. The well-field concept was repeatedly referred to by later reformers to justify their land redistribution systems or to criticise government land practices.

- Warring States, also called Contending States, Chinese (Pinyin) Zhanguo, or (Wade-Giles romanisation) Chan-kuo, (475–221 bc) is the designation for seven or more small feuding Chinese kingdoms. Their careers collectively constitute an era in Chinese history. The Warring States period was one of the most fertile and influential in Chinese history. It not only saw the rise of many of the great philosophers of Chinese civilisation, including the Confucian thinkers Mencius and Xunzi. It also witnessed the establishment of many of the governmental structures and cultural patterns that were to characterise China for the next 2,000 years.

The Warring States period is distinguished from the preceding age, the Spring and Autumn (Chunqiu) period (770–476 bc), when the country was divided into many even smaller states. The name Warring States is derived from an ancient work known as the Zhanguoce ("Intrigues of the Warring States"). In these intrigues, two states, Qin and Chu, eventually emerged supreme. Qin finally defeated all the other states and established the first unified Chinese Empire in 221 bc. One man was to convert these warring kingdoms into a united empire, the Empire China, that took his name. Many kings of the Shang and Zhou dynasties ruled previously, in 221 BC. The ruler of the State of Qin (Chin), Qin Shi Huang, was the first to subjugate the different nations of the Zhou Confederation, as well as other states. He succeeded in converting these different states into a relatively unified and uniform empire. Under his leadership, a society modelled around strict loyalty to the Legalist philosophy. The Chinese sphere was also extended into Inner Mongolia and Manchuria to the North. With naval expeditions sent to the South, the indigenous Baiyue of modern-day Guangdong and northern Vietnam (the latter called Jiaozhi, and then Annam during the Tang Dynasty) were also suppressed and brought under Chinese control. - The Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE). The earliest examples of bronze vessels were unearthed in Erlitou, near the modern city of Luoyang in Henan province, which may or may not represent the earliest named Shang capital, Po, if not a still earlier Xia dynasty site. There a "palace" with pounded-earth foundation, fine jades, simple bronze vessels, and oracle bones were found. At Erligang, in the Zhengzhou area in Henan province, traces have been found of a walled city that may have been the middle Shang capital referred to as Ao.

144 Well-field system (Chinese history) - Encyclopedia Britannica 236

Imperator Chin decided to protect his new Empire by building the most massive human-made structure in the world. Great Wall of China proved to be a crucial turning point in world history. Qin Shi Huang145 (Wade-Giles: Chin Shih Huang; 259 BC – 210 BC,)146 is the king of the Chinese State of Qin from 246 BC to 221 BC, during the Warring States Period147. He became the first Imperator of a unified China in 221 BC. He ruled until his death in 210 BC at the age of 49. Calling himself the First Imperator after China's unification, Qín Shǐ Huáng is a central figure in Chinese history, conducting nearly two millennia of imperial rule. After unifying China, he and his chief advisor Li Si introduced a series of major economic and political reforms. He launched gigantic projects, including building and unifying different sections of the Great Wall of China, guarded by the life-sized Terracotta Army, and a massive national road system. All this at the expense of numerous lives. To guarantee stability, Qin Shi Huang proscribed and burned many books and buried some scholars alive. - The Great Wall, one of the greatest wonders of the world, was listed as a World Heritage by UNESCO in 1987. Just like a gigantic dragon, the Great Wall winds up and down across deserts, grasslands, mountains and plateaus, stretching approximately 8,851.8 kilometres (5,500 miles) from east to west of China. With a history of more than 2000 years, some of the sections are now in ruins or have disappeared. However, it is still one of the most appealing attractions all around the world, owing to its architectural grandeur and historical significance.

- The Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications made of stone, brick, tamped earth, wood, and other materials. It is built along an east-to-west line across the historical northern borders of China. The idea, in part, was to protect the Chinese Empire or its prototypical states against invasions by various nomadic groups or military raids by various warlike peoples or forces. Several walls were built as early as the 7th century BC; these, later joined together and made bigger, stronger, and unified are now collectively referred to as the Great Wall. Especially famous is the wall built between 220–206 BC by the first Imperator of China, Qin Shi Huang. Little of that wall remains. Since then, the Grea Wall has on and off been rebuilt, maintained, and enhanced; the majority of the existing wall was reconstructed during the Ming Dynasty148. This Imperator was prideful of his new nation and liked to inspect his vast new land. Breaking with habitude Chin made five imperial tours. He travelled to observe his achievements to impress his subjects and to learn about his people. The costs were enormous, and taxes had been growing to match his increasing expenses. Now local communities were supposed to pay more to thousands of servants and troops who always travelled with the Imperator. Digression spread

145Wood, Frances. (2008). China's First Emperor and His Terracotta Warriors. Macmillan publishing. ISBN 0-312- 38112-3, ISBN 978-0-312-38112-7. p 2 146http://www.travelchinaguide.com/ 147Duiker, William J. Spielvogel, Jackson J. Edition: 5, illustrated. (2006). World History: Volume I: To 1800. Thomson Higher Education publishing. ISBN 0-495-05053-9, ISBN 978-0-495-05053-7. p.78. 148Wade-Giles romanisation Ming, (1368–1644), Chinese dynasty that provided an interval of native Chinese rule between eras of Mongol and Manchu dominance. During the reign of Ming dynasty, China exerted immense cultural and political influence on East Asia and the Turks to the west, as well as on Vietnam and Myanmar to the South. Encyclopedia Britannica. 237 throughout his conquered people. Even with these massive internal problems, the most severe threat Chin faced, laid outside his Empire. His permanent enemy was the nomadic northern tribesmen for mountain cross border invasions. The Imperator was afraid that these escalating invasions would drive the farmers off the land. It would destroy his profitable tax system. Chin acted quickly. He was not the one who would let his Empire to disintegrate. He started on a large-scale program of forced resettlement. A hundred and twenty thousand families were dragged into a long march from the North to underpopulated regions of the South. Many of the scholars followed the ancient doctrine of Confucius. The great philosopher taught that the man's instinct is to do good, but the rulers should stimulate this by facilitating a wise and well-wishing example. - Confucianism is the way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th–5th-century BCE and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia. Although transformed over time, it is still the substance of learning, the source of values, and the social code of the Chinese. Its influence has also extended to other countries, particularly Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

Confucianism, a Western term that has no counterpart in Chinese, is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. Sometimes viewed as a philosophy and sometimes as a religion, Confucianism may be understood as an all- encompassing way of thinking and living. It entails ancestor reverence and a profound human-centred religiousness. East Asians may profess themselves to be Shintōists, Daoists, Buddhists, Muslims, or Christians, but by announcing their religious affiliations, seldom do they cease to be Confucians.

- Confucianism originated as an ethical-sociopolitical teaching during the Spring and Autumn Period. Later, the Han Dynasty developed metaphysical and cosmological elements. Following the abandonment of Legalism in China after the Qin Dynasty, Confucianism became the official state ideology of China. Then it was replaced by "Three Principles of the People" ideology with the establishment of the Republic of China. Afterwards, Maoist Communism was replaced by the People's Republic of China in Mainland China.

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The core of Confucianism is humanism, the belief that human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour, especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic of which are ‘ren’, ‘yi’, and ‘li’. -‘Ren’ is an obligation of altruism and humaneness for other individuals within a community. -‘Yi’ is the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good. -‘Li’ is a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should appropriately act within a community. Confucianism holds that one should give up one's life, if necessary, either passively or actively, for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of ‘ren’ and ‘yi’.

The Imperator Chin and his chief advisor Li Si followed a different doctrine. They were called legalists. They considered that a man is evil, and they need strict autocratical rule to keep order. However, two doctrines could not exist together. The scholars intrigued the Imperator’s downfall. When the scholars questioned him publicly, Li Si was ferocious. He was reporting to the Imperator: "They study the past to criticise the present, bearing reality in their empty arguments. Some condemn your laws and your orders. As soon as they hear decree issued, they debate opposing secretly in courts and disputing it openly in the streets. It lowers the prestige of the sovereignty. It must be stopped". - Legalism is a school of Chinese philosophy that attained prominence during the turbulent Warring States era (475–221 BCE). Through the influence of the philosophers Shang Yang, Li Si, and Hanfeizi, was formed the ideological basis of China's first imperial dynasty, the Qin (Chin) (221–207 BCE).

The three central precepts of these Legalist philosophers are the strict application of widely publicised laws (fa), the application of such management techniques (shu) as accountability (xingming) and "showing nothing" (wuxian), and the manipulation of political purchase (shi).

The Legalists believed that political institutions should be modelled in response to the realities of human behaviour and that human beings are inherently selfish and short-sighted. Thus social harmony cannot be assured through the recognition by the people of the virtue of their ruler, but only through firm state control and absolute obedience to authority. The Legalists advocated government by a system of laws that rigidly prescribed punishments and rewards for specific behaviours. They stressed the direction of human activity toward the goal of increasing the power of ruler and state. The brutal implementation of this policy by the authoritarian Qin dynasty led to that dynasty's overthrow and the discrediting of Legalist philosophy in China. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

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Chin's most significant enemies were the scholars and their independent opinions. Chin acted quickly. He pulled out the intellectual heart of his Empire. Launching a war against the past, Chin declared the end of history and burnt all the books. If he could eliminate official Chinese history, then he could fabricate his version of the past. The Imperator systematically eliminated all references to the ancient traditions of Confucius. He persecuted the scholars, blaming them of generating the past. To set an example for the rest of his people, he took four hundred and sixty scholars and buried them alive. This active public terror was destined to overwhelm all opposition. Imperator Chin realised that killing the intelligence could only buy him time. His adversaries in the North posed a long-lasting threat. They inspired his lasting achievement – the Great Wall, which was also China's ultimate tragedy. Men Tien was Chin’s most trusted general. In 214 BC Chin ordered him to unite and enlarge the already existing fortifications around the northern outskirts of his Empire into one defensive barer. Three hundred thousand workers, a mixture of intellectuals, disbanded soldiers and prisoners of war were forced to build the Great Wall. It stretched through steep mountains hills and deserts. Thousands of scholars who had escaped execution, also, were sentenced into forced labour to build the wall. Most of them died there. Thousands died from starvation, exhausted and disease. Their bodies were buried inside the walls. That Great Wall then became known as the wall of tears. The wall became the longest cemetery in the world. The Imperator’s oldest son Fu SU expressed compassion for the assassinated Confucian scholars. The emperor’s advisor Li Si and Zhao Gao were jealous of the prince’s increasing influence. They plotted to punish Fu Su for his statements. At the same time, the Great Wall became an excellent communication system. Armies and suppliers could traverse at speed from one end of the Empire to the other. The Imperator Chin set China’s first standing army to guard the wall, ensuring that they were kept well away from the imperial capital. Thus, they are unable to support any public revolt. The building of the Great wall was a mockery which at last brought Chin's Empire within his control. It proved to be a crucial psychological and physical boundary. The northern tribesmen were kept out while their subjects were kept in. Imperator Chin having defeated his enemies, had become obsessed with obtaining immortality. In a tireless search for the elixir of life, he regularly tested the nostrums presented to

240 him by his alchemists and sorceries. Some of these mixtures contained deadly toxins. Ironically, these portions incidentally poisoned him. He died while on the round tour of his Empire. There was an atmosphere of suspiciousness and fear. Imperator’s most influential advisors, Li Si and Zhao Gao knew that they would be sent to death if his expelled son Fu Su could ascend the throne. They were in need to get Chin's corps back to the capital quickly. Thus, they could start to manoeuvre the more impressible second son Hu Hiy as a next China Imperator. The summer warmth and the long journey made it difficult to disguise the fact that there was the corps in the Imperator’s carriage. Li Si and Zhao Gao ordered carts of strong-smelling fish to follow the Imperator’s one and disguise a stench of his discomposing body. Li Si and Zhao Gao expected that they would be in a firm position if they could induct Hu Hai as Imperator. Zhao Gao had also been responsible for writing the emperors’ letters. Imitating Chin’s handwriting and signature he wrote a message ordering the crown prince Fu Su to commit suicide. Fu Su could not disregard an imperial command. The plotters even provided the sword. Fu Su committed suicide, and Hu Hai became the second Imperator. Uprisings, bloody war of succession marked his reign. Hu Hai died at the battlefield. Seven years after the death of Imperator Chin, a new long-lasting dynasty of Han ascended the throne and brought peace to China. Chin was the first Imperator who created the concept as well as the reality of a united China. It was Chin's most significant inheritance. Building of the Great Wall was the turning point which helped define Chinese identity, symbolically dividing ‘civilised’ inside world from ‘uncivilised’ outside world. The period of the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) was a ground-breaking era in the history of Imperial China's international relations. During the long reign of Imperator Wu of Han (r. 141– 87 BC), the travels of Chinese ambassador Zhang Qian established China's relations with many different Asian territories for the first time. - Zhang Qian, Wade-Giles romanisation Chang Ch'ien was born in Chenggu [now in Shaanxi province], China—died 114 BCE. He is a Chinese explorer, the first man to bring back a reliable account of the lands of Central Asia to the court of China. He was dispatched by the Han dynasty emperor Wudi in 138 BCE to establish relations with the Yuezhi people, a Central Asian tribal group that spoke an Indo-European language. Captured by the Xiongnu, nomadic enemies of China, he was detained for ten years. Nevertheless, he managed to reach his destination and returned to China after an absence of 13 years.

Seven years later he was sent on another mission, this time to the Wusun, another Indo-European people living in the Ili River valley North of the Tarim Basin. In addition to travelling himself, he sent his assistant to visit the Fergana Valley (Uzbekistan), Bactria (Afghanistan), and Sogdiana (west Turkestan, now in Uzbekistan). He gathered information on Parthia, India, and other states in the area. His mission brought the Chinese into contact with the outposts of Hellenistic culture established by Alexander the Great, opened the way for exchanges of envoys between these Central Asian states and the Han. 241

After his journeys, the famous Silk Road leading, the land trading route from China to the Roman Empire, was established. Imperator Wu of Han was also known for his conquests and successful campaigns against the Xiongnu. - Xiongnu, Wade-Giles Hsiung-nu were nomadic pastoral people who at the end of the 3rd-century BC formed a great tribal league. It was able to dominate much of Central Asia for more than 500 years. China's wars against the Xiongnu, who were a constant threat to the country's northern frontier throughout this period, led to the Chinese exploration and conquest of much of Central Asia. There is less general agreement about how much the Chineseness developed and changed. The Chineseness, from the Qin empire to the mid-19th century, although strongly challenged, still survives and has been maintained by the significant symbols of Chinese unity: language, personalised dynastic state and its cyclical fortunes, and immense influence of Confucian concepts and institutions at all levels of society. Nevertheless, the dynastic state did not reach the standard political form until after the Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220). Similarly, the cyclical view of history was confirmed only after that. Also, from the emergence of Han’s Confucianism in the first century BC to the state orthodoxy of neo-Confucianism in the 14th century during which changed nature and fate of Confucian ideas and values themselves contradict to the view of a changeless China. Each successive Chinese dynasty had strengthened its power at home and established its borders with the non-Chinese world. Its foreign relations with the outside world were typically limited to the defence of China's boundaries against foreign attacks or invasions, the reception of envoys from surrounding states seeking to ingratiate themselves and to trade with China, and the control of foreign merchantry in specific ports designated for foreign trade. With rare exceptions, the essential institution which was introduced from outside China is Buddhism. For some five centuries (4th to 8th centuries AD) it improved and transformed Chinese life: thought, science and medicine, literature and fine arts. It improved Chinese life to the extent that it is still not sufficiently acknowledged. Buddhism affected almost everything it touched, and it reached the lives of every Chinese and reached every part of China. Buddhism enriched the common language of China, but the use of that language also changed it. Chinese leaders and diplomats waited at home for foreigners to pay their respects rather than travelling abroad themselves. This tributary system lasted until European colonialism broke it which introduced to Asia the European concepts of sovereignty, spheres of influence, and other diplomatic norms, traditions, and practices.

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The concept of foreign relations of China held that the divine dynasty ruled the Chinese Empire, the centre of World civilisation, with the Imperator of China, the leader of the civilised world. This view considered China equivalent to all under heaven. All other states were considered to be tributaries, under the imperial rule of China. Some were direct vassals. Theoretically, the lands around the imperial capital were considered as five zones of subjugation. The circular areas were differentiated according to the strength of the favourable influence from the Son of Heaven. There were a few periods when Chinese foreign relations could perceive isolationist tones, because of the view that the rest of the world was poor, lagging, and had little to offer. Despite this, China was a centre of trade from very ancient times. Many of China's relations with the outside world came via the Silk Road. It included contacts with representatives of the Roman Empire and contact with Venetian traveller Marco Polo as well. - During the Middle Ages, the Italian merchant Marco Polo spent many years in China. He wrote a famous book about his experiences. The book helped Europeans to learn about Asian peoples and goods.

Marco Polo was born in about 1254, probably in Venice (now in Italy). His father and uncle were merchants who travelled to many lands. In 1271 they took young Marco to Asia. The Polos sailed over the Mediterranean Sea to what is now Israel. Then they travelled overland through Turkey, Persia (now Iran), and Afghanistan. In central Asia, they followed a trail called the Silk Road. The Silk Road was a trade route for fine silk cloth from China. (Children's Encyclopedia – Britannica)

Chinese foreign policy was often aimed at constraining the threat of so-called "barbarian" invaders (such as the Xiongnu, Mongols, and Jurchen) from the North. It could be done by military activities, such as active attacks (campaigns into the North) or a passive defence (as illustrated by the Great Wall of China). The Chinese also established marriage alliances known as ‘peace marriage’.

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Chinese officers differentiated between adult/familiar barbarians (foreigners influenced by Chinese culture) and raw barbarians. Until the Communist Revolution in 1949, China had one of the most developed cosmological systems in the world. It was so sophisticated that ordinary people could not expect to understand more than a fraction of the system. The services of cosmological interpreters (fortune-tellers and geomancers) were required for any event or venture which might involve an element of risk, from selection of auspicious date for the wedding to the setting of a new building. Perhaps the most important of the many elements in the Chinese cosmological system was the yin-yang dichotomy. “Yin was usually seen as the collective representation of all forces in the universe that emanate from darkness, while yang was the representation of light. It followed from this primary division that aspects of human experience were often conceptualised as opposites. For example: day-night; life-death; good-evil and male-female. The sexual dichotomy showed its unambiguous connotation of male supremacy. In the traditional view, women are thought to be week, emotional and untrustworthy – characteristics that relate to their yin nature. At a higher, more philosophical level, the ideas about yin and yang were less concrete and, rather than a distinct dichotomy, the forces were complementary. In the esoteric literature of Daoism149, for example, yin and yang were inseparable and interacted in a dialectical relationship150. These concepts were used by the founders of the Chechen (Vaynoah ethnicity while forming the Chechen words151: Ye - 1. give birth to, to seed, make 2. kill.

149 Daoism also spelt Taoism, indigenous religious-philosophical tradition that has shaped Chinese life for more than 2,000 years. In the broadest sense, a Daoist attitude toward life can be seen in the accepting and yielding, the joyful and carefree sides of the Chinese character, an attitude that offsets and complements the moral and duty-conscious, austere and purposeful character ascribed to Confucianism. Daoism is also characterised by a positive, active attitude toward the occult and the metaphysics (theories on nature of reality). In contrast, the agnostic, pragmatic Confucian tradition considers these issues of only marginal importance, although the reality of such issues is, by most Confucians, not denied. Encyclopedia Britannica.

150, beliefs, customs and folklore. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of China, p 288. Editor Brian Hook, Univesity of Leeds. Cambridge University Press. Second edition 1991.

151 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 244

(For woman, animal and subjects. Imperative mood).

Yin - 1. gave birth to, have put a seed, is made 2. have killed. (For woman, animals and subjects)

Ve - 1. give birth to, to seed, make 2. kill. (Only for man. Imperative mood)

Vin - 1. gave birth to, have put a seed, is made 2. have killed (Only for man)

De - 1. give birth, to seed, make 2. kill. (for child, animals and subjects)

Din - 1. gave birth to, have put a seed, have made 2. have killed (for child, animals and subjects).

History's Turning Point – The Russian Revolutions

It was the final stage of the confrontation of the two philosophies which can be compared with Chinese Confucianism and Legalism but in more developed and severe form. The centre of Legalism was established in Moscow and St. Petersburg from one side and the centre mostly based on Confucianism and the monotheism of Abraham was established in Caucasus with its heart AchishBeth on the other side. Let us compare. Different divisions of the Russian crown had reason to be dissatisfied with the existing autocracy. Nicholas II was a profoundly reactionary ruler and upheld a strict authoritarian system. Individuals and society, in general, were assumed to show self-restraint, attachment to community, respect to the social hierarchy and patriotism towards the country. Religious cult helped bind all doctrines together as a basis of comfort and consolation in the face of challenging conditions and as a means of political authority implemented through the priesthood. Perhaps more than any other

245 contemporary monarch, Nicholas II attached his destiny and the future of his dynasty to the image of the ruler as a saintly and impeccable father to his people. Even after the Russian Revolution, the notion 'father of the nation' was re-established and attached to the communist ruler Stalin. We can add another parallel of the Stalin regime with another Chinese Emperor Chin who persecuted Confucians scholars and made Legalism as an official state philosophy. Compare forceful deportation of the Chinese people to the Northern regions during the reign of the Emperor Chin and deportations of the whole nations, subjects of the Soviet Union during World War II by Stalin. We consider this analogue to be the culmination point of the two philosophies' confrontation. In Chinese history, Legalism (Chinese: literally ‘School of Law’) was one of the main philosophic currents during the Warring States Period, although the term itself was later applied during the Han Dynasty and thus does not refer to an organised 'school' of thought. Legalism was a utilitarian political philosophy that did not address higher questions like the nature and purpose of life. The school's most famous proponent and contributor Han Fei Zi believed that a ruler should use the following three tools to govern his subjects: Fa (Chinese: literally ‘law or principle’): The law code must be written and made public. All people under the ruler were equal before the law. Laws should reward those who obey them and punish accordingly those who dare to break them. Thus, it is guaranteed that actions taken are systematically predictable. If the law is successfully enforced, even a weak ruler will be powerful. Shu (Chinese: literally "method, tactic or art"): Special tactics and "secrets" are to be employed by the ruler to make sure others do not take over control of the state. Especially noteworthy is that no one can fathom the ruler's motivations, and thus no one can know which behaviour might help them get ahead, other than following the laws. Shi (Chinese: literally ‘legitimacy, power or charisma’): It is the position of the ruler, not the ruler himself or herself, that holds power. Therefore, analysis of the trends, the context, and the facts are essential for a real ruler. Primarily members of the ruling class, the Legalists indicated that the head of state was gifted with the mystery of authority (Chinese: pinyin: shì), and as such his decisions must always hold the respect and obedience of the people. The state (country) comes first, not the individual. The Emperor's very illustrate brought legitimacy. In accentuating on the power of rulership, Legalists

246 such as Shen Dao (ca. 350 - 275 BCE) and Shen Buhai looked for to devalue the importance of the charismatic ruler. Skilled rulers mask their true intentions and faked nonchalance. To ensure that all of his words were respected, the wise ruler kept a low profile. The whole system was established to make model citizens conducted themselves and act how the dynasty wanted them to act against their will. The laws maintained by the Legalists were meant to support the state, the Imperator, and his military force. They were also reform-oriented and innovative. In theory, the Legalists considered that if the penalties were stiff and the law equally applied, neither the powerful nor the weak would be able to avoid state control. The Legalists specifically accentuated pragmatism over precedence and custom as the basis of law. Operated by Legalist thought, the First Qin Emperor, Qin Shi Huang, would reduce the power of the feudal lords, divide the unified empire into thirty-six administrative provinces. A good leader, by Han Fei's norms, must not only agree with the advice of loyal ministers when shown to be in error but must also expand politeness to those beneath him or her and not be too greedy. The dexterous ruler also understood the importance of strictness over amiability. Although the ruler was supposed to be fatherlike, the Legalists emphasised that being too polite would spoil the people and threaten the state's internal discipline. Interestingly, according to the Han's Grand Historian Sima Qian (ca. 145-86 BCE), while the First Qin Emperor concealed himself from the rest of the world (maybe due to a desire to achieve immortality) and thus maintained a low profile, he did not obligatorily follow all of the Legalists’ assertion on the role of the ruler. Now, about the philosophy of Chechens based on Abraham’s monotheism as a religion and Confucianism in social, political, economic spheres.

- Customs and traditions, which have always been at the centre of the Chechen way of life, are preserved in ‘noahchalla’, the code of behaviour and structure of moral philosophy that regulated Chechen society for centuries. Noahchalla comes from Noahcho ‘Chechen’, with a state-expressing suffix, and can be interpreted as Chechenness – the quality of being a Chechen. - Modesty ‘ghillakkh’ was an act of three parameters. The Vainakh code of masculine moral philosophy was impersonated in ‘yah’ (literally:’pride’; considered to be associated with ‘yueh’ – face) and its tenets (yahyan kostash), namely bravery, courage, modesty, restraint, countenance, generosity, serenity, charity and competitiveness.

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- The two other primary formers of Chechen character and morality were the notions of ‘bekhk’, the sense of duty and responsibility, and ‘eh’, the sense of shame, disgrace and guiltiness. - Hospitality was a sacred foundation all over the Caucasus and respect for guests was a source of pride and dignity for all Caucasian peoples. - There were many ways of greetings, depending on circumstances or conditions. The doctrine of equality was the basis of greeting procedures. - The sacral respect of the elders was closely associated with the cult of ancestors. The village elders were the chief judges in all affairs. Obeyance to one’s seniors was one of the obligatory rules of the code of conduct, and its violation is regarded as a grave blameworthy defect. - The difference between Chinese Confucianism and Chechen moral code which was applied to all spheres of life is as follows: the Chechen moral code, being so close to Confucianism in every day interfamily, inter-clannish and international relations, had its particularity as far as monotheism of Abraham concerned. The founders of the Chechen ethnicity were monotheists as we show it in the first and second parts of this thesis.

Now compare it with Confucianism. - The religion of ancient China, to which Confucius gave his devout adherence was a form of nature-worship very closely approaching to monotheism. While numerous spirits connected with natural phenomena were established --spirits of mountains and rivers, of land and grain, of the four quarters of the heavens, the sun, moon, and stars--they were all subordinated to the supreme Heaven-god, T'ien (Heaven) also called Ti (Lord), or Shang- ti (Supreme Lord). All other spirits were but his ministers, acting in obeyance to his will. T'ien was the adherent of the moral law, exercising a benignant foresight over men. Nothing done in secret could elude his all-seeing eye. His punishment for wicked deeds took the form either of disaster and early death or of unhappiness laid up for the children of the sinner. In various passages of the ‘Shao’ and ‘She-king’, we find this belief maintaining itself as a motivation to right conduct. That Confucius himself did not ignore it is shown by his recorded saying: "he who transgresses against Heaven has no one to whom he can pray". Another evident religious motivation to the practice of goodness was

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the persuasion that souls of departed relatives were to a great extent, dependent for their happiness on the behaviour of their living descendants. It was taught that children are bound to it before their dead parents to contribute to their glory and happiness by lives of virtue. - To consider from the sayings of Confucius that have been kept, he did not ignore these motives to right conduct, but he set principal stress on the love of goodness for its own sake. - The tenets of morality and their concrete employment in various relations of life were incarnated in the sacred texts, which in turn represented the doctrine of the great sages of the past raised by Heaven to teach humanity. These doctrines were not inspired, nor were they revealed, yet they were faithful. - The sages were born with wisdom implied by Heaven to enlighten the children of men. It was thus a wisdom that was providential, rather than supernatural. The notion of Divine positive revelation is absent from the Chinese texts. - To follow the path of duty as established in the imperative rules of conduct was within the comprehension of all men, provided that their nature, good at birth, was not beyond hope damaged by unholy influences. Confucius held the traditional opinion that all men are born good. There is no trace of original sin in his teaching. It looks like he failed to recognise even the existence of vicious hereditary tendencies. According to Confucius, what spoiled men was a bad environment, evil example, an inexcusable yielding to evil appetites that everyone could and ought to control by right use of his natural possibilities. Moral decline caused by pieces of advice of evil spirits had no place in his system. Nor is there any concept of Divine mercy to strengthen the will and enlighten the mind in struggle with evil. There are one or two hints to prayer, but nothing to show that daily prayer was recommended to the aspirant after perfection. - As a foundation for the life of perfect goodness, Confucius insisted chiefly on the four virtues: benevolence, frankness, propriety and filial piety. Sincerity (frankness) was for him a cardinal virtue. He put into it a meaning more than a mere social relation. To be truthful, faithful and frank in speech, faithful to one's promises, conscientious in the fulfilment of one's duties to others—this, and something more was included in honesty. The honest man in Confucius's eyes was man with behaviour based on the love of virtue,

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and in consequence aspire to observe rules of right conduct in his heart as well as in outward actions, when alone as well as in the presence of others. - Benevolence, showing itself in a graciously regard for the prosperity of others and in a willingness to help them in times of need, was also an essential element in Confucius's teaching. It was considered as the characteristic feature of the good man. - The third essential virtue in the Confucian teaching is filial piety. In the Hiao-king, Confucius is recorded as saying: "Filial piety is the root of all virtue."--"Of all the actions of man there are none greater than those of filial piety." To the Chinese then as now, filial piety motivated son to love and respect his parents, facilitate to their comfort, bring happiness and honour to their name, by success in life. - Propriety is another virtue of primary importance in the Confucian teaching. It embraces the whole sphere of human conduct, motivating the superior man always to do the right thing in the right place. It is expressed in the so-called rules of ceremony, which are not limited to religious rites and rules of moral conduct but extend to the perplexing mass of conventional customs and habits by which Chinese etiquette is regulated. Even in Confucius's day, they were distinguished by the three hundred greater, and the three thousand lesser, rules of ceremony, and all had to be attentively learned as a guide to right manners. Below is the chronology of events of the Russian revolutionary period. What was the result of all this bloody period? Father of nation Emperor Nicholas II was replaced with father of the nation Stalin at the same time preserving and developing the philosophy of the Chinese Legalism in bloodier form. It means that it was the greatest turning point in the history of the material world (redistributing the goods and property), but it was not the turning point in history as far as the philosophy concern. The confrontation between the philosophy of founders of Chechen ethnicity and the philosophy of Russian and Soviet rulers went on. What happened in Russia and Chechnya? In 1917 a series of revolutions took place in Russian. They demolished the Tsarist autocracy. These revolutions led to the creation of the Russian SFSR. The Emperor abdicated, and a provisional government came to power. It was the result of the so-called February revolution (February 1917. March in the Gregorian calendar; the older Julian calendar was in use in Russia at

250 the time). During the October revolution, the Bolshevist (Communist) government replaced the Interjacent Government. The Russian Revolution of 1905 was believed to be a vital driving force to the February Revolutions of 1917. The events of Bloody Sunday summoned series of protests. In all this chaos, a council of workers was created, and a communist political protest had begun. It was called the St. Petersburg Soviet. The centre of the February Revolution (March 1917) was Petrograd (now St. Petersburg). The February Revolution took place in the context of substantial military failures during the First World War (1914–18), which left much of the Russian army in a state of mutiny. In that chaos, the Russian Interjacent Government was formed, and members of the Imperial parliament or Duma lost control over the country. The army leadership realised that they did not have the means to overwhelm the Revolution and the last Emperor of Russia, Nicholas II, abdicated. The Soviets (workers' councils), which were led by more radical socialist factions, initially permitted the Interjacent Government to rule but insisted on the right to impact the government and control various militias. World War I urged a Russian protest directed against Tsar Nicholas II. It was another important factor contributing to the retaliation of the Russian Communists against their royal opponents. A period of dual power took place, during which the Interjacent Government held state power while the national network of Soviets, led by socialists, had the loyalty of the lower classes and the left political fractions. During this uncertain period, there were frequent revolts, protests and strikes. The Interjacent Government decided to continue fighting the war with Germany, but the Bolsheviks and other socialist factions campaigned for stopping the conflict. The Bolshevists turned workers militias which were under their control into the Red Guards (later the Red Army). In the October Revolution (November in the Gregorian calendar), the Bolshevist party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the workers' Soviets, overthrew the Interjacent Government in Petrograd. The Bolsheviks became the leaders of various government ministries and captured control of the countryside, creating the ‘Cheka’ to overwhelm dissent. Russia’s participation in the First World War was ended, and the Bolshevist leaders signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918.

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Civil war began between the Red (Bolshevist), and White (anti- Bolshevist) fractions, which was to continue for several years, and the Bolshevists ultimately won. In this way, the Revolution paved the way for the foundation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922. Many significant historical events took place in Moscow and St. Petersburg, but there was also a significant movement in cities throughout the state, among national minorities throughout the empire and in the rural areas. Peasants took over and redistributed land. War also developed tediousness in the city, due to a lack of food in response to devastation of agriculture. Food became a substantial problem in Russia. The reason did not lie in any insufficiency of the harvests, which had not been significantly altered during wartime. The precise reason was that the government had been printing off millions of rouble notes to finance the war. By 1917 inflation increased prices up to four times compared with the prices in 1914. The peasantry was accordingly faced with the higher cost of purchases but did not make a corresponding gain in the sale of their produce. Their products were mainly taken by the middlemen on whom they depended. As a result, they tended to preserve their grain and to turn back for the maintenance of farming. Thus, the cities were always short of food. At the same time, rising prices led to demands for higher wages in the factories. In January and February 1916 revolutionary propaganda, maintained by German funds, lead to widespread strikes. The result of all this, however, was an increasing criticism of the government rather than any war-weariness. The original fever of patriotic excitement had caused the name of St. Petersburg to be changed to the less German-sounding Petrograd. This excitement has faded a little in the subsequent years, but it had not turned to defeatism. During the initial revolts in Petrograd in February 1917, the crowds in the streets objected to banners proclaiming, 'down with war'. Heavy losses during the war also intensified thoughts that Tsar Nicholas II was inappropriate to rule. Now the Liberals have better conditions to voice their complaints, as they were participating mostly through a variety of voluntary organisations. Local industrial committees expanded. In July 1915, a Central War Industries Committee, established under the chairmanship of a famous Octobrist Guchkov, included ten workers' representatives. The Petrograd Mensheviks agreed to join it despite the objections of their leaders abroad. All this activity gave new encouragement to political ambitions. In September 1915 the fractions of Octobrists and Kadets in the Duma demanded the forming of a responsible government. The Tsar rejected these proposals. He had now taken over the position of commander-in-chief of the armed forces. During his absence at Mogilev

252 headquarters Mogilev, he had left most of the day-to-day governance in the hands of Empress. Empress was highly unpopular, because of her German origin and influence that Rasputin, a nasty monk, was thought to exercise over her. Grigory Yefimovich Rasputin, original name Grigory Yefimovich Novykh, born in 1872, in Pokrovskoye, near Tyumen, Siberia, Russian Empire - died December 30 (December 17, Old Style, 1916, Petrograd ‘now St. Petersburg, Russia’). He was Siberian peasant whose mysterious ability to improve the condition of Aleksey Nikolayevich, the haemophiliac heir to the Russian Throne, made him favourite at the court of Emperor Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra. Rasputin reached the peak of his power at the Russian court after 1915. During World War I, Nicholas II took personal command of his forces (September 1915) and went to the troops on the front. Alexandra was left in charge of Russia's internal affairs, while Rasputin served as her consultant. Rasputin’s influence extended from the appointment of church officials to the selection of cabinet ministers (often non-professional opportunists), and he occasionally interfered in military matters to the prejudice of Russia. Although supporting no particular political group, Rasputin was a staunch opponent of anyone who stood against the autocracy or himself. Several attempts were made to kill Rasputin and save Russia from further calamity, but none were successful until 1916. A group of extreme conservatives, including Prince Feliks Yusupov (husband of the Tsar's niece), Vladimir Mitrofanovich Purishkevich (a member of the Duma), and Grand Duke Dmitry Pavlovich (the Tsar's cousin), constituted a conspiracy to eliminate Rasputin and save the monarchy from further scandal. They invited Rasputin to visit Yusupov’s home and, once there, was given poisoned wine and tea cakes. When he did not die, the furious Yusupov shot him. Rasputin dropped down but was able to run out into the courtyard. Purishkevich shot him again. Then the conspirators bound him and threw him through a hole in the ice into the Neva River. He finally died by drowning. It happened on the night 29–30 of December (December 16– 17, Old Style). The murder just strengthened Alexandra’s determination to maintain the principle of autocracy. However, a few weeks later, the whole imperial system was swept away by revolution. Despite permanent oppression, the aspiration of the people for democratic participation in government decisions was strong. Since the Age of Enlightenment, Russian intelligentsia had promoted Enlightenment ideals such as the virtue of the individual and the straightforwardness of democratic representation. These ideals were maintained most vociferously by Russia’s liberals,

253 although Marxists and anarchists also claimed to assist democratic reforms. A growing opposition movement had begun to challenge the Romanov monarchy openly long time before the disorder of World War I. Discontent with Russian autocracy culminated in the immense national cataclysm that followed the Bloody Sunday slaughter of January 1905. The Tsar's troops shotted hundreds of weaponless protesters. Workers reacted to the massacre with a general strike, which forced Nicholas to put forth the October Manifesto. It established a democratically elected parliament (the State Duma). The Tsar undermined this promise of reform. Afterwards, a year later with Article 87 of the 1906 Fundamental State Laws dismissed the first two Dumas when they proved uncooperative. Unrealised hopes of democracy fomented revolutionary ideas and violent outbreaks directed against the monarchy. One of the Tsar’s basic backgrounds for risking war in 1914 was his desire to restore the prestige that Russia had lost amid the defeat in the Russo-Japanese war. Nicholas II also sought to encourage a more excellent feeling of national unity with a war against a common and ancient enemy. The Russian Empire was a conglomerate of different ethnicities. It had shown significant signs of disunity in the years before the First World War. Nicholas II expected that the shared danger and calamity of a foreign war would reduce the social unrest over the constant issues of poverty, inequality, and infernal working conditions. Instead of restoring Russia's political and military reputation, World War I led to the appalling slaughter of Russian troops and military defeats. It brought both the monarchy and society in general to the point of collapse. Meanwhile, the Social Democrat leaders in exile, mostly in Switzerland, had been the sorrowful witnesses of the disintegration of international socialist solidarity. French and German Social Democrats had voted in favour of their respective governments. Georgi Plekhanov in Paris had adopted a violently anti-German stand, while Helphand supported the German war effort as the best way of ensuring a revolution in Russia. The Mensheviks largely maintained that Russia had the right to defend itself against Germany. Martov (a prominent Menshevik), now on the left of his group, demanded an end to war and an agreement between Russia and Germany based on national self-determination, with no annexations or indemnities. Martov’s views predominated in a manifesto drawn up by Leon Trotsky (a famous Bolshevist revolutionary) at a conference in Zimmerwald, in September 1915. Thirty-five Socialist leaders attended this conference. Inevitably Vladimir Lenin, supported by Zinoviev and Radek, strongly

254 opposed to them. Their attitudes became known as the Zimmerwald Left. Lenin rejected both the defence of Russia and the appeal for peace. Since autumn of 1914, he had been insisted that from the standpoint of the working class and of the labouring masses the lesser harm would be the defeat of the Tsarist Monarchy. According to Lenin, the war must be turned into a civil war of the proletarian soldiers against their governments. If a proletarian victory would emerge in Russia, then their duty would be to combat a revolutionary war for the liberation of the masses throughout Europe. Thus, Lenin remained the enfant terrible of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. At that point, his followers in Russia were as few as 10,000 and was no more than the leader of an extremist wing of a bankrupt organisation. Lenin, however, performed the protests in Petrograd which set off the 1917 Russian Revolution. Many peasants accepted and supported a theory of property that land should belong to those who work on it. At the same time, the life and culture of the peasants were continually changing. Migration of growing numbers of peasants from villagers to industrial and urban regions, as well as the introduction of city culture into village through material goods, the press and word of mouth, facilitated these changes. Workers also had lots of reasons for dissatisfaction: overcrowded housing with often deplorable sanitary conditions, long working hours, constant risk of injury and death from feeble security and sanitary conditions, strict discipline and low wages. At the same time, urban-industrial life was full of advantages. They could be dangerous for social and political stability. There were many stimulations to expect more from life. Acquisition of new skills gave many workers a feeling of self-respect and confidence, heightening desires and expectations. Living in cities, workers encountered material goods they had never seen while living in the village. Most important is that living in cities, they were open to new ideas about the social and political order. The social background of the Russian Revolution are the centuries of oppression of the lower classes by the Tsarist regime, together with failures in World War I. Rural agrarian peasants had been liberated from serfdom in 1861, but they still resented to pay redemption payments to the state, and demanded communal tender of the land they worked. The problem was further entangled by the failure of Sergei Witte's land reforms of the early 20th century. Increasing peasant resistance and sometimes revolts occurred, intending to secure ownership of the land they worked. Russia consisted mostly of poor farming peasants, with 1.5% of the population owning 25% of the land.

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Urban overcrowding and miserable conditions for urban industrial workers were the results of rapid industrialisation of Russia. Between 1890 and 1910, the population of the capital, Saint Petersburg, increased from 1,033,600 to 1,905,600. Moscow was experiencing similar growth. It created a new 'proletariat'. Due to being crowded together in cities, it was likely to protest and go on strike. Only 1904 survey, revealed that an average of sixteen people shared each apartment in Saint Petersburg, with six people per room. Also, there was no running water, and piles of human waste threatened the health of the workers. The poor conditions only aggravated the situation. The number of strikes and incidents of public disorder rapidly increased in the years shortly before World War I. Russia's workers were highly concentrated because of late industrialisation. This idealised vision of the monarchy blinded Romanov to the actual state of his country. He had a firm belief that his power to rule Russia was granted by Divine Right. Nicholas II supposed that the Russian people were devoted to him with undoubted loyalty. This strong belief rendered Nicholas II unwilling to allow the progressive reforms that might have diminished the suffering of the Russian people. Even the 1905 revolution impelled the Tsar to decree only limited civil rights and democratic representation. He worked to limit even these liberties to maintain the ultimate authority of the crown. Nicholas-II, March 1917, shortly after the revolution announced his abdication. At the beginning of February, Petrograd workers began several strikes and demonstrations. On March 7 (OS February 22), workers at Putilov, Petrograd's most significant industrial factory, announced a strike. The next day, a series of meetings and rallies were held for International Women's Day. These activities gradually turned into economic and political manifestations. Demonstrations were organised to demand bread, and working-class supported them and considered as a reason for continuing the strikes. The women workers marched to nearby factories. They brought out on strike over 50,000 workers. By March 10 (OS February 25), all industrial enterprises in Petrograd had been closed, as well as many commercial and service enterprises. White-collar workers, teachers and students joined the workers in the streets and at public meetings. At least 180,000 troops were available in the capital, but most were untrained, unequipped or injured. Historian Ian Beckett supposes that around 12,000 could be regarded as reliable. Because of this reason, on March 11 (OS February 26), the Tsar ordered the army to put an end to the rioting by force. Troops began to mutiny. Only a few actively joined the rioting when many officers were

256 either shot or went into hiding. The ability of the garrison to hold back the protests was all but nullified. Symbols of the Tsarist regime were quickly torn down around the city, and governmental authority in the capital collapsed. The fact that Nicholas had prorogued the Duma that morning did not help, leaving the government with no legal authority to act. The response of the Duma pressed by the liberal bloc, was to constitute a Temporary Committee to restore law and order. Meanwhile, the socialist parties established the Petrograd Soviet to represent workers and soldiers. The remaining loyal units switched loyalty the next day. The Tsar took a train back towards Petrograd. It was stopped on March 14 (OS March), by a group of faithless troops, but the Tsar finally reached his destination. The Army chiefs and his remaining ministers (those who had not fled under pretext of a power-cut) offered in unison that he abdicate the Throne. He did so on March 15 (OS March 2), on behalf of himself, and then, having taken advice, on behalf of his son, the Tsarevich. Nicholas II assigned his brother, the Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich, to succeed him. However, the Grand Duke realised that he would have little support as a ruler. So, he rejected the crown on March 16 (OS March 3), saying that he would take it only if that were the consensus of democratic action. Six days later, Nicholas II, no longer Tsar and addressed with contempt by the guard as "Nicholas Romanov", was reunited with his family at the Alexander Palace at Tsarskoye Selo. He was placed under home detention with his family by the Interjacent Government. One of the immediate effects of the February Revolution was a widespread atmosphere of enthusiasm and excitement in Petrograd. On March 16 (OS March 3), an Interjacent Government was announced. The centre-left was well represented in the government. It was initially chaired by a liberal aristocrat, Prince Georgy Yevgenievich Lvov, a member of the Constitutional Democratic Party. Four days earlier the socialists had formed their adversary body, the Petrograd Soviet (or workers' council). The Petrograd Soviet and the Interjacent Government contested the power over Russia. The sufficient power of the Interjacent Government was challenged by the authority of an institution which claimed to represent aspiration of workers and soldiers. It could mobilise and control these groups during the early months of the Revolution — the Petrograd Soviet (Council) of Workers' Deputies. The model for the soviet were workers' councils that had been established in some Russian cities during the 1905 revolution. In February 1917, striking workers elected deputies to represent them. The socialist activists began organising a citywide council to unite these deputies

257 with representatives of the socialist parties. On February 27, socialist Duma deputies, mainly Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, took the lead in organising a citywide council. The Petrograd Soviet assembled in the Tauride Palace, the same building where the new government was formed. - Leon Trotsky, nickname of Lev Davidovich Bronshtein, born November 7 [October 26, Old Style], 1879, Yanovka, Ukraine, Russian Empire—died August 21, 1940, Coyoacán, Mexico was a communist theorist and agitator, a leader in Russia's October Revolution in 1917, and later commissar of foreign affairs in the Soviet Union (1917–24). In the struggle for power following Vladimir Ilich Lenin's death, however, Joseph Stalin emerged as victor, while Trotsky was removed from all positions of power and later exiled (1929). He remained the leader of an anti-Stalinist opposition abroad until his assassination by a Stalinist agent.

The leaders of the Petrograd Soviet considered that they represented specific classes of the population, not the whole nation. They also supposed that Russia was not ready for socialism. So they saw their role in limited pressure on the hesitant "bourgeoisie" to rule and to introduce broad democratic reforms in Russia (the replacement of the monarchy by a republic, a democratic police and Army, guaranteed civil rights, abolition of religious and ethnic discrimination, preparation of elections to a constituent assembly, and so on). They met in the same building as the emerging Interjacent Government not to compete for state power with the Duma Committee but to best exert pressure on the new Government. They tried to act, in other words, as a grand democratic lobby. The relations between these two major powers were sophisticated from the beginning and would shape Russia’s politics of 1917. The representatives of the Interjacent Government admitted considering the opinions of the Soviet of Workers' Deputies. However, they were determined to prevent interference in the activities of the Government, which would create an undesirable situation of dual power. It was what happened exactly. Though dual power was the result less of the actions or attitudes of leaders of these two institutions than of actions outside their control. For example, the ongoing social movement was taking place on the streets of Russia's cities, in factories and shops, in the Army, and villages. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets destabilised the authority of the Interjacent Government as well as the moderate socialist leaders of the Soviet. The Soviet leadership initially refused to participate in the Interjacent Government. Alexander Kerensky, a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, a young and famous lawyer, accepted to join the new cabinet and became an increasingly leading figure in the Government. Finally, he took leadership of the Interjacent Government. As minister of war and later Prime Minister, Kerensky promoted freedom of speech, freed thousands of political prisoners. He did his best to continue the war

258 campaign and even organised another offensive (which, nevertheless, was no more successful than its predecessors). However, Kerensky still faced several significant challenges, highlighted by the soldiers, peasants, and urban workers who declared that they had gained nothing by the revolution. - Aleksandr Fyodorovich Kerensky, born April 22 [May 2, New Style], 1881, Simbirsk [now Ulyanovsk], Russia—died June 11, 1970, New York, N.Y., US was a moderate socialist revolutionary who served as head of the Russian Interjacent Government from July to October 1917 (Old Style). When the Bolshevists seized power (October Revolution, 1917), Kerensky, who escaped to the front, was unable to gather forces to defend his Government. He remained in hiding until May 1918, when he immigrated to Western Europe and devoted himself to writing books on the revolution and editing émigré newspapers and journals. In 1940 he moved to the United States, where he lectured at universities and continued to write books on his revolutionary experiences.

Other political groups were seeking to undermine him. Heavy military losses were being experienced on the front. The soldiers were demoralised, discontented, and started to defect. (On arrival back in Russia, these soldiers were sent straight back into the front or imprisoned.) There was immense dissatisfaction with Russia's involvement in the war, and many were calling for an end to it. There were significant shortages of supplies and food, which was difficult to correct because of the wartime economic conditions. The Bolshevist Party, led by Vladimir Lenin was the political party that demonstrated to be most troublesome for Kerensky, and would eventually overthrow him. Lenin had been living in exile in neutral Switzerland. He could return to Russia after the February Revolution, due to democratisation of political life, which legalised formerly banned political parties. He received the opportunity for his Marxist revolution. Although the return to Russia had become an opportunity, the war made it difficult. Ultimately, German officials arranged for Lenin to pass through their territory. They hoped that his activities would weaken Russia. Even if the Bolshevists came to power, it could lead to Russia's withdrawal from the war. Lenin and his partners had to agree to travel to Russia in a sealed train. After crossing the front, he arrived in Petrograd in April 1917. When Lenin arrived, the popularity of the Bolshevists raised quickly. During the spring, public discontent with the Interjacent Government and the war, particularly, increased. It pushed workers, peasants, and soldiers to join radical parties. The slogan of the Bolsheviks was ‘all power to the Soviets’. Despite increasing support, the Bolshevists had very little real power — the moderate ones dominated in Petrograd Soviet. Sheila Fitzpatrick and other historians asserted that Lenin's support for the Soviet Council to take power were intended to awaken indignation both with the Interjacent Government, whose

259 policies were considered as conservative, and the Soviet itself, considered as subservient to the conservative Government. By most historians' accounts, Lenin and his followers were not ready to such kind of support, especially among influential worker and soldier groups. They did not expect that this support would translate into real power in the summer of 1917. On June 18, the Interjacent Government initiated an attack against Germany which failed dreadfully. Soon after, Interjacent Government ordered soldiers to go to the front. The soldiers disclaimed to follow the new orders. Radical Kronstadt sailors arrived and executed many officers, including one admiral. It further fomented the growing revolutionary atmosphere. The sailors and soldiers, along with Petrograd workers, launched a violent protest, calling for ‘all power to the Soviets’. The uprising, however, was rejected by Lenin and the Bolshevik leaders and dispersed within a few days. After that, Lenin fled to Finland under threat of arrest while Trotsky, among other famous Bolshevists, was arrested. The July Days reconfirmed the popularity of the radical anti-war Bolshevists, but their unpreparedness for the uprising was an embarrassing misstep. They lost the support among their main constituent groups: soldiers and workers. - Lavr Georgiyevich Kornilov, (born August 30 (August 18, Old Style), 1870, Karkaralinsk, Western Siberia, Russian Empire (now Qargaraly, Kazakhstan)—died April 13, 1918, near Ekaterinodar (now Krasnodar), Russia), Imperial Russian general, who was accused of attempting to overthrow the Interjacent Government established in Russia after the February Revolution of 1917 and to replace it with a military dictatorship. Kornilov (October 1917), assumed military command of the anti-Bolshevist (“White”) volunteer army in the Don region. Several months later he was killed during a battle for Ekaterinodar.

The Bolshevik failure in the July Days was temporary. General Lavr Kornilov, was a recently appointed Supreme Commander of Russian military forces. In August, poor or misleading communication led him to believe that the Petrograd government had been captured by radicals, or was in danger thereof. In response, he ordered troops to pacify the city. To secure his decree, Kerensky asked for Bolshevists’ assistance. He also looked for help from the Petrograd Soviet, but the Soviet called upon armed Red Guards to defend the revolution. This Kornilov’s activity failed mostly due to the efforts of the Bolshevists. Their influence over railroad and telegraph workers proved vital in stopping the relocation of troops. Kornilov’s coup failed. He surrendered and resigned from his position. The Bolshevists played a decisive role in stopping the coup, and this fact enormously strengthened their position. In early September, the Petrograd Soviet released all jailed Bolshevists and Trotsky became chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. Growing numbers of Russian socialists and lower-class saw the Government less and less attractive in their needs and interests. The Bolshevists profited as the only

260 main organised opposition party which had refused to compromise with the Interjacent Government. They benefited from growing disappointment and even disgusted with other parties, including the Mensheviks and SRs, who insistently refused to break with the idea of national unity across all classes. In Finland, Lenin worked on his book State and Revolution and continued to lead Bolshevist party writing newspaper articles and policy decrees. By October, he returned to Petrograd, knowing that the increasingly radical city did not present him any legal danger but a second opportunity for revolution. The Bolshevist party’s Central Committee drafted a resolution, calling for the resignation of the Interjacent Government in favour of the Petrograd Soviet. The resolution passed 10–2 (Lev Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev dissenting) and the Bolshevist Revolution began. - Lev Borisovich Kamenev, original name Lev Borisovich Rosenfeld, born July 18, 1883, Moscow, Russia—died August 24, 1936, Moscow was an old Bolshevist and prominent member of the Communist Party and Soviet government during the decade after the October Revolution in Russia (1917). He became an opponent of Joseph Stalin and was executed during the Great Purge.

- Grigory Yevseyevich Zinovyev, also spelt Zinoviev, original name Ovsel Gershon Aronov Radomyslsky, born September 11 (September 23, New Style), 1883, Yelizavetgrad, Ukraine, Russian Empire (now Kirovohrad, Ukraine)—died August 25, 1936, Moscow, Russia, USSR was a revolutionary worked closely with Lenin in the Bolshevist Party before the Russian Revolution of 1917. He became a leading figure in the Communist Party leadership in the Soviet Union in the 1920s. He later was a victim of Joseph Stalin’s Great Purge.

The Russian October Revolution of 1917, led by Vladimir Lenin, was based upon Lenin's works on the ideas of Karl Marx. His political ideology was known as Marxism-Leninism. It was the beginning of the spread of communist ideology in the 20th century. He October Revolution was far less sporadic than the revolution of February and came about as the result of purposefully planning and coordinated activity to that end. Although Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevist Party, it has been argued that it was Trotsky's organisation and direction that led the revolution, merely spurred by the motivation Lenin provoked within his party. One of the arguments was that Lenin was not present during the actual takeover of the Winter Palace. Critics on the Right have long argued that the financial and logistical assistance of German intelligence via their principal-agent, Alexander Parvus, was a key component as well. However, historians are divided, since there is little proof confirming that statement. On November 7, 1917, Vladimir Lenin led his followers in an uprising against the Interjacent Government (Russia was still using the Julian Calendar at that time, so period references show an October 25).

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The October revolution ended the phase of the revolution provoked in February. It replaced Russia's Interjacent parliamentary Government with Government by soviets, local councils elected by bodies of workers and peasants. Monarchist and liberal forces formed the White Army, immediately began the war against the Bolshevists' Red Army. Series of battles between these two armies are known as the Russian Civil War. Members to the Soviets initially were freely elected. Many members of the Socialist- Revolutionary Party, anarchists, and other leftists created opposition to the Bolshevists through the soviets. When it became clear that the Bolshevists had little support outside of the industrialised areas (Saint Petersburg and Moscow), they barred non-Bolshevists from membership in the Soviets. This fact summoned mass domestic tension. Many individuals called for another series of political reform, revolting, and calling for "a third Russian revolution". This movement received a considerable amount of support. The most notable example of this anti-Bolshevist mentality was expressed in the Tambov revolt, 1919–1921, and the Kronstadt revolt in March 1921. These movements made a wide range of demands but lacked effective coordination. Finally, they were defeated along with the White Army during the Civil War. The Russian Civil War, which began in 1918 shortly after the revolution, led to death and misery of millions of people regardless of their political orientation. The war was fought mainly between the Red Army consisting of the uprising majority but led by the Bolshevist minority, and the “Whites” - army officers and Cossacks, the "bourgeoisie". The White Army mainly consisted of the political groups, ranging from the far right to the Socialist Revolutionaries. They opposed the drastic restructuring which was championed by the Bolshevists following the collapse of the Interjacent Government to the Soviets (under clear Bolshevists' dominance). Great Britain, France, USA and Japan supported While Army while the Red Army had internal, domestic support which proved to be much more effective. Though the Allied nations, using external interference, provided substantial military aid to the loosely knit anti-Bolshevist forces, they were ultimately defeated152. The Bolshevists firstly took power in Petrograd (Saint-Petersburg). Then expanded their control outwards, reaching the East Russian coast four years after the war in Vladivostok. This occupation is believed to be the end of all significant military campaigns in the nation. Less than one year later, the last area controlled by the White Army, the Ayano-Maysky District, to the north

152 A History of Russia, 7th Edition, Nicholas V. Riasanovsky & Mark D. Steinberg, Oxford University Press, 2005. 262 of the Krai containing Vladivostok, was occupied by the Bolshevists when General Anatoly Pepelyaev surrendered in 1923. The general public and their Army initiated several revolts against the Bolshevists at the end of the war, notably the Kronstadt uprising, a naval mutiny organised by Soviet Baltic sailors, former Red Army soldiers, and the people of Kronstadt, an armed uprising against the justly antagonised Bolshevist economic policies. This policy subjected to farmers included forced confiscation of grain crops by the Bolshevists. It all constituted to large-scale dissatisfaction. The delegates, representatives of the Kronstadt sailors arrived at Petrograd for negotiations and raised 15 demands primarily concerning the right to freedom. The Government firmly condemned the rebellions and marked the requests as a reminder of the Social Revolutionaries, a political party that was popular among Soviets before Lenin. This party refused to collaborate with the Bolshevist Army. The Government then responded with an armed suppression of these revolts, however suffering 10 thousand mortalities before entering the city of Kronstadt153, ending the rebellions fairly quickly, causing many of the rebels to flee in political exile. During the Civil War, Nestor Makhno led a Ukrainian anarchist movement, the Black Army thrice allied to the Bolshevists. One of the sides ended the alliance each time. Nevertheless, a Bolshevist Army under Mikhail Frunze demolished the Makhnovist movement, when the Makhnovists refused to join the Red Army. Besides, peasants defending their property against the opposing forces (the so-called Green Army) played a secondary role in the war, mainly in Ukraine. As far as the Royal Family concern, in early March, the Interjacent Government placed Nicholas II and his family under house arrest in the Alexander Palace at Tsarskoe Selo, 15 miles (24 km) south of Petrograd. In August 1917 the Kerensky’s Government evacuated the Romanovs to Tobolsk in the Urals, ostensibly to protect them from the rising wave of revolution during the Red Terror. After the Bolshevists came to power in October 1917, the conditions of their detention became severe. The White counter-revolutionary movement gathered force, leading to a full-scale civil war by the summer. The Royal Family was moved to Yekaterinburg, a militant Bolshevist fortress during April and May 1918.

153 Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891-1924 (New York: Viking Press 1997), 767. 263

During the early morning of July 16, at approximately 01:30, Nicholas II, Alexandra, their children, their physician, and several servants were taken into the basement and killed. According to Edvard Radzinsky and Dmitrii Volkogonov, the order was issued personally by Vladimir Lenin and Yakov Sverdlov in Moscow. The fact that order was issued in the Bolshevists' headquarters has long been believed, although there is a lack of strict evidence. It has been argued that the execution could be carried out on the initiative of local Bolshevist leaders, or that it was an option approved in Moscow for the case if White troops approach Yekaterinburg. Radzinsky noted that Lenin's bodyguard personally delivered the telegram ordering the execution and that he was ordered to eliminate the evidence154. Leon Trotsky said that the goal of socialism in Russia would not be fulfilled without the success of the World revolution. Indeed, a revolutionary roller caused by the Russian Revolution lasted until 1923. Despite initial expectations for success in the German Revolution of 1918–1919, in the non-durable Hungarian Soviet Republic and others like it, no other Marxist movement succeeded in preserving power in their hands. This issue is a subject to contradictory views on communist history by various Marxist groups and parties. Joseph Stalin later rejected this idea. He claimed the possibility to build socialism in one country. The confusion regarding Stalin's position on the issue stems from the fact that after Lenin's death in 1924, Stalin successfully used Lenin's argument — the argument that socialism's success needs the workers of other countries. He used this argument to defeat his adversaries within the party by accusing them of betraying Lenin and, therefore, the ideals of the Russian October Revolution. Finally, Stalin won. As it was said in the beginning of this chapter after Russian revolution the notion "father of the nation" referred to Nicholas II was re-established in the communist society and was attached to the communist ruler Stalin.

154 Dmitrii Volkogonov, Lenin: A New Biography (New York: Free Press, 1994). 264

PART IV: DIPLOMACY OF ACHISHBETH

Chapter I: Unity in diversity of civilisations.

Their weapons are words. Diplomacy is often confused with foreign policy, but the terms are not synonymous. Diplomacy is the chief, but not the only, instrument of foreign policy, which is set by political leaders, though diplomats (in addition to military and intelligence officers) may advise them. Foreign policy establishes goals, prescribes strategies, and sets the broad tactics to be used in their accomplishment. It may employ secret agents, subversion, war, or other forms of violence as well as diplomacy to achieve its objectives. Diplomacy is the primary substitute for the use of force or underhanded means in statecraft; it is how comprehensive national power is applied to the peaceful adjustment of differences between states. It may be coercive (i.e., backed by the threat to apply punitive measures or to use force) but is overtly nonviolent. Its primary tools are international dialogue and negotiation, primarily conducted by accredited envoys (a term derived from the French ‘envoyé’, meaning ‘one who is sent’) and other political leaders. Unlike foreign policy, generally enunciated publicly, most diplomacy is conducted in confidence, though, both the fact that it is in progress and its results are almost always made public in contemporary international relations. The purpose of foreign policy is to further a state's interests, derived from geography, history, economics, and the distribution of global power. Safeguarding national independence, security, and integrity - territorial, political, economic, and moral - is viewed as a country's primary obligation, followed by preserving a broad freedom of action for the state. The political leaders, traditionally of sovereign states, who devise foreign policy, pursue what they perceive to be the national interest, adjusting national policies to changes in external conditions and technology. Primary responsibility for supervising the execution of policy may lie with the head of state or government, a cabinet or a nominally nongovernmental collective leadership, the staff of the country’s leader, or a minister who presides over the foreign ministry, directs policy execution, supervises the ministry’s officials, and instructs the country’s diplomats abroad.

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The purpose of diplomacy is to strengthen state, nation, or organisation it serves to others by advancing the interests in its charge. To this end, diplomatic activity endeavours to maximise a group's advantages without the risk and expense of using force and preferably without causing resentment. It habitually, but not invariably, strives to preserve peace; diplomacy is strongly inclined toward negotiation to achieve agreements and resolve issues between states. Even in times of peace, diplomacy may involve coercive threats of economic or other punitive measures or demonstrations of the capability to impose unilateral solutions to disputes by the application of military power. However, diplomacy usually seeks to develop goodwill toward the state it represents, nurturing relations with foreign states and peoples that will ensure their cooperation or—failing that—their neutrality. When diplomacy fails, war may ensue; however, diplomacy is useful even during war. It conducts the passages from protest to menace, dialogue to negotiation, ultimatum to reprisal, and war to peace and reconciliation with other states. Diplomacy builds and tends the coalitions that deter or make war. It disrupts the alliances of enemies and sustains the passivity of potentially hostile powers. It contrives war's termination, and forms strengthens and sustains the peace that follows conflict. Over the long term, diplomacy strives to build an international order conducive to the nonviolent resolution of disputes and expanded cooperation between states. Diplomats are the primary—but far from the only—practitioners of diplomacy. They are specialists in carrying messages and negotiating adjustments in relations and the resolution of quarrels between states and peoples. Their weapons are words, backed by the power of the state or organisation they represent. Diplomats help leaders to understand the attitudes and actions of foreigners and to develop strategies and tactics that will shape the behaviour of foreigners, especially foreign governments. The wise use of diplomats is a key to successful foreign policy. Historically, diplomacy meant the conduct of official (usually bilateral) relations between sovereign states. By the 20th century, however, the diplomatic practices pioneered in Europe had been adopted throughout the world. Traditional state to state diplomacy had expanded to cover summit meetings, and other international conferences, parliamentary diplomacy, the international activities of supranational and subnational entities, unofficial diplomacy by non-state actors, and the work of international civil servants called public diplomacy nowadays. The newly developing

266 direction is science diplomacy, and its main aim is to identify how science can help to tackle urgent global problems. AchishBeth studies might be interesting to different states in determining new frontiers in science diplomacy of their countries as a reconciliation actor in international relations. The term diplomacy is derived via French from the ancient Greek ‘diplōma’, composed of diplo, meaning ‘folded in two’, and the suffix -ma, meaning ‘an object’. The folded document conferred a privilege - often a permit to travel - on the bearer, and the term came to denote documents through which princes granted such favours. Later it applied to all solemn documents issued by chancelleries, especially those containing agreements between sovereigns. In the 18th century, the French term diplomate (diplomat or diplomatist) came to refer to a person authorised to negotiate on behalf of a state. The view in late medieval Europe that the first diplomats were angels or messengers from heaven to earth is perhaps fanciful, but some elements of diplomacy predate recorded history. Early societies had some attributes of states, and the first international law arose from intertribal relations. Tribes negotiated marriages and regulations on trade and hunting. Messengers and envoys were accredited, sacred, and inviolable; they usually carried some emblem, such as a message stick, and were received with elaborate ceremonies. Information regarding the diplomacy of early peoples is based on sparse evidence. There are traces of Egyptian diplomacy dating to the 14th century BC, but none has been found in western Africa before the 9th century AD. The inscriptions on the walls of abandoned Mayan cities indicate that exchanges of envoys were frequent, though almost nothing is known of the substance or style of Mayan and other pre- Columbian Central American diplomacy. In South America, the dispatch of envoys by the expanding Incan Empire appears to have been a prelude to conquest rather than an exercise in bargaining between sovereigns. The most excellent knowledge of early diplomacy comes from the Middle East, the Mediterranean, China, and India. Records of treaties between Mesopotamian city-states date from about 2850 BC. After that, Akkadian (Babylonian) became the first diplomatic language, serving as the international tongue of the Middle East until Aramaic replaced it. A diplomatic correspondence from the 14th century BC existed between the Egyptian court and a Hittite king on cuneiform tablets in Akkadian—the language of neither. The oldest treaties of

267 which full texts survive, from about 1280 BC, were between Ramses II of Egypt and Hittite leaders. There is significant evidence of Assyrian diplomacy, chiefly in the Bible, of the relations of Jewish tribes with each other and other peoples. Ancient India was home to an equally sophisticated but very different diplomatic tradition. This tradition was systematised and described in the Artha-Shastra (one of the oldest books in secular Sanskrit literature) by Kautilya, a wily and unscrupulous scholar-statesman who helped the young Chandragupta to overthrow Macedonian rule in northern India and to establish the Mauryan dynasty at the end of the 4th century BC. The ruthlessly realistic state system codified in the Artha-Shastra insisted that foreign relations be determined by self-interest rather than by ethical considerations. It graded state power to five factors and emphasised espionage, diplomatic manoeuvre, and contention by 12 categories of states within a complex geopolitical matrix. It also posited four expedients of statecraft (conciliation, seduction, subversion, and coercion) and six forms of state policy (peace, war, nonalignment, alliances, shows of force, and double-dealing). To execute policies derived from these strategic geometries, ancient India fielded three categories of diplomats: 1. plenipotentiaries, envoys entrusted with a single issue or mission, and royal messengers; 2. a type of consular agent like the Greek proxenos, who was charged with managing commercial relations and transactions; 3. and two kinds of spies, those charged with the collection of intelligence and those entrusted with subversion and other forms of covert action. Detailed rules regulated diplomatic immunities and privileges, the inauguration and termination of diplomatic missions, and the selection and duties of envoys. Thus, Kautilya describes the “duties of an envoy” as “sending information to his king, ensuring maintenance of the terms of a treaty, upholding his king’s honour, acquiring allies, instigating dissension among the friends of his enemy, conveying secret agents and troops into enemy territory, suborning the kinsmen of the enemy to his own king’s side, acquiring clandestinely gems and other valuable material for his own king, ascertaining secret information and showing valour in liberating hostages.”

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The region within which this system operated was separated from its neighbours by deserts, seas, and the Himalayas. India had very little political connection to the affairs of other regions of the world until Alexander the Great conquered its northern regions in 326 BC. The subsequent establishment of the native Mauryan Empire ushered in a new era in Indian diplomatic history that was marked by efforts to extend both Indian religious doctrines (i.e., Buddhism) and political influence beyond South Asia. The Mauryan emperor Ashoka was particularly active, receiving several emissaries from the Macedonian-ruled kingdoms and dispatching numerous Brahman-led missions of his own to West, Central, and Southeast Asia. Such contacts continued for centuries until the ascendancy of the Rajput kingdoms (8th to the 13th century AD) again isolated northern India from the rest of the world. Outside the Chola dynasty and other Dravidian kingdoms of South India, which continued diplomatic and cultural exchanges with Southeast Asia and China and preserved the text and memories of the Artha-Shastra, India's distinctive mode of diplomatic reasoning and early traditions were forgotten and replaced by those of its Muslim and British conquerors. Inspired by their religious faith, followers of Islam in Arabia conquered significant territory beginning in the 7th century, first by taking Byzantium’s southern and North African provinces and then by uniting Arabs, Persians, and ultimately Turks and other Central Asian peoples in centuries of occasionally bloody conflict with the Christian Byzantines. The community of Islam aspired to a single human society in which secular institutions such as the state would have no significant role. In such a society there would be political interaction but no requirement for diplomatic missions between one independent ruler and another. Theoretically, since non-Muslim states eventually would accept the message of Islam, the need for diplomatic exchanges between them and the Islamic community also would be purely temporary. In practice, however, diplomatic missions, both to other Muslim states and non-Muslim states, existed from the time of Muhammad, and early Islamic rulers and jurists developed an elaborate set of protections and rules to facilitate the exchange of emissaries. As Muslims came to dominate vast territories in Africa, Asia, and Europe, the experience of contention with Byzantium shaped Islamic diplomatic tradition along Byzantine lines. As Byzantium crumbled, the West revived. Indeed, even in its period of greatest weakness, the Roman Catholic Church conducted an active diplomacy, especially at Constantinople and in its

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13th-century struggle against the Holy Roman emperors. Popes served as arbiters, and papal legates served as peacemakers. The prestige of the Church was such that at every court papal emissary took precedence over secular envoys, a tradition that continues in countries where Roman Catholicism is the official religion. The Roman emphasis on the sanctity of legates became part of canon law, and church lawyers developed increasingly elaborate rules governing the status, privileges, and conduct of papal envoys, rules that were adapted later for secular use. Still, later, rules devised for late medieval church councils provided guidelines for new international conferences. From the 6th century, both legates and (lesser ranking) nuncii (messengers) carried letters of credence to assure the rulers to whom they were accredited of the extent of their authority as agents of the Pope, a practice later adopted for lay envoys. A nuncius (English: nuncio) was a messenger who represented and acted legally for the Pope; nuncii could negotiate draft agreements but could not commit the Pope without referral. In time, the terms legate and nuncius came to be used for the diplomatic representatives of secular rulers as well as the Pope. By the 12th century, the secular use of nuncii as diplomatic agents was commonplace. When diplomacy was confined to nearby states and meetings of rulers were quickly arranged, a visiting messenger such as the nuncius sufficed. However, as trade revived, negotiations at a distance became increasingly common. Envoys no longer could refer the details of negotiations to their masters on a timely basis. They, therefore, needed the discretionary authority to decide matters on their own. To meet this need, in the 12th century the concept of a procurator with plena potens (full powers) was revived from Roman civil law. This plenipotentiary could negotiate and agree, but, unlike a nuncius, he could not represent his principal ceremonially. As a result, one emissary was often given both offices. At the end of the 12th century, the term ambassador appeared, initially in Italy. Derived from the Medieval Latin ambactiare, meaning “to go on a mission,” the term was used to describe various envoys, some of whom were not agents of sovereigns. Common in both Italy and France in the 13th century, it first appeared in English in 1374 in Troilus and Criseyde by Geoffrey Chaucer. By the late 15th century, the envoys of secular rulers were commonly called ambassadors, though the papacy continued to send legates and nuncii. Each ambassador carried a letter of credence, though he could not commit his principal unless granted plenipotentiary authority.

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The Crusades and the revival of trade increased Europe's contact with the eastern Mediterranean and West Asia. Venice's location afforded that leading Italian city-state early ties with Constantinople, from which it absorbed significant elements of the Byzantine diplomatic system. Based on Byzantine precedents, Venice gave its envoys written instructions, a practise otherwise unknown in the West and established a systematic archive. (The Venetian archives contain a registry of all diplomatic documents from 883.) Venice later developed an extensive diplomacy on the Byzantine model, which emphasised the reporting of conditions in the host country. Initially, returning Venetian envoys presented their relazione (final report) orally, but such reports were presented in writing starting from the 15th century. Other Italian city-states, followed by France and Spain, copied Venetian diplomatic methods and style. It is unclear which Italian city-state had the first permanent envoy. In the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance period, most embassies were temporary, lasting from three months to two years. As early as the late 14th and early 15th centuries, however, Venice, Milan, and Mantua sent resident envoys to each other, to the popes, and the Holy Roman emperors. At this time, envoys generally did not travel with their wives (who were assumed to be indiscreet), but their missions usually employed cooks for purposes of hospitality and to avoid being poisoned. Resident embassies became the norm in Italy in the late 15th century, and after 1500 the practice spread northward. A permanent Milanese envoy to the French court of Louis XI arrived in 1463 and was later joined by a Venetian representative. Ambassadors served a variety of roles, including reporting events to their government and negotiating with their hosts. Besides, they absorbed the role of commercial consuls, who were not then diplomatic agents. Italy's early economic revival, geographic location, and small size fostered the creation of a European state system in microcosm. As the peninsula was fully organised into states, wars were frequent, and the maintenance of an equilibrium (balance of powe") necessitated constant diplomatic interaction. Whereas meetings of rulers aroused expectations and were considered risky, unobtrusive diplomacy by resident envoys was deemed safer and more effective. Thus, the system of permanent agents took root, with members of the upper-middle class or younger sons of great families serving as envoys.

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Rome became the centre of Italian diplomacy and intrigue, information gathering, and spying. Popes received ambassadors but did not send them. The papal court had the first organised diplomatic corps: the popes addressed the envoys jointly, seated them as a group for ceremonies, and established rules for their collective governance. As resident missions became the norm, ceremonial and social occasions came to dominate the relations between diplomats and their hosts, mainly because the dignity of the sovereign being represented was at stake. Papal envoys took precedence over those of temporal rulers. Beyond that, there was little agreement on the relative status of envoys, and there was frequent strife. Pope Julius II established a list of precedence in 1504, but this did not solve the problem. Spain did not accept inferiority to France; power fluctuated among the states; papal power declined; the protestant revolt complicated matters - not least regarding the Pope's position. By the 16th century, the title of ambassador was being used only for envoys of crowned heads and the republic of Venice. Latin remained the international language of diplomacy. The French invasion of 1494 confronted the Italian states with intervention by a power higher than any within their state system. They were driven to substitute subtle diplomacy and expedient, if short-lived, compromise for the force they lacked. This tendency, plus their enthusiasm for diplomatic nuances and the 16th-century writings of Niccolò Machiavelli, gave Italian diplomacy a reputation for being devious. But it was no more so than that of other states, and Machiavelli, himself a Florentine diplomat, argued that an envoy needed integrity, reliability, and honesty, along with tact and skill in the use of occasional equivocation and selective abridgement of aspects of the truth unfavourable to his cause—views seconded since by virtually every authority. The 16th-century wars in Italy, the emergence of powerful states north of the Alps, and the Protestant revolt ended the Italian Renaissance but spread the Italian system of diplomacy. Henry VII of England was among the first to adopt the Italian diplomatic system, and he initially even used Italian envoys. By the 1520s Thomas Cardinal Wolsey, Henry VIII's chancellor had created an English diplomatic service. Under Francis I, France adopted the Italian system in the 1520s and had a corps of resident envoys by the 1530s, when the title of "envoy extraordinary" gained currency, originally for special ceremonial missions. In the 16th and early 17th centuries, bureaucracies scarcely existed. Courtiers initially filled this role, but, by the middle of the 16th century, royal secretaries had taken charge of foreign affairs amid their other duties. Envoys remained personal emissaries of one ruler to another. Because they

272 were highly trusted and communications were slow, ambassadors enjoyed considerable freedom of action. Their task was complicated by the ongoing religious wars, which generated distrust, narrowed contacts, and jeopardised the reporting that was essential before newspapers were widespread. The religious wars of the early 17th century was an Austro-French power struggle. During the Thirty Years’ War, innovations occurred in the theory and practice of international relations. In 1625 the Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius published De Jure Belli ac Pacis (On the Law of War and Peace), in which the laws of war were most numerous. Grotius deplored the strife of the era, which had undermined the traditional props of customary and canon law. To convert the law of nations into a law among nations and to provide it with a new secular rationale acceptable to both sides in the religious quarrel, Grotius fell back on the classical view of natural law and the rule of reason. His book - considered the first definitive work of international law despite its debt to earlier scholars - enunciated the concepts of state sovereignty and the equality of sovereign states, both essential to the modern diplomatic system.

Chechens (Vaynoah) – Confucianism and Legalism

Confucius (Kongzi) (551-479 BC) - Chinese philosopher and statesman. It is well known that the Chechen ethnos never had kings or state institutions. How did it function? It is enough to learn two concepts to understand this phenomenon. It is the combination of Confucianism and Abraham's monotheism of Noah-cha-mokhkahoi tribes, to which belongs our family, a clan AchishBet. Two understand the reason for the long-lasting confrontation between Chechnya and Russia; we need to understand the influence of different international actors, with different philosophies in the Caucasus. First of all, philosophy of Chinese Legalism in a bloodier form in the hands of Russian rulers on one side, and the combination of Confucianism with Abraham's monotheism in the hands of the founders of Chechen ethnos (AchishBeth) from another side.

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Confucius, according to Chinese tradition, was a thinker, political figure, educator, and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought. His teachings which are preserved in the Lunyu155 or Analects, form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the education and comportment of the ideal man. It teaches how such an individual should live his life and interact with others. It describes the forms of society and government in which he should participate. Fung Yu-lan, one of the great 20th century authorities on the history of Chinese thought, compares Confucius' influence in Chinese history with that of Socrates in the West. Confucius lived during the Spring and Autumn period (777 BC to 476 BC) of the Eastern or Later Zhou Dynasty (770 BC - 256 BC). It was a time in China's history when the great Zhou dynasty had broken down. The country was divided among rival factions. Confucius travelled from State to State. He taught what he believed to be the best approach to government and civilisation. A modern Chinese scholar suggests that the core of Confucian philosophy is contained in these words: - The men of old, when they wished their virtues to shine throughout the land, first had to govern their states well. To govern their states well, they first had to establish harmony in their families. To establish harmony in their families, they first had to discipline themselves. To discipline themselves, they first had to set their minds in order. To set their minds in order, they first had to make their purpose sincere. To make their purpose sincere, they first had to extend their knowledge to the utmost. Such knowledge is acquired through a careful investigation of things. For with things investigated, knowledge becomes complete. With knowledge complete the purpose becomes sincere. With the purpose of sincere, the mind is set in order. With the mind put in order, there is real self-discipline. With real self- discipline, the family achieves harmony. With harmony in the family, the state becomes well-governed. With the state well governed, there is peace throughout the land.

Wherever he went, he sought positions in government as an advisor or administrator. However, he only briefly held a few such posts. Though he attracted a large number of students and followers, his views and advice were not popular among the kings nor were they considered

155 Lunyu, (Chinese: “Conversations”) Wade-Giles romanization Lun yü, one of four texts of Confucianism that, when published together in 1190 by the Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi, became the great Chinese classic known as Sishu (“Four Books”). Lunyu has been translated into English as The Analects of Confucius. Lunyu is considered by scholars to be the most reliable source of the doctrine of the ancient sage Confucius (551–479 bc) and is usually the first Confucian text studied in schools. 274 practical. Some of his students were able to make successful careers in government; perhaps because of their political flexibility. Confucius taught that the subordinate owed obedience and honour to his superior. It started at home where the father was the absolute ruler. The family was obliged to follow him in all decisions and look to him for guidance and wisdom. This principle, filial piety, was then applied to the organisation of civilisation and government. The individual household owed allegiance and obedience to the local ruler who in turn honoured and obeyed those above him. Confucius relished the idea of ceremony. He promoted it as a visual and behavioural reminder of rank — external signs or rituals of society regulated day to day exchanges as well as the ceremonies of state. Rituals dignified rank and privilege. Each rank would have specific roles in religious and political ceremonies. They would be limited to certain ceremonies they could conduct. The clothes one was to wear were included in the idea of ceremony; the insignia on the clothing or one's carriage, the style of hat worn on special occasions, where one could and could not walk — even the colours one was allowed to use in clothing and decoration. Only the Emperor could use and wear specific colours of gold, crimson, and purple. One would think that rulers would embrace such a militaristic organisation of the population. However, Confucius also taught that rulers must be responsible for their subordinates. They earned their privilege through promoting the welfare of the people. When a father or a ruler betrayed that trust, children or subjects had the right and duty to disobey, even to overthrow the ruler. At heart, he was a humanist. Confucius managed to secure a position in court in one of the kingdoms, but it did not last long. The kingdoms were preoccupied with war. Confucius thought that resources should be spent on benevolence, but they were channelled into either defence of territory or the acquisition of new territories. Confucius often changed places. The kings and dukes did not have much patience with the idea of tempering their power. That is why he was quickly dismissed, or he would leave in disgust when prescribed rituals were violated. He despaired when he would witness minor nobles engage in the rituals of kings. He felt insulted when the proper courtesies due his rank were abridged or forgotten altogether. He left behind disciples and students, who had been exposed to a radical form of thought. Perhaps, because he travelled so extensively, Confucian thought spread widely after his death. His students carried it throughout China. It influenced other forms of Chinese philosophy, such as

275 those of Mencius and the Legalists. As a philosophy, it was a careful consideration of the function and responsibility of government and society. It contained a moral code which applied to minutia of greeting a friend as well as to proper function and ethics of government. Confucianism was a powerful force, by the time when the King of Qin (221 BC) conquered the neighbouring States and declared himself as Shi Huang Di, Emperor of China. As one of his first acts as Emperor, Huang Di ordered to burn all Confucian books and to execute the Confucian scholars. Huang Di then embarked upon a total reorganisation of society and government. It was based on absolute power, forced labour, conscripted military and central control. In a few short years, he joined and lengthened the Great Wall, built roads, dug canals, and built the magnificent mausoleum at Xi'an for himself. Because of the violence and disrespect for traditional values, Qin's dynasty was overthrown only after 21 years of its inception. The Han dynasty, which replaced it, returned to Confucian principles. Emperor Wu Ti of the Han dynasty took the advice of his minister, Hung Kung-sun, and made Confucianism a religion by elevating Confucius to a perfection of thought and correctness that was unarguable. It was something to be learned, studied, and in the end, worshipped. It had far- reaching consequences for the future. Other schools of thought did not have a chance to be explored or developed. During the Song and then the Ming dynasties Confucianism became little more than a management tool rather than a system of ethics. During the Modern Age, to enter the Civil Service and thus advance in rank, boys studied the classics and their proper interpretation. Even those who would not take the examinations were taught using the texts. Only in the late Qing dynasty, the alternative methods of education were more readily available. Even after that, parents taught reverence for the classics. If one knew Confucius, everything would go right in his, her life. - The Qing Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Qing or Great Qing, was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. The Ming Dynasty preceded it followed by the Republic of China. The ten years of terror called the Cultural Revolution, both rejected, and was based on, the Confucian system. The Confucian texts were replaced by the ‘little red book’ of Chairman Mao but gave the same inviolate devotion and obedience. Any person carrying a copy and loudly proclaiming its contents could expect to be able to advance in the ranks. It provided an immediate system of civil service exams without the need for prolonged study.

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The work of Confucius was published in English when England and Europe were moving away from feudal thought. Confucius was developing a system of morality and politics just a little earlier than when the writings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle laid the foundation for the western approach to civilisation. Later philosophers in each culture would be influenced by the assumptions of the earliest great writers. They developed their thoughts either in opposition to them or as an extension and elaboration. By time when Confucian thought reached Europe, philosophers and politicians had moved to limit the power of government through law and guarantee rights of individuals irrespective of their place in society. In the West, the work of Confucius was, and is, valued for beauty and great moral sense, not as an innovative approach to civilisation. In China, it is today a part of the fabric of society and influences their philosophers and thinkers as well as day to day living. Quotations: - He who rules his state on a moral basis would be supported by the people, just as all the other stars encircle the Polar star. p 12 - Regulated by the edits and punishments, the people will know only how to stay out of trouble but will not have a sense of shame. Guided by virtues and the rites, they will not only have a sense of shame but also know how to correct the mistakes of their own accord. p 13 - People will obey you if you promote righteous men and suppress evil men. On the contrary, they will disobey you if you do the contrary. - If one learns the truth in the morning, one would never regret dying the same evening. p 51 - Courtesy without following the rites leads to tiredness, caution without following the rites leads to cowardice, courage without following the rites leads to rudeness; frankness without following the rites leads to harshness. Subordinates imitate their superiors; when a superior man devotes himself to his kin, the people will cherish the cultivation of benevolence. When he does not forget his friends, people will not be indifferent to one another. p. 129. - When learning something new, one should worry about being unable to reach it. When one has learnt something, one should worry about forgetting it. p. 138

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- Fan Chi asked about benevolence. Confucius said: "Be respectful to parents, be conscientious in official affairs. Be loyal and honest to friends. These three moral principles can never be defied anywhere." p. 241 - A gentleman always keeps even-tempered without being arrogant, while a petty man is arrogant without being even-tempered. p. 246

The sources for Confucius' life do not separate fiction and fact. Thus, we have to regard much of what is known of him as legendary. Many of the legends surrounding Confucius were included by the Han dynasty’s court historian, Sima Qian (145-c.85 BCE), in his well-known and often- quoted Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji). This collection of tales begins by identifying Confucius' ancestors as members of the Royal State of Song. It notes that his great grandfather, fled the turmoil in his native Song, moved to Lu, somewhere near the present town of Qufu in southeastern Shandong. There the family became impoverished. Confucius is described, by Sima Qian and other sources, as having endured a poverty-stricken and humiliating youth and been forced, upon reaching manhood, to undertake such petty jobs as accounting and caring for livestock. Sima Qian's account includes the tale of how Confucius was born in answer to his parents' prayers at a sacred hill (qiu) called Ni. Confucius' surname Kong (which means an utterance of thankfulness literally, when prayers have been answered), his tabooed given name Qiu, and his common name Zhongni, all appear connected to the mysterious circumstances of his birth. It casts doubt, then, on Confucius' royal genealogy as found in Sima Qian. Similarly, Confucius' recorded age at death, ‘seventy-two’. It is a ‘magic number’ with far- reaching significance in early Chinese literature. We do not know how Confucius was educated, but tradition says that he studied ritual with the Daoist Master Lao Dan, music with Chang Hong, and the lute with Music-master Xiang. In his middle age, Confucius is supposed to have gathered about him a group of disciples. He taught them and, he was devoted to political matters in Lu. The number of Confucius' disciples has been greatly exaggerated. Sima Qian and other sources claim that there were as many as three thousands of them. At the age of fifty, when Duke Ding of Lu was on the throne, Confucius' talents were recognised. He was appointed Minister of Public Works and then Minister of Crime. However, Confucius, obviously, offended members of the Lu nobility who were vying with Duke Ding for power. Or was it the duke himself that Confucius had rubbed the wrong way? He was subsequently

278 forced to leave office and go into exile. Exile and suffering are common themes in the lives of the heroes of the early Chinese tradition as well as in other ancient cultures. In the company of his disciples, Confucius left Lu and travelled in the states of Wei, Song, Chen, Cai, and Chu, looking for a ruler who might employ him but meeting, instead, with indifference and, occasionally, severe hardship and danger. Several of these episodes, as preserved in the Records of the Grand Historian, appear to be little more than prose retellings of songs found in the ancient Chinese Book of Songs. Confucius' life is thus rendered a re-enactment of the suffering and alienation of the personas of the poems. In any case, according to the most traditional accounts, Confucius returned to Lu in 484 BCE. He spent the remainder of his life teaching, putting in order the Book of Songs, the Book of Documents, and other ancient classics, as well as editing the Spring and Autumn Annals, the court chronicle of Lu. Sima Qian's account provides background on Confucius' connection to the early canonical texts on ritual and on music (the latter of which was lost at an early date). Sima Qian claims, moreover, that, "In his later years, Confucius delighted in the Yi"—the famous, some might say infamous, divination manual popular to this day in China and the West. The Analects passage which appears to corroborate Sima Qian's claim seems corrupt and hence unreliable on this point. Confucius' traditional association with these works led them and related texts to be revered as the “Confucian Classics”. They made Confucius himself the spiritual ancestor of later teachers, historians, moral philosophers, literary scholars, and countless others whose lives and works figure prominently in Chinese intellectual history. Our best source for understanding Confucius and his thought is the Analects. However, the Analects is a problematic and controversial work. It was compiled in variant versions long after Confucius's death by disciples or the disciples of disciples. Some argued that there is much in Analects that is non-Confucian because of the text's inconsistencies and thought incompatibilities. It should be discarded as a basis for understanding the thought of Confucius. Benjamin Schwartz cautions us against such radical measures. While textual criticism, based on rigorous philological and historical analysis, is crucial, and while the later sections (of the Analects) do contain late materials, the type of textual criticism that is based on considerations of alleged logical inconsistencies and incompatibilities of thought must be viewed with high suspicion. … While none of us comes to such an enterprise without deep-laid assumptions about necessary logical relations and compatibilities, we should at least hold before

279 ourselves the constant injunction to mistrust all our unexamined preconceptions on these matters when dealing with comparative thought. (The World of Thought in Ancient China, p. 61) Book X of the Analects consists of personal observations of how Confucius comported himself as a thinker, teacher, and official. Some have argued that these passages initially were more general prescriptions on how a gentleman should dress and behave that were relabelled as descriptions of Confucius. Traditionally, Book X has been regarded as providing an intimate portrait of Confucius and has been read as a biographical sketch. The following passages provide a few examples. Confucius, at home in his native village, was simple and unassuming in manner, as though he did not trust himself to speak. However, when in the ancestral temple or at court, he speaks readily, though always choosing his words with due caution. (Lunyu 10.1) When at court conversing with the officers of a lower grade, he is friendly, though straightforward; when conversing with officers of a higher grade, he is restrained but precise. When the ruler is present, he is wary, but not cramped. (Lunyu 10.2) On entering the Palace Gate, he seems to contract his body, as though there were not sufficient room to admit him. If he halts, it must never be in the middle of the gate, nor in going through, does he ever tread on the threshold. (Lunyu 10.4) When fasting in preparation for sacrifice, he must wear the Bright Robe, and it must be of linen. He must change his food and also the place where he commonly sits. He does not object to his rice being thoroughly cleaned, nor to his meat being finely minced. (Lunyu 10.7, 10.8) When sending a messenger to enquire after someone in another country, he bows himself twice while seeing the messenger off. (Lunyu 10.15) In bed, he avoided lying in the posture of a corpse … On meeting anyone in deep mourning, he must bow across the bar of his chariot. (Lunyu 10.24, 10.25) Analects passages such as these made Confucius the model of courtliness and personal decorum for countless generations of Chinese officials. By the 4th century BCE, Confucius was recognised as a unique figure, a sage who was ignored but should have been recognised and become a king. At the end of the 4th century, Mencius says of Confucius: “Ever since man came into this world, there has never been one greater than Confucius.” In two passages, Mencius implies that Confucius was one of the great sage kings who, according to his reckoning, arise every five hundred years. Confucius also figures prominently

280 as the subject of anecdotes and the teacher of wisdom in the writing of Xunzi, a third century BCE. He was a follower of Confucius' teachings. Indeed, chapters twenty-eight to thirty of the Xunzi look like considerably briefer, alternative version of the Analects. Some have argued that it was not the work of Xunzi but compilations by his disciples. Confucius and his followers also inspired some criticism from other thinkers. The authors of the Zhuangzi particularly parody Confucius and the teachings conventionally associated with him. Nevertheless, Confucius' reputation was so excellent that even the Zhuangzi appropriates him to give voice to Daoist teachings. - Zhuang Zhou more commonly known as Zhuangzi (or Master Zhuang), was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th century BCE during the Warring States Period, a period corresponding to the philosophical summit of Chinese thought — the Hundred Schools of Thought. He is credited with writing—in part or whole—a work known by his name, the Zhuangzi, which expresses a sceptical philosophy, arguing that life is limited and knowledge to be gained is unlimited. His philosophy can be considered a precursor of relativism in systems of value. Confucius' teachings and his conversations and exchanges with his disciples are recorded in the Lunyu or Analects. The collection probably achieved its present form around the second century BCE. Confucius believes that people live their lives within parameters firmly established by Heaven. It means a purposeful Supreme Being as well as 'nature' and its fixed cycles and patterns. He argues that men are responsible for their actions and especially for their treatment of others. We can do little or nothing to alter our fated span of existence, but we determine what we accomplish and what we are remembered for. Confucius represented his teachings as lessons transmitted from antiquity. He claimed that he was transmitter and not maker and that all he did reflected his reliance on and love for the ancients. (Lunyu 7.1) Confucius pointed especially to the precedents established during the height of the royal Zhou (roughly the first half of the first millennium, BCE). In Confucius' day, such justifications for one's ideas may have already been conventional. Indeed, his claim that there were antique precedents for his ideology had a tremendous influence on subsequent thinkers. Many of them imitated these gestures. However, we should say that the contents of the Analects consist of old ideas. Much of what Confucius taught was original to him and represented a radical departure from the ideas and practices of his day. Confucius also claimed that he enjoyed a unique and privileged relationship with Heaven. He claimed that, by the age of fifty, he came to an understanding of what Heaven had mandated for him and humanity. (Lunyu 2.4). Confucius was also careful to instruct his followers that they

281 should never neglect the offerings due to Heaven. (Lunyu 3.13) Some scholars have seen a contradiction between Confucius' reverence for Heaven and what they consider to be his scepticism concerning the existence of spirits. But the Analects passages156 which reveal Confucius's attitudes toward spiritual forces do not suggest that he was sceptical. They show that Confucius revered and respected the spirits thought that they should be worshipped with utmost sincerity. He taught that serving the spirits was a far more complicated and challenging matter than serving mere mortals. Ren ‘compassion’ or ‘loving others' is one of the concepts of Confucius' social philosophy. Cultivating or practising such concern for others involved deprecating oneself. It meant “being sure to avoid artful speech or an ingratiating manner that would create a false impression and lead to self-aggrandisement”. (Lunyu 1.3) “Those who have cultivated ren are simple in manner and slow of speech.” (Lunyu 13.27) For Confucius, such concern for others is shown through the practice of forms of the Golden Rule: "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others"; "Since you desire standing then help others achieve it since you desire success then help others attain it.” (Lunyu 12.2, 6.30) He considers devotion to parents and older siblings as the most basic form of promoting the interests of others before one's own. He teaches that such altruism can be accomplished only by those who have learned self-discipline. Learning self-restraint involves studying and mastering li. Li is the ritual forms and rules of propriety through which one expresses respect for superiors. One enacts his role in society in such a way that he is worthy of respect and admiration. A concern for propriety should inform everything that one says and does: Look at nothing in defiance of ritual, listen to nothing in defiance of ritual, speak of nothing in defiance of ritual, never stir hand or foot in defiance of ritual. (Lunyu 12.1) Subjecting oneself to ritual does not, however, mean suppressing one's desires. Instead, it is learning how to reconcile one's desires with the needs of one's family and community. Confucius and many of his followers teach that it is by experiencing desires that we learn the value of social strictures that make an ordered society possible (Lunyu 2.4). Nor does Confucius' emphasis on ritual mean that he was a punctilious ceremonialist. He did not think that the rites of worship and social exchange had to be practised correctly at all costs. Confucius taught, on the contrary, that if one did not possess a keen sense of the well-being and interests of others, his ceremonial manners signified nothing. (Lunyu 3.3) Confucius' insisted that it was equally important no to regard rites as mere forms. They should be practised with complete devotion and sincerity. "He (i.e., Confucius)

156 Lunyu 3.12, 6.20, and 11.11 282 sacrificed to the dead as if they were present. He sacrificed to the spirits as if the spirits were present. The Master said, ‘I consider my not being present at the sacrifice as though there were no sacrifice.’” (Lunyu 3.12) While ritual forms are often used in more close relations of family and clan, ren, however, is to be practised broadly. It informs one's interactions with all people. Confucius warns those in power that they should not oppress or take for granted even the lowliest of their subjects. “You may rob the Three Armies of their commander, but you cannot deprive the humblest peasant of his opinion.” (Lunyu 9.26) Confucius' political philosophy is also based on his belief that a ruler should learn self- discipline. He should govern his subjects by his example and should treat them with love and concern. "If laws lead the people, and punishments seek uniformity among them, they will try to escape punishment and have no sense of shame. If they are led by virtue, and uniformity sought among them through the practice of ritual propriety, they will possess a sense of shame and come to you of their own accord." (Lunyu 2.3; also 13.6) It looks like advocates following more legalistic methods were winning among the ruling elite, in his day. Most troubling to Confucius was his perception that the political institutions of his day had completely broken down. He explained collapse with the fact that those who wielded power, as well as those who occupied subordinate positions, did so by claiming titles for which they were not worthy. When asked by a ruler of the big state of Qi, Lu's neighbour on the Shandong peninsula, about the principles of good government, Confucius is reported to have replied: "Good government consists in the ruler being a ruler, the minister being a minister, the father being a father, and the son being a son." (Lunyu 12.11) If I claim for myself a title and attempt to participate in the various hierarchical relationships to which I would be entitled by virtue of that title, then I should live up to the meaning of the title that I claim for myself. Confucius' analysis of the lack of connection between actualities and their names is usually referred to as Confucius' theory of zhengming. He claims that such circumstances should be corrected. Elsewhere in the Analects, Confucius says to his disciple Zilu that, zhengming is the first thing he would do in undertaking the administration of a state. (Lunyu 13.3) Xunzi composed an essay entitled Zhengming. However, for Xunzi the term referred to the proper use of language and how one should go about inventing new terms that were suitable to the age. For Confucius,

283 zhengming does not seem to refer to the 'rectification of names' (this is the way scholars of the Analects most often translate the term). Instead, it refers to the rectifying behaviour of people so that it exactly corresponds to the language with which they identify and describe themselves. It was at the top that the discrepancy between names and actualities had originated. That is why Confucius believed this sort of rectification had to begin at the very top of the government. If the ruler's behaviour is rectified, then the people beneath him will follow suit. In a conversation with Ji Kangzi (who had usurped power in Lu), Confucius advised: "If your desire is for good, the people will be good. The moral character of the ruler is the wind; the moral character of those beneath him is the grass. When the wind blows, the grass bends." (Lunyu 12.19) For Confucius, what characterised superior rulership was the possession of de or ‘virtue’. It is a kind of moral power that allows one to win a following without recourse to physical force. Such 'virtue' also enabled the ruler to maintain good order in his state without troubling himself and by relying on loyal and competent deputies. Confucius claimed: "He who governs by means of his virtue is, to use an analogy, like the pole-star: it remains in its place while all the lesser stars do homage to it." (Lunyu 2.1) One can maintain and cultivate such royal 'virtue' was through the practise and enactment of li or 'rituals'— the ceremonies that defined and punctuated the lives of the ancient Chinese aristocracy. These ceremonies encompassed: the sacrificial rites performed at ancestral temples to express humility and thankfulness; the ceremonies of enfeoffment, toasting, and gift exchange. All this together bound aristocracy into a complex web of obligation and indebtedness; acts of politeness and decorum that identified their performers as gentlemen, such things as bowing and yielding. Herbert Fingarette157 argues that the performance of these various ceremonies, when done correctly and sincerely, involves a ‘magical’ quality that underlies the efficacy of royal ‘virtue’ in accomplishing the aims of the ruler. A main point of Confucius' thought is his emphasis on education and study. He argues that the only real understanding of a subject comes from long and careful study. He disparages those who have faith in innate understanding or intuition. Study, for Confucius, means finding an excellent teacher and imitating his words and deeds. A good teacher is someone older who is familiar with ways of the past and practices of the ancients. (See Lunyu 7.22) Sometimes he warns against excessive reflection and meditation. Confucius' position appears to be a middle course

157157 Herbert Fingarette. PhD, University of California, Los Angeles. Emeritus Professor of Philosophy. 284 between studying and reflecting on what one has learned. “He who learns but does not think is lost. He who thinks but does not learn is in great danger.” (Lunyu 2.15) Confucius, himself, is credited by the tradition with having taught three thousand students altogether, though only seventy are believed to have truly mastered the arts he cherished. Confucius taught anyone, whatever their social standing, as long as they were eager and tireless. He taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. He regards morality the most important subject, while he also emphasises the ‘Six Arts’ - ritual, music, archery, chariot-riding, calligraphy, and computation. Confucius' pedagogical methods are striking. He never discourses at length on a subject. He cited passages from the classics, posed questions, or used apt analogies, and waits for his students to arrive at the right answers. “I only instruct the eager and enlighten the fervent. If I hold up one corner and a student cannot come back to me with the other three, I do not go on with the lesson.” (Lunyu 7.8). Confucius' goal is to create gentlemen who can act with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. Confucius finds himself in an age in which actions and behaviour no longer correspond to the labels initially attached to them. "Rulers do not rule, and subjects do not serve," he observes. (Lunyu 12.11; cf. also 13.3) It means that words and titles no longer mean what they once did. Moral education is important to Confucius because it is how one can rectify this situation and restore meaning to language and values to society. He believes that the most critical lessons for obtaining such a moral education are to be found in the canonical Book of Songs. Many of its poems are both beautiful and functional. Thus, Confucius places the text first in his curriculum and frequently quotes and explains its lines of verse. For this reason, Lunyu is an essential source for Confucius' understanding of the role that poetry and art play in moral education of gentlemen as well as in the reformation of society. Recent archaeological discoveries in China of previously lost ancient manuscripts reveal other aspects of Confucius's reverence for the Book of Songs and its importance in moral education. These manuscripts show that Confucius had found in the canonical text valuable lessons on how to cultivate moral qualities in oneself as well as how to comport oneself humanely and responsibly in public.

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Chechens (Vaynoah)

So, what is common between Chechen moral code and different schools of philosophy, including Confucianism and what is typical between Chechens and Abraham's monotheism? Who are Chechens? We want to begin from a shocking and unacceptable hypothesis of some Chechen scientists and researchers about Chechen history. Would you agree that a name is the beginning of the emergence of any ethnic group? If so, how can the Chechen ethnic group exist in the Caucasus since the far ancient times and nobody knew it until the eighth century? We can see this paradoxical affirmation in work ‘The history of Chechnya since far ancient times’ of professor, doctor of history (PhD), Yaous Akhmadov, Quotations from Professor Yaous Akhmadov work: - Another widespread ethnonym - Chechen (chatchat, sasan, tsatsan, chachan) presumably appears in Georgian and Arabic written sources from the 8th to the 14th centuries. - From the 1st century BCE to the 1st century AD, the North Caucasus was frequently mentioned in the ancient works of (Roman, Greek) geographers and historians. " Our question: Under what name are Chechens mentioned in these works? - The Chechens writes in the introduction of his book Professor Yaous Akhmadov, represent one of the oldest peoples of the Caucasus with a specific anthropological type and ethnic traits. Our question: Who can show these ethnic traits of original Chechen? For example, if we show almost any Armenian, 99% will recognise him/her. - The latest archaeological, linguistic, anthropological, ethnographic and other data allow to suppose the existence of a unique ethnocultural substratum on the slopes, south as well as north of the great Caucasian chain from the Caspian to the Black Sea, based on which different languages and mountainous cultures have been formed for millennia. Our question. What name does this substrate had? Our answer: professor Yaous Akhmadov has no answer to our question, and nobody has. Name other scholars, or other works, who claim that the Chechen ethnic group existed before the 8th century AD. In our collection of scientific reports ‘Word is the Witness of History’, we argue that the Vaynoah (Chechen, Ingush) ethnic group was formed consciously and artificially based on the

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Frankish -Gothic culture following the collapse of Frankish ethnic group. Vaynoah (Chechen, Ingush) ethnic group was formed in parallel to English, French, German, Russian, and other modern ethnic groups. Now ask to any Frenchman: "What would you say about French scholar who would have titled his book ‘History of France since far ancient time’ and who, in the introduction, would have written that the first document written in French is the ‘Oaths of Strasbourg’ dating back to the 8th century AD? The fact is that not only ordinary citizens, but President of the Russian Federation consult with this Chechen historian since Professor Yaous Akhmadov works (2002) as Deputy Director of the Department of Advisers to the Russian President. Moreover, he prepares with other Chechen officials their recommendations for the President on North Caucasus. Though Yaous Akhmadov got acquainted with our scientific works, he did not mention them in his book. We want to pay attention to the fact that the presentation ‘Impact of patriarchal-clannish relations on the Chechen language’ has been validated and published by the Scientific Council of MGIMO of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. It is included in the brochure of interuniversity conference "Linguistic Studies: Methods, Analysis, Teaching technique" and published by MGIMO158. Mr Sigaouri's book is entitled ‘Essays on the history and state-establishment of Chechens since the far ancient times.

- Our questions. Can Mr Sigaouri show any document of state-establishment of Chechens since the far ancient times: order, decree, decree issued by any state service? Can a state exist without these documents and how?

158 S-E Kaguirov «Le mot, témoin de l'histoire» pp.81-93 en Russe, pp 94-106 en français. ISBN: 5-9900164-3-3 287

In our collection of scientific reports ' Word is the Witness of History’ we argue that the Vaynoah (Chechen, Ingush) ethnic group was formed artificially assembling representatives of different ancient tribes and clans, based on Franco-Gothic culture after the collapse of the Frankish ethnic group. Moreover, this ethnicity preserved our System of Consciousness encoding in the oral form of language.159 The writer Ruslan Nashkhoev tries to prove the links between Chechens and Sumerians. We made this conclusion after reading his book "The Mysteries of Pkharmat", where Sumerian irrigation systems are described in detail and trying to link it with Chechens. This book has scientific references from Chechen scholars, including the professor, Doctor of History, PhD Yaous Akhmadov, the Doctor of Philosophy, PhD V. Akaev, the doctor of pedagogy, PhD S. Nashkhoev. Question: "What is there in common between Sumerian pipelines and Chechen constructions? Nothing. Page 15 of the book "The mysteries of the Pkharmat": ... are the ancestors of contemporary Chechens among the Caucasian ethnic group. Question: Who can decipher the concept of "Caucasian ethnic group"? What is it? Page 110: "... on Noah's ark (Nokhi, Noukhi) which was found by scholars ..." Question: "Who found this ark, and where is it now? " Who are Chechens? Chechnya today is radically different from Chechnya in 18-19 centuries. Almost every aspect of Chechens (Noahchalla – Chechenness) underwent considerable change during the past 100 years. As a place, it has had precarious boundaries, expanding and contracting from time to time. In short, no simple description is enough. As a society, Chechnya has been primarily unique society with its philosophy, language and history. We agree with the method of using certain elementary words of daily usage in the definition of time of emergence of new ethnos. It is logical and correct. Proceeding from this logic, we argue that the Chechen language and, respectively, the Chechen ethnos are artificially created language and ethnos, after disintegration of the patriarchal and patrimonial relations of Frankish ethnos.

159 More in details in the report ‘Familles royales et voies de leur contribution au futur développement de la civilisation’ Kagirov Sayd-Emi «Le mot, témoin de l'histoire» pp. 16-37 en Russe, pp.38-57 en français. ISBN: S-9900164-3-3

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What can be simpler than one-sound words? It means that the Chechen ethnos started its formation at the moment of the emergence of one-sound words. We observe that the system of one- sound Chechen words and system of their synthesis corresponds to a system of spelling of English names. It is persuasive proof of parallel in time formation of these two systems. It means that the Chechen and English ethnic groups were formed parallelly in time. It does not mean that in the North Caucasus, on such fertile land, nobody lived before. There is even excavation, for example, in the settlement Serzhen-Yurt, where instruments of labour of a Bronze Age were found. For our question, if there is any scientific confirmation that the North Caucasian nations existed in the Caucasus with the same names before 8th-century, Russian professor Irina Babich answered: “There is no scientific confirmation about the existence of the North Caucasian nationalities before 8th-century with the names which they have today. Thus, we argue that our ancestors - Francs came to these mountains which they called ‘Caucasus’, assembled representatives of other ancient tribes and skillfully created the Vaynoah (Chechen, Ingush) ethnos after one of the periods of great migrations (VIII century). Russian scientists like ethnographer Jan Chesnov argue that the first mentioning of word ‘Caucasus’ in Russian pronunciation is referred to the 8th century. The Word Caucasus (in Russian - Kawkaz) in the Chechen language has a form: ‘Kov - ka – аз’ – ‘A gate of a voice of a Lamb’. Lamb is the first sign of Zodiac. So, which Chechen clans are indigenous? We never will define them, because both local tribes and aliens became indigenous, and there was a precise task introduced before them. It is a reconstruction of thousands of years' development of Human Consciousness, starting from its origin. The founders of English spelling introduced the same task. We suggest that our understanding of ‘Noahchalla’ (Chechenness) must recognise the following: - it is organic and changeable; - it is also the product of shared historical experience whose language system has continually influenced its growth; - it has become a self-conscious matter for Chechnya; - it should be related to what appears to be or to have been Chechens in the eyes of non- Chechens. In this context, the following questions may be asked.

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In what ways did the first Chechens feel that they were Chechens? How did that sense of ‘Nokhchalla’ (Chechenness) change over the centuries? How much of that sense is still relevant? Moreover, how does this self-image compare with how others see Chechens? The Chechens refer to themselves as Noahchii (sing; ‘Noahcho’), or ‘Nokhchiin qam’ (The Chechen People’) and call their Homeland ‘Noahchi-choe’, Noahchiin mokhk - Chechens’ Home, ‘Daimokhk’ (‘Homeland’ literally ‘Fathers’ land’). Some of these names derive from the ethnonym and toponym of a large Chechen tribe, the Nokhchmekhkahoi, and its domicile in southeast Chechnya. The name Noahcho (Noahcho) derived from the name Noah (Biblical and Koranic patriarch of Humanity.) Literally: Noah cho -Noah’s House. AchishBeth belongs to Noahchimekhkahoi tribe. The Chechens are accustomed to democratic ways, and their social structure is firmly based on pluralism. They formed an independent nation with its language, social and political structures based on autonomous clans with mutual support, relations that linked them into larger tribal confederations which generally coincided with dialects. A respected elder headed each clan. The Chechens are the largest North Caucasian nationality and the fourth largest in the Caucasus after the Azeris, Georgians and Armenians. Historically, Chechens and Ingush (Vainoah) lands lay to the east of Georgian Military Highway, with the headwaters of the Terek forming the western border. Vaynoah (Vay-Noah which means our Noa, our people) history is perhaps the most poorly studied among those of the various peoples of the North Caucasus. Much research effort had been expended on the history of the Russian – Caucasian War. The closeness of social ties and the severe mountain conditions gave rise to a complex system of mutual help and charity called ‘belkhi’. These traditions, which were prevalent all over the North Caucasus, played a role in fostering social cohesion. Intricate etiquette regulated the mechanisms of offering and accepting assistance in saving one's ‘face’. The greeting ritual had an embedded help-offering component, which was not a mere formal adjunct. There was also a corpus of sayings exhorting people to mutual assistance.

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Parents shied away from talking about Chechen history to their children. Very few children were told about it, especially the deportation after the Second World War. It created the paradox of a generation which was a victim of state atrocity but loyal to that state. Many of the survivors went into denial, absolving the authorities of guilt. Life challenges brought the Vaynoah (Chechen and Ingush) nation closer together. It facilitated the adoption of fateful collective resolutions to redress the humiliation and to compensate for the horrific loss of life. The already steely personality was made firmer still. The internal Chechen way of life expanded to uncharted frontiers of human experience. Nevertheless, children of exile were raised with consummate care, which allowed them to fit into society upon return, instead of harbouring feelings of resentment against the system. Many Chechens joined the Red Army. Writers, artists, musicians and academicians made their contribution to national and Soviet science and cultures. One of the means of perpetuating clan loyalty was teaching the young their familial histories. Traditionally, a Chechen, an Ingush (Vaynoah) man was expected to know the names and places of origin of his paternal ancestors going back for several generations. Some women could also trace their ancestors in this way, while some keener people could recite their maternal ancestors as well. This tradition which is not uniquely Chechen-Ingush but generally North Caucasian, means, incidentally, that significant territorial disputes in the North Caucasus among the indigenes should, in theory, be resolvable since all parties know whose ancestors lived where and when. Vaynoah society was known for its tolerance towards foreigners who took refuge or just decided to live in the land, allowing them to join the existing clan system or form clans of their own, adopting the local languages, customs and values in the process. Although clans ‘taips’ acted independently in peaceful times, all clans and tribes assembled in the face of external danger. Sub-divisions of the ‘taip’ include, in descending ‘ga (r)’ and ‘neque'. A 'ga(r)' is several ‘neques’ forming a lineage. A 'neque’ is a group of households sharing the name of fourth or earlier ancestor. The basic social unit was an extended family, 'doozel’ consisting of parents and families of their male offspring, usually comprising three generations, with four not being very uncommon. Traditional customs regulated familial relations, which had always been characterised as being very strong and built on the sacred principle of equality. Each individual has a set of rights

291 and responsibilities, and all treated each other with dignity and respect. It was unimaginable for the man of the House to interfere in womanly affairs. There was a strict hierarchy within the family, though the elders and the young ones had reciprocal feelings of responsibility for each other. The former were tasked with keeping family relations intact and fostering harmony and understanding. Children had harmonious relationships with their grandparents and were taught to venerate and obey them. They referred to their grandfathers as 'big father – dada' and to their grandmother as "big mother – baba'. If children could sometime get away with disobeying their mother, such behaviour was not acceptable concerning the grandparents. The patriarch ‘dooezalan daa’ had the final say in important and contentious issues. Tiffs among children and womenfolk were settled by the eldest male or female member of the family. One should not pay excessive attention to children's petty quarrels. If someone hurt the feelings of her children, a woman would not usually complain to her husband, but instead consulted one of his relatives. The elders were in general very considerate towards their daughters-in-law. A paternal uncle had a special relationship with his nephews and nieces, being most attentive to their requests and needs. Some children called their parents by name, but they never called their uncles, aunts, grandfather of grandmother by name. According to an ancient custom, parents, in their old age, were lodged in an adjacent residence. First thing sons did upon return from work was to check up on their parents and make sure that all their needs were catered for. A good daughter-in-law started her morning by cleaning in parents’ house before attending to her household chores. Customs and traditions, which have always been at the centre of the Chechen way of life, are enshrined in ‘Nokhchalla’, the code of conduct and system of ethics that regulated Chechen society for centuries. Noah-challa derives fom Noah-cho ‘House of Noah’, with a state-expressing suffix, and can be rendered as Chechenness – the quality of being a Chechen. Decency ‘ghillakkh’ was a function of three parameters. The Vaynoah code of masculine ethics was embodied in ‘yah’ (literally:’pride’; thought to be connected with ‘yueh’ – face) and its tenets ‘yahyan’, ‘kostash’, namely fortitude, valour, modesty, moderation, generosity, charity and competitiveness. “Endeavour to fathom the deepest recesses of your soul and gain the most profound insight of your ancestors. Never compromise your 'yah', always live in dignity and decency. You should never

292 fear death. It would be terrifying to lose one's 'yah' and live a life devoid of dignity and decency, for this means that freedom would be forfeited as well”160. The possession of 'yah' shows a lot about a man's character and status in the community. To be said to have 'yah' was the highest possible praise that could be heaped upon a man, implying that he was a paragon to be emulated by the young ones. On the other hand, to be devoid of ‘yah’ meant that he lacked manly qualities, and as such would not be accorded respect in his village. Many ‘illi’ epics end with a wish that no mother would ever give birth to a son without ‘yah’. The two other significant formers of Chechen character and morality were the concepts of 'bekhk’, the sense of duty and responsibility, and ‘eh’, the sense of shame and guilt. Hospitality was a sacred tradition all over the Caucasus and respect for guests was a source of pride for all Caucasian peoples. All Chechens were conversant with proper table manners and seating arrangements at home and as guests. A guest was not only settled for as long as he wished but also lodged in the best quarters and offered the choicest victuals. He was always seated in the place of honour in a room or at the table. Hospitality was not conditional, and no compensation was expected, any offer in this regard being considered a grave insult. A guest, however, could present the children of his host with gifts. There were many ways of greetings, depending on circumstances. The principle of equality was the basis of greeting procedures. For example, a rider was obliged to utter his Salut first upon encountering a person on foot, and he who went downhill always greeted those coming up. The weak and poor were always met with warm words. Elders had to be greeted in a standing posture, and always accorded the right of way. If the elderly passed by man (a group of men), a woman (a group of women), the children, all would stand up in respect. Respect for elders. The ritual veneration of the elders was closely associated with the cult of ancestors. The clan or village elders were the ultimate arbiters in all affairs. Obedience to one’s seniors was one of the binding rules of the code of conduct, its contravention being regarded as a grave censurable defect. Elders always had the right to speak first and the right of way, and it is considered unseemly to interrupt in during their conversation. It was anathema to talk back to them or smoke and drink

160 /Chechen historian, Eddy Asuyevitch Isaev. 1999/

293 alcohol in their presence. A person stood up in respect when the older came into a room and remained standing until entreated to sit down by his senior. In more recent times, young people offered senior citizens the most comfortable seats on public transports. Teaching the philosophy, history and language of AchishBeth, we believe, to be the best approach to modern governments and civilisation. We hope to attract a large number of followers, including students, state officials. We believe that our views and advice would be popular among modern heads of governments, royal families which they might use in practice. We are sure that a number of the followers of this theory would be able to make successful careers in governments. Indeed, they need to be politically more flexible. During the formation of Chechen ethnicity in the Caucasus, its founders used the philosophy of Confucius. It was after one of the periods of Great Migrations (8th century). As a philosophy, it was a careful consideration of the function and responsibility of leaders and society. It contained a moral code applied to minutia of greeting a friend as well as to proper function and ethics of leaders. Maybe it was vice versa because the House of Achish already had this philosophy combined with monotheism during the Gath kingdom in the Middle East, long time before Confucio was born. We see it clearly from the Biblical legend when David had fled to the kingdom of Gath, and Saul stopped persecuting him. - 27:2 So David and the six hundred men with him left and went over to Achish, son of Maoch king of Gath. 27:3 David and his men settled in Gath with Achish. Each man had his family with him…. 27:4 When Saul was told that David had fled to Gath, he no longer searched for him. 27:5 Then David said to Achish, "If I have found favour in your eyes, let a place be assigned to me in one of the country towns, that I may live there. Why should your servant live in the royal city with you?”. 27:6 So on that day Achish gave him Ziklag, and it has belonged to the kings of Judah ever since.

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The unity of the diversified world is in this philosophy and language of AchishBeth. Though different civilisations used only part of this theory and language, our House stays on the position 'So sa sa’ – I am my soul, I am my light, I am my spirit’ from the Adamic period. Maybe it was formulated with the same word ‘sa’ only while forming the Chechen language, but understanding of their ‘Me, I am’ comes from the Adamic period, from the time of invention of a bow and an arrow. Even if we do not agree with some parts of different ancient or modern philosophies, they help us to develop and to promote our philosophy. We cannot imagine how we would present the history, philosophy and language of AchishBeth without knowing the different philosophical teachings. History, philosophy and language preserved by AchishBeth had a direct impact on the development of all languages of the world, on the development of different philosophical teachings as we show in this research. Why are the greatest turning points in the history of our specific interest? Because after every greates turning point begins new history with new philosophy. The difference between Chinese Confucianism and Chechen moral code which was applied to all spheres of life is as follows: the Chechen moral code, being so close to Confucianism in every day interfamily, interclan and international relations, had its particularity as far as monotheism of Abraham concerned. It was expressed in the Chechen version of naming of the God, as well. In the Chechen language the God is translated ‘Deel’. De-el means De El – Father’s El. What does it mean? When we say: “We believe to Deel” it means that even if we cannot explain it, we are monotheists because we believe to our fathers' El. The fathers of the House of Achish (AchishBeth) were Adam, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Israel, Joseph, Manasseh, Shechem, Achish and others. They surely were monotheists. Israel named his God ‘El Elohu Israel’ (Old Testament, Genesis). It also coincides with the Confucian's attitude towards ancestors. The core of the Confucius's philosophy is the respect to elders, to the memory of ancestors. However, this core was expressed by Abraham, Isaac, Israel, Achish and others by preserving their genealogies long time before Confucius’s philosophy appeared.

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Now compare. The Emperor Wu Ti of the Han dynasty made Confucianism a religion by elevating Confucius to a perfection of thought and correctness that was unarguable, sometimes to be learned, studied, and in the end worshipped. Other schools of thought did not have a chance to be explored or developed. Some of the Confucius quotations161: - He who rules his state on a moral basis would be supported by the people, just as all the other stars encircle the Polar star. p. 12 - People will obey you if you promote righteous men and suppress evil men. Furthermore, they will disobey you if you do the contrary. - If one learns the truth in the morning, one would never regret dying the same evening. p.51 - A gentleman always keeps even-tempered without being arrogant, while a petty man is arrogant without being even-tempered. p.246. Following is another similarity of the Chechen language and philosophy with the Chinese philosophy. Seven years after the death of Emperor Chin, a new long-lasting dynasty of Han established itself and brought peace to China. Chin was the first Emperor who created the concept as well as the reality of a united China. It was Chin's most significant legacy. His building of the Great Wall was one of the greatest turning points in history. Until the Communist Revolution in 1949, China had one of the highly developed cosmological systems in the world. It was so complicated that ordinary people could not hope to understand more than a fraction of the system. The services of cosmological interpreters, fortune- tellers and geomancers162 were required for any event or venture that might involve an element of risk – from selection of auspicious wedding date to constructing of a new building.

161 Analects of Confucius. Cai Xiqin editor and translator. Beijing: Sinolingua, 1994. 162 Geomancy (Greek: γεωμαντεία, "earth divination") is a method of divination that interprets markings on the ground, or the patterns formed by tossed handfuls of soil, rocks, or sand. The most prevalent form of divinatory geomancy involves interpreting a series of 16 figures formed by a randomised process that involves recursion followed by analysing them, often augmented with astrological interpretations. Once practised by people from all social classes, it was one of the most popular forms of divination throughout Africa and Europe in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

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Perhaps the most important of the many elements in the Chinese cosmological system was the yin-yang dichotomy. Yin was usually seen as the collective representation of all forces in the universe that emanate from darkness, while yang was the representation of light. It followed from this primary division that aspects of human experience were often conceptualised as opposites: day-night, life-death, good-evil and male-female. The sexual dichotomy showed its unambiguous connotation of male supremacy. In the traditional view, women are thought to be week, emotional and untrustworthy – characteristics that relate to their ‘yin’ nature. At a higher, more philosophical level, the ideas about ‘yin’ and ‘yang’ were less concrete and, rather than a distinct dichotomy, the forces were seen as complementary. In the esoteric literature of Daoism, for example, ‘yin’ and ‘yang’ were inseparable and interacted in a dialectical relationship163. These notions were used by the founders of the Chechen ethnicity while forming the Chechen words: Ye – 1. give birth, to seed, make 2. kill. (for feminine and subjects) Yin - 1. given a birth, seeded, something is made 2. Someone or something is killed (for feminine, subjects and animals)

Ve - 1. give birth, make 2. kill. (only for man) Vin - given a birth, made 2. Somebody is killed (only for man)

De - 1. give birth, to seed, make 2. kill. (for child, subjects, animals) Din - 1. given a birth, seeded, something is made 2. Someone or something is killed. (for child, subjects, animals).

163, beliefs, customs and folklore. The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of China, p 288. Editor Brian Hook, University of Leeds. Cambridge University Press. Second edition 1991. 297

Secret revolt of slaves

"One of the primary forms of sociolinguistic identity derives from how people are organised into hierarchical ordered social groups, or classes. Classes are aggregates of people with similar social or economic characteristics. Within sociology, the theoretical basis of social class has been a controversial subject. It is not easy to work consistently with the notion, especially when cross-cultural comparisons are involved. Factors such as family lineage, rank, occupation, and material possessions often conflict or defined regarding different criteria. However, for the most sociolinguistic purposes to date, it has been possible to make progress by recognising only the broadest distinctions (such as high vs low or upper vs middle vs lower) to determine the significant correlations between social class background and language"164. Our studies and occurring around our Institute events show that exists a caste which owing to historical development keep mentioning of their belonging to the caste of slaves. Those who represent this caste could easily hide under the democracy slogan if these were only several cases we would not need to be afraid of them. Considering a patrimonial belonging of representatives of this caste and their collective aspiration to the power not only in the Chechen Republic but also to the higher echelons of power of the Russian State and taking into account the power of Russia this force presents serious threat towards aristocratic hierarchy. “In the world, apparently, there should be a minority which is in a particular position. Destruction of traditional hierarchy and historical aristocracy does not mean destruction of hierarchy and aristocracy as a system. The new hierarchy and new aristocracy are formed. Any vital system has hierarchy and has its aristocracy, only a heap of dust has no hierarchy, and only in it, aristocratic qualities are not allocated. If real hierarchy is broken and true aristocracy destroyed false hierarchy appears, and the false aristocracy is formed. The small group of swindlers and murderers of a scum of society can form new pseudo-aristocracy and present the hierarchical beginning in a society. Such is the law of all living being, everything possessing vital signs. The heap of sand can exist without hierarchy and aristocracy”165.

164 The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language. Second Edition. Social identity. p. 38. David Crystal. Cambridge University Press. 1997. Sixth printing in 2005. 165 N. Berdyaev, "Inequality Philosophy."

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In details about the attitude of the House of Achish ‘AchishBeth’ towards Monarchy system (i.e. hierarchies of aristocracy) and results of our studies are described in my report "Royal families and ways of their contribution to the future development of civilisation", presented on the international convention “The Space and Time in World Politics and International Relations” on 22-23 September 2006, (MGIMO(U) MID RF (International relations university of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation)166. Social philosophy of the House of Achish mostly revolves around the concept of 'compassion'. The noble Chechens avoid artful speech or an ingratiating manner that would create a false impression and lead to self-aggrandisement. They usually are simple in manner and low of speech. They regard devotion to parents and elders as the most basic form of social relations, promoting the interests of others before one’s own. The philosophy of AchishBeth teaches that such altruism can be accomplished only by those who have learned self-discipline. In every aspect of life from meeting and seeing off one’s guest to showing respect to Vaynoah elders (Chechens and Ingush) have strict rituals. Learning self-restraint involves studying and mastering the ritual forms and rules of propriety through which one expresses respect for the superiors and enacts his role in society in such a way that he is worthy of respect and admiration. A concern of propriety should inform everything that one says and does. If someone did not keep his ‘word’ (did not fulfil what he promised, he is told: ‘You did not keep your word. You are not a man.’ Subjecting oneself to ritual does not, however, mean suppressing one’s desire but instead learning how to reconcile one’s desires with the needs of one’s family and community. Our studies show that Israelites were not slaves in ancient Egypt. It is the people that were in slavery. To be a slave and to be a member of a people which is in slavery are different concepts. Divinity of Israelites that Pharaoh was so frightened, first of all, defined by their ability to preserve patriarchal-patrimonial relations in conditions when these people were in slavery. We want to pay your attention that children of Israel have entered Egypt with family trees and left Egypt (Exodus) with family trees. Concepts ‘slave’ and ‘the person from a family tree’ are incompatible concepts. Some real slaves left Egypt together with descendants of Israel, and they have been distributed between the tribes of Israel.

166 Kagirov Sayd-Emi «Le mot, témoin de l’histoire» pp. 16-37, pp.38-57. ISBN: 5-9900164-3-3 299

In a society with patriarchal-patrimonial relations, information about historical roots is preserved, basically, through names as there are no state annals. Israelites preserved this information after the Outcome (Exodus); it is preserved by modern Chechens too. Confrontation between descendants of Israel and those who had escaped together with them from slavery began at that point. This confrontation is a case between those free mountaineers of the Caucasus which were united under a words ‘Vaynoah’, ‘Nohcho’ (Chechens) and those fluent slaves including serfs which were accepted by Chechens. This confrontation amplifies at each attempt to return to the sources of history. Names shaded by time arise (resurrect) with new initial force. Those whose names mention about their slavish origin try to hide real history with all possible ways. It is some hidden war between classes of origin. So was in the case with Israelites after the Outcome (Exodus) and it happens with modern Chechens, too. Philosophy of the House of Achish ‘AchishBeth’ is not compatible with ‘philosophy of slaves’ as well as concepts ‘slavery’ and ‘freedom’. The central philosophical meaning of the patriarchal-patrimonial system of Israelites in Ancient Egypt and modern Chechens in the Caucasus is freedom of spirit (soul). High ranked representatives of the caste of Chechen slaves use such saying as “Chechens recognise only a force”. This caste of slaves as a part of Chechen ‘Vaynoah’ ethnos genetically stores in themselves this fear before force. We can compare it with the confrontation between Confucianism and Legalism in China. Those who demanded ‘yesterday’ compassion towards them act brutally suppressing others as soon as they reach some position in society. Ordinary Chechens ‘jigits – vaynoah’ recognise force, as well as knights-francs, only in a combination to freedom and in a combination to such concepts as open, frank, free in statements that he thinks and feels, liberated, not avaricious, clear, simple, generous, noble, fair and sincere. Now compare. The Franks were one of the Germanic tribes who founded the Frankish Empire by putting under its authority the territory of nowadays France, Germany and Italy. The word ‘Frank’ means open, sincere, freely saying what he thinks and feels, not stingy, simple, generous, noble, honest, sincere.

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Mentioning of slavish origin is preserved in the names, of some Chechen clans. Considering their origin and the slaves which were used as a subject of purchase and sale, considering such historical phenomenon as ‘the right of the Russian feudal lord of the first marriage night in a slaves couple, they could not be recognised as a full member of the society. One of the fundamental problems of slaves was that they could not have a family tree (genealogy). It is well known that in European slaves were not allowed to have more than one name; meanwhile, the representatives of noble clans used their name together with names of their ancestors. Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos consists of clans of different origin – Franco-Gothic, Gothic, Georgian, Russian, Dagestan, Sarmatia tribe Aors, Hunnes, Huts, etc. After the disintegration of the patriarchal and clannish relations of the Frankish ethnic group, the Chechen ethnic group was created based on rigorous patriarchal and clan relations. Under these relationships, no woman could be a genealogist. In marrying, she passes in the clan of her husband. As far as the Chechen slaves concern, we suppose that they could be considered as full members of society after the seventh father. I consider it necessary to remind the Chechen saying: "The person who knows the names of their seven fathers will get to paradise". However, with the Chechen slaves' clans, the problem is more complicated. It is not the question of labour slavery; it is the question of moral suppression that they feel. “Although the institution of slavery existed at some stage in Chechen society, it did not play a significant part in the later Middle Ages, as it did among the neighbouring Caucasians, due to the dismantling of the caste system and relative isolation. Slaves were mainly taken from war captives or visitors with slaves' origin and were mainly tasked with agricultural and menial jobs. Some were redeemed (for ransom) and others sold to Ottoman harems. Slavery was officially abolished in 1864”167. Until the recent time, they were obliged to announce before entering a household that they are slaves’ and wait until the host would ask questions or give command. Meanwhile, Chechens received their guests (no slaves) with open arms, literally, as a token of sincerity and absence of malice. It was improper to enquire of the guests about the purpose of their visit before they would tell it themselves. The etiquette of proper guest reception, lodging and

167 The Chechens. Chapter: Society, p. 92. Amjad Yamoukha. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor & Francis Group. London and New York. 301 subsequent delivery to the next destination or host (heeshan daa) was very involved. All Chechens who are not of slaves’ origin were conversant with proper table manners and seating arrangements at home and as guests. Instead of analysing their history and getting rid of words, suffixes, prefixes, the terminations, attached casual or attached with meaning to names and mentioning about slavery, instead of preserving genealogy (family tree), representatives of these clans struggle or allow to use themselves against the noble Chechen clans. In the Vaynoah (Chechens and Ingush) society existed so-called ‘teptarsh’. Mostly the noble clans had these ‘teptarsh’. These are of nonofficial clannish annals, the concise form of historical representation which record events chronologically, year by year. Why these annals still hidden. What happened in Chechen society? If one wants to understand the history and philosophy of Chechens and Ingush, it is enough to divide the society into two subdivisions: 1. Noble clans 2. Clans of slaves’ origin. Afterwards, we should analyse the development of the society through Abraham’s monotheism in religion plus philosophy of Confucianism of the noble Chechen clans and the Chinese legalists’ movement of the Chechens of slaves’ origin. As during legalists’ movement in China, reaching high positions in society because of the Russian Revolution, these ‘slaves’ until today have been trying to hide these annals because these documents will reveal their slaves’ history. This struggle is conducted not openly but secretly, as they know that open opposition will only strengthen the mentioning of their slaves’ origin. Representatives of slaves have established ‘family contracts’ inside the secret services system when the secret services agents recruit their relatives. What do we mean? If secret services need any information considering the realities of this century, a century of informatisation, there is no difficulty. Occurring around our Institute (Moscow, Preobrazhenskiy val, 27/1 - «Preobrazhenskoye and K» Ltd) events show that the feedback of these criminals with their relatives from secret services is well adjusted. For example, representatives of the clans who work in FSB provide with necessary information criminal groups from their clans. The same representatives in FSB include in the list of various state security operations criminal activities of their relatives. It allows these criminals to avoid persecution by the law enforcement bodies. The Chechen and Azerbaijan swindlers conduct

302 such game around our Institute established in Moscow and based on “Preobrazhenskoye and K” Ltd. The scheme of working of these high ranked swindlers is straightforward. They use as intermediate the Chechen writer Musa Gueshaev, the author of the books ‘The famous Chechens’ and ‘The famous Ingushes’. He introduces himself with the Chechen and Ingush businessmen as if he needs materials for his book and afterwards, he involves other high ranked swindlers, his relatives, including his relatives - refugees in Europe.

Another example. The results of our research were published on Chechen forum of website www.chechnyafree.ru under the title ‘Who hides the Chechen history’? This website is very popular even in abroad, though it is a pro-government website of the Chechen Republic. We were surprised when they let us publish. We suppose that a hidden fighting between different teams in secret services including FSB took place because of this publishing, fighting between those who want to restore family trees (genealogies) in the Chechen society and those who are against it. Talking with a Doctor of Philosophy, Professor Ander Yandarov we understood that he and his partners are on the side of those who want to restore the patrimonial family trees (genealogies) in the Chechen society as Frankish emperor Charlemagne did it in Europe. Professor Yandarov himself belongs to a noble family. In the 1980s he was very high ranked official in the Chechen- Ingush Republic. The fact is that the Chechen writer Musa Gueshaev colonel Alavdi Mussaev and their relatives are in strong opposition to our studies as they belong to Chechen slaves’ clan – ‘Kelay’ and ‘Terlay’. Chechen forum at www.chechnyafree.ru where were published our studies was closed in 2009, after two years of activities on the topic ‘Who hides the Chechen history’? We suppose that they have closed it because the writer Musa Gueshaev, colonel Alavdi Mussaev and those who represent these clans of slaves won the hidden fighting. Why do we write in our scientific report so much about these swindlers? There are lots of esoteric things connected with that spot of land where located Preobrazhenskoye and K’. We cannot write about it in our scientific works. Musa Gueshaev, Alavdi Mussaev and their high ranked

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Chechen relatives - look like dogs who eat bones after Moscow Azerbaijan Diaspora’s wedding parties in our building ‘Preobrazhenskoye and K’ Ltd. The representatives of Azerbaijanis rent it. We came to this conclusion imagining possibilities of Chechen and Russian peoples to go ahead of the civilisation because of this place.168 We suppose that Russian authorities do not want to get rid of the name ‘Slaves’ using the chance given them today. That place where ‘Preobrazhenskoye and K’ Ltd is located, have esoteric meaning for us. We do not know what the answer to those who rule Russia will be. However, we know the answers given to those who ruled Israel and Judah because of the spot of land in Shechem that Israel gave to Joseph and Joseph's descendants. Owners of that spot of land left that place because of confrontation between Israel and Judah, and other reasons. One of the answers was slavery in Babylon. It is a pity when the whole people suffer because of several idiots. We want to say that nobody understands what meaning had that spot of land in Shechem for Abraham, Isaac, Israel and Joseph and all have forgotten about it. Quotations from the presentation speech of our collection of scientific reports ‘Word is the witness of history’ in Paris - Brussels. "Those who, standing aside, observe in silence, gathering information and trying to show that they know everything and that they control the situation, we want to say: “From the Egyptian sorcerers who believed that they knew everything there remained only a pile of stones, the so-called pyramids”. The lucubration of the sages of Zion are always a source of perplexity. The fall of Troy had preceded the fall of ancient Greece, of which only the ruins of Olympus remained. The only European civilisation, embodied by ancient Rome, survived and had as its ultimate embodiment only the tiny Vatican after the exodus of the House Achish (AchishBeth) from Alps. It happened thanks to Emperor Charlemagne, who began the creation of his Empire of Franks by reconstructing genealogies based on Gothic culture. Just this was enough for the representatives of the House of Achish to supported Charlemagne strategically.

168 The Preobrazhensky Regiment (lit.- Transfigurational regiment) was one of the oldest and elite regiments of the Russian army. Along with the Semenovsky regiment also served as a gendarmerie unit for the state Secret Chancellery (secret police) in the 18th century, headed by the Prince Fyodor Romodanovsky. It was formed by Peter-I in the late 17th century from his ‘poteshnye voiska’ (droll forces) during his military fighting games in the village of Preobrazhenskoye (now, a locality in Moscow). 304

A unique and correct way out from nowadays situation is to study materials of our research and to restore and to strengthen family trees (genealogies) as Charlemagne did it. I want to quote my letter to the President of France Mr N. Sarkozy and Mayor of Paris Mr Bertrand Delanoe. “... .. We want to pay your attention that what is described in the collection of scientific reports 'Word is the Witness of History' " under the notion 'System of Consciousness' the best scientist of humanity seek for millennia. (...) If you would not create a mechanism of cooperation with our Institute and with our Foundation 'Kahir - AchishBeth - Shechemite clan' and would not listen to our advice, there would be serious consequences for France and all civilisation. (...) We want to pay your attention to the fact that humanity has not mechanisms of correct reaction on what we show in our studies. The creation of new mechanisms using the results of our studies without counting our opinion is dangerous. (...) We assure you that the correct use of this System is not an easy task for humanity. What we could explain during a short period, scholars would argue again for millennia. In this situation, politicians, heads of state must be interested in collaboration with our Institute. Here are quotations from our report: ‘Royal families and ways of their contribution to the future development of civilisation’ too. "The monarchical dynasties as they exist today are much closer to the divine force. It is manifested above all in respect of the memory of the ancestors, in the conservation of genealogies. We want to recall that Charlemagne, King of the Franks, created his Empire by restoration of genealogies. He wanted to keep the language and song traditions of his ancestors. That is where, in our opinion, we can see the roots of today's European civilisation. Analysing the nature and development trends of these monarchical systems, we have discovered that many of them are guarantors of democracies in their respective countries. In countries where democratic principles are not respected, a high standard of people minimise this defect. (...) Our research shows the importance of preserving and strengthening monarchical systems to subsequently safeguard the System of Consciousness which we have deciphered and for its transfer to future generations. We want to underscore that it is also the instinct of self-preservation. In the era of globalisation, we do not see a more favourable environment than monarchical institutions for

305 transmitting to future generations the sacred knowledge that Abraham, Isaac, Israel, Joseph and some representatives of AchishBeth have been preserving since thousands of years”. We continuously try to pay attention of the representatives of monarchical institutions to this problem and on the results of our study precisely for that reason. We show hidden confrontation between noble clans of Israelites and slaves’ clans after Outcome (Exodus) and of the modern Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnic group. It is one of the severe force which serves to destruct the Monarchy system. When this confrontation threatened to the preserving of our System of Consciousness and the family tree which was preserved by special coding, our fathers left the inhabited places. Today the border between West and East passes through the Chechen Republic. On this border, it is possible to reconcile West and East, i.e. Islam, Christianity and Judaism. One more quotation from my speech made, summarising the presentation of my scientific book ‘Word is the Witness of History’ in Paris - Brussels. “With all my respect towards peoples and religions what my collection "Word is the Witness of History" demonstrates, I address to two peoples whose history and philosophy was based on the force of the blood of mother and the power of the spirit of father. We want to address to Jews, but not to those who take names with endings ‘shtein’, ‘man’, and so on when they see some profit or take back their original names of Kozlov, Tarakanov, etc. when they see some danger. We want to address to those Jews who stay Jewish all the time. Like organic or non-organic world which keeps specific information, you preserve through millennia of joy and suffering the ‘force of the blood of mother’. We want to address to Chechens: "Remembering, in the homeland or far away from your homeland, beauty of the customs of your fathers and mothers, thank those who gave you that language. Because homeland, language and customs are inseparable notions. In the Chechen: fatherland, mother’s tongue. Through centuries of joy and suffering, they have been preserving the ‘power of the spirit of father’. You, who are fighting for Chechnya's independence or dependence and who are watching the denouement, you all risk missing the chance to ask: "Why are we created? What we should do next?" The names of Shechem and Noahcho are too serious about being used by expelling those to whom they belong." We want to add that not only Chechens can lose the chance to ask why they are created but West and East can lose a chance for reconciliation.

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CONCLUSION

Diplomacy is often confused with foreign policy though the terms are not synonymous. Political leaders set foreign policy and diplomacy is not the only instrument of foreign policy. In addition to military and intelligence officers, diplomats may play the role of advisers. Diplomacy is the first substitute for the use of force or underhanded means in statecraft; it is how comprehensive national power is applied to the peaceful adjustment of differences between states. The research shows the Vaynoah (Chechen, Ingush) ethnos being formed intentionally and artificially to preserve the System of Consciousness during the Modern Age. This information was hidden behind the centuries lasting confrontation with Russia. Foreign policy establishes goals, prescribes strategies, and sets broad tactics to be used in their accomplishment. It may employ secret agents, subversion, war, or other forms of violence as well as diplomacy to achieve its objectives. So, the founders of Chechen ethnicity established the goal, prescribed the strategy, set up broad tactics at the very beginning while establishing the village AchishBeth in Caucasus. For the House of Achish (AchishBeth), the main actor in this process, it was necessary to implement different principles of diplomacy in inter-family, inter-clannish, international relations. Our research shows that it was after one of the Great Migration periods (8th century) when the representative of the Dynasty Achish, of Franco-Gothic origin, established a village AchishBeth in Caucasus. Achish is the king of Gath. Further generations needed only to use diplomacy in their accomplishment. As the basis for diplomacy, AchishBeth used several methods: 1. Non-violent introduction into the newly forming society of Abraham’s Monotheism and Biblical genealogy system 2. Power of word against paganism. 3. The best traditions of different philosophies which would better fit Abraham’s Monotheism, mostly the traditions of Confucianism. The purpose of AchishBeth’s diplomacy was to implement and develop the System of Consciousness in the new forming Chechen ethnos. This aim was reached mostly by using the principle according to Confucianism: “a ruler should learn self-discipline, should govern his subjects by his example and should treat them with love and concern”.

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“If laws will lead the people, and punishments seek uniformity among them, they will try to escape punishment and have no sense of shame. If they are led by virtue, and uniformity is sought among them through the practice of ritual propriety, they will possess a sense of shame and come to you of their own accord”169. So, AchishBeth conducted its relations with other clans being an example of nobleness, clearness, simplicity, honour, sincerity. It seems apparent that Russian authorities were trying to implement into the new forming Vaynoah (Chechen, Ingush) ethnos the opposite philosophy, which coincides mostly with Legalism. Today we can write two histories of the same Chechen ethnos: 1. First, the history of Chechen clan AchishBeth170 Franco-Gothic origin, one of the ‘Noah- cho-mokhkakhoi’ clans, with Abraham’s Monotheism and philosophy which mostly coincides with Confucianism. The result of its input in the formations of Chechen ethnos is the formation, of, mostly, pure, noble clans. A hallmark of thought of the representatives of AchishBeth is their emphasis on education and study. ‘He who learns but does not think is lost. He who thinks but does not learn is in great danger’171. 2. Second, the history of ‘Lamaroy’ with Shatoi village as the Centre, with their pagan rites and slavery (Chechen: lai) system, which resulted with the mixed formation of noble and slaves’ (lai) clans.

Amjad Yamoukha writes in his book “The Chechens. Chapter: Religion and beliefs’:

- “The Nakh Pantheon was remarkable for its complexity and high level of development. Representations of deities were placed in sanctuaries and temples, and a form of idolatry was practised. Deela was the supreme deity, presiding over a crew of gods, semi-gods, deities and patrons, each controlling one aspect of the universe. He commanded complete

169 Lunyu 2.3, (see also 13.6) 170 Mariel Tsaroieva. Mythes, Legendes et Prières Ancestrales des Ingouches et Tchétchènes, p.67. L’Harmattan, 2009. Paris. ‘Selon la légend, cette famille remonte à un certain ‘Akish’ fondateur de l’aoul d’Akishbatoi …’. 171 Lunyu 7.22, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confucius/ 308

obedience from the other gods, refractory behaviour drawing harsh punishment, as when he gouged out the eye of his son Elta”172.

- “Although the institution of slavery existed at some stage in Chechen society, it did not play a significant part in the later Middle Ages, as it did among the neighbouring Caucasians, due to the dismantling of the caste system and relative isolation. Slaves were mainly taken from war captives or visitors with slaves' origin and were mainly tasked with agricultural and menial jobs. Some were redeemed (for ransom) and others sold to Ottoman harems. Slavery was officially abolished in 1864”173.

Dr. Mariel Tsaroieva writes in her book « Mythes, Legendes et Prières Ancestrales des Ingouches et Tchétchènes »174 : - « Le Terloi, qui habitaient sur les rivages de la Terloi axka (affluent de Tchanti (Tsanti) – Argoun étaient tributaires du clan Tchanti (Tsanti), habitant plus bas dans la vallée de Tchanti (Tsanti) – Argoun. Les Terloi étaient en obligation de faire paître du printemps jusqu’à l’automne le bétail des Tchanti (Tsanti) sur leurs pâturages. (The Terloi were obliged to graze from the spring until autumn the cattle of the Tchanti on their pastures) … ».

It is the result of the influence of different international actors in the political situation in the Caucasus. That is why we see two parallel societies with the same language but different social structures and religious and philosophical background: Noah-cho-mokhkakhoi’ – the tribes with Abraham’s monotheism from the very beginning; ‘Lamaroy’ – the pagan tribes before Islam was established in their region. But there is a difference between notions ‘lamaroy’ and ‘lamarlay’. ‘Lamaroy’ means literally 'Highlanders’. All Chechen clans are ‘highlanders’ including ‘Noah-cho-mokhkakhoi’, because all Chechen clans have their clannish villages in the mountains.,

172 The Chechens. Chapter: Religion and beliefs, p. 111. Amjad Yamoukha. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor & Francis Group. London and New York. 173 The Chechens. Chapter: Society, p. 92. Amjad Yamoukha. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor & Francis Group. London and New York. 174 Mariel Tsaroieva. Mythes, Legendes et Prières Ancestrales des Ingouches et Tchétchènes, p. 71. L’Harmattan, 2009. Paris. 309

‘Noah-cho-mokhkakhoi’ descended from the mountains earlier and considered more educated and developed, while ‘lamaroy’ and ‘lamarlay” descended much later. There was not any Pantheon of deities as Amjad Yamoukha writes. He and some other Chechen and Ingush scientists try to restore the Chechens history using different falsifications. For example, when we read the notion ‘Pantheon’ it looks like there were some great ancient constructions with religious (pagan) hierarchy, though everybody knows that these kinds of constructions did not exist near Shatoi, the central village of ‘Lamaroy’ clans and in all Chechnya. It is an attempt to show that there existed some kind of developed systems, religious (with pagan deities) or social with slavery. There are no archaeological traces about the slavery system in the Chechen society too. Mentioning about their slaves’ origin was preserved in their names. It was preserved, for example, in the names of their clans, in legends and sayings. Considering their origin and slaves which were used as a subject of purchase and sale, they could not be recognised as full members of the society. One of the basic problems of slaves was that they could not have the family tree (genealogy) while all Chechen noble clans had their genealogies. It is well known that in Europe, slaves were not allowed to have more than one name. Meanwhile, the representatives of noble clans used their name together with the names of their ancestors. Nevertheless, the problem is more complicated with Chechen clans of slaves’ origin. It is not the question of labour slavery it is the question of moral suppression that they feel, for example, because of the well-known facts of abuse not only of their women. According to the Chechen customs, even the seventh, ninth, etc. fathers considered to be simply a father. So, to say "you are a slave" is a big insult. It is not because of the labour slavery but because it reminds them of the moral side of the problem. That is why, until the Russian communist revolution, they were obliged to announce before entering a household that they are slaves and wait until the host would ask questions or give command. Meanwhile, Chechens received their guests (not slaves) with open arms, sincerity and absence of malice. It was improper to enquire of the guests about the purpose of their visit before they would tell it themselves. The etiquette of proper guest reception, lodging and subsequent delivery to the next destination or host (heeshan daa) was very involved. All Chechens who are not

310 of slaves’ origin were conversant with proper table manners and seating arrangements at home and as guests. During the Soviet period, clans of slaves’ origin succeeded in propaganda against noble clans, including AchishBeth. Their representatives reached high positions in state organisations. For example, Magomed Mamakaev, Hasan Israilov, Alavdi Musaev are well-known Chechens from Terloi. A writer and Chechen state official M. Mamakaev invented a ‘hero’ Zelimkhan, so-called Chechen ‘Robin Good’. According to Mamakaev’s story, Zelimhan theft, for example, goods (banks) of the rich people distributing goods or money among poor Chechens. However, M. Mamakaev did not precise how much Zelimkhan theft and what per cent of that theft was distributed among poor people. It was part of the Soviet propaganda against Chechen noble clans. Professor and colonel Alavdi Musaev, for example, use different tools, from unacceptable rumours to direct provocations, trying not to let us show this history, philosophy and language of AchishBeth. Our studies show that Israelites were not slaves in ancient Egypt. It is the people that were in slavery. To be a slave and to be a member of a people which is in slavery are different concepts. Divinity of Israelites that Pharaoh was so frightened, first of all, was defined by their ability to preserve patriarchal-patrimonial relations in conditions when these people were in slavery. We want to pay your attention that children of Israel had entered into Egypt with family trees and left Egypt (Exodus) with family trees. Concepts ‘slave’ and ‘the person from a family tree’ are incompatible concepts. Some real slaves left Egypt together with descendants of Israel, and they were distributed between the tribes of Israel. In a society with patriarchal-patrimonial relations, the information about historical roots is preserved, basically, through names as there are no state annals. Israelites preserved this information after the Outcome (Exodus); it is preserved by modern Chechens too. Confrontation between descendants of Israel and those who escaped together with them from slavery began at that point. This confrontation is a case between Chechen noble clans, Caucasians which were united under a name ‘Noahcho’ (the self-name of Chechens) and clans of fluent slaves (including serfs) which were accepted by Chechens. This confrontation amplifies at each attempt to return to the sources of history. The names shaded by time arise (resurrect) with new initial force.

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Those whose names mention about their slaves' origin try to hide real history with all possible ways. It is some hidden war between classes of origin. So was in that case with Israelites after the Outcome (Exodus) and it happens with modern Chechens, too. The philosophy of the House of Achish - AchishBeth is not compatible with ‘philosophy of slaves’ as well as concepts ‘slavery’ and ‘freedom’. The central philosophical meaning of the patriarchal-patrimonial system of Israelites in Ancient Egypt and modern Chechens in the Caucasus is ‘Freedom of Spirit (Soul)’. High ranked representatives of this caste of Chechen slaves use such saying as ‘Chechens recognise only a force’. This caste of slaves, as a part of Chechen (Vaynoah) ethnos, genetically stores in themselves this fear before force. We can compare it with the confrontation between Confucianism and Legalism in China. Those who demanded ‘yesterday’ compassion towards them, acted brutally suppressing others as soon as they reached some position in the society (after communist revolution). Ordinary Chechens ‘jigits – vaynoah’ recognise force, as well as knights-francs, only in combination with freedom and in combination with such concepts as open, frank, free in statements that he thinks and feels, liberated, not avaricious, clear, simple, generous, noble, fair and sincere. Compare. The Franks were one of the Germanic tribes who founded the Frankish Empire by putting under its authority the territory of France, Germany and Italy today. The word Frank is also used to describe any ethnic group living in Europe, especially Western Europe. The word Frank means open, sincere, freely saying what he thinks and feels, not stingy, simple, generous, noble, honest, sincere

Conclusion on Part I: Unity in Diversity. Since its glorious birth in the Age of Enlightenment, modern science has indeed served as the standard representation of human knowledge. There are questions which have been aroused before scientists but have no response until today. So, what is AchishBeth's input into the development of civilisation including formation of the Chechen ethnos in the Modern Age? Because of its history, philosophy and language, we can answer the biggest questions of Humanity:

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° According to our study, a Patriarch of humanity is Adam, and his descendants gave this name to a man who invented a bow and an arrow. ° According to our study, human evolution had passed several stages of enlightenment that changed human beings and their way of life. The main of them are fire use, invention of a bow and an arrow, acquisition of ability of processing of earth. English spelling and Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language show the encoded in the Bible and Coran (in the names Adam and Noah) information about two of these stages: 1. Invention of a bow and arrow – ‘Adam’175; 3. Acquisition of ability of processing of the earth, invention of plough (plough) – ‘Noah’176. ° English spelling and Chechen oral languages show that with the beginning of a new stage of evolution of the person (a bow and arrow acquisition) the accelerated development of naming system began. It means that Adam was a symbol of the enlightenment when one of the human ancestors invented ‘a bow and an arrow’ and a man could live separately because afterwards, he was able to fight animals in the distance. Philosophically saying at that point, the possibility to announce ‘It is me’, ‘I am’ appeared.

175 The Old Testament Genesis, 9:13 says: "I have set my rainbow in the clouds, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and the earth". Why does a rainbow serve as a sign of the covenant between God and the Earth? Compare now: English Chechen A d Iад [Ad] - a rainbow, a bow and an arrow. a m ма [ma] - what! Adam Iад ма [Ad ma] - What a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! - Like a rainbow (a bow and an arrow)! - Rainbow (a bow and arrow) it is! 176 The Chechens call themselves as Noahcho. Linguistic analysis of ‘Noahcho’ demonstrates that the Chechen language has preserved the Old Testament’s meaning of the name of Noah: “Не named him Noah and said," He will comfort us in the labour and painful toil of our hands caused by the ground..."176. Compare now: English Russian Chechen176 Noah Ной Нох [nokh] - Noah нох [nokh] - to reap нох [nokh] - a plough нох(да) [nokh(da)] - to plough ной [noi] - trough нах [nakh] - people чо [cho] - a house, a womb Noahcho Нохчо [Nokh cho] - Noah’s House

Two biblical names have similar usage in Chechen: Adam means both the name of Adam and the word ‘адам(иш) - adam (ish)’ - man, people. Noah – also means the name of Noah and the word ‘нах – nakh’ – people. 313

Our hypothesis about the invention of a bow and an arrow and human’s separation from other species answers to the Noam Chomsky’s assumptions. He argues that a single chance mutation occurred in one individual on the order of 100,000 years ago, triggering the 'instantaneous' emergence of the language faculty (a component of the mind-brain) in 'perfect' or 'near-perfect' form. The philosophical argument runs, briefly, as follows. Firstly, from what is known about evolution: any biological change in a species arises by a random genetic change in a single individual, which then spreads throughout its breeding group. “The language is so complex that one cannot imagine it simply appeared from nothing in its final form: it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems”. ° This pre-linguistic system is, undoubtedly, a basis of formation of English spelling and Chechen oral language. It is necessary to notice that this system was preserved and developed during the different historical periods. At the present stage, it is preserved by the founders of English spelling and Chechen oral language. The proof of the development of this pre-linguistic system is that such a system of names which exists in the Chechen language cannot be found in any of the world languages, including the ancient ones. ° We want to pay attention to the fact that it is not casual that in the Bible, names are written through a hyphen put between each syllable. It specifies that each syllable is a meaningful word. These names are a synthesis of words which consist of meaningful syllables (sounds). ° We have an answer to Chomsky's hypothesis that language emerged in an instant and miraculous way but to which he has no response. It emerged in perfect but not in final form. We show in this research how it could emerge in such a miraculous way and that pre-linguistic system. This information encoded in a Bible legend (Covenant between God and Earth) with the help of the name Adam, and in Cоrаn. This single individual was named as Adam by his descendants. In Chechen – Iaд ма [Ad ma] (What a rainbow! What a bow and an arrow!) - “I have set my rainbow in the clouds, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and the earth”. /The Old Testament Genesis, 9:13/ - “And He taught Adam all names…” /Cоrаn, Chаpter 2, Cow, Verse 29/

There is still considerable debate as to whether language developed gradually over thousands of years or whether it appeared suddenly. According to Out of Africa hypothesis, around 50,000 years ago a group of humans left Africa and proceeded to inhabit the rest of the world, including

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Australia and the Americas, which had never been populated by archaic hominids. Some scientists believe that Homo sapiens did not leave Africa before that, because they had not yet attained modern cognition and language, and consequently lacked the skills or the numbers required to migrate. ° According to our study, a language in its origin was created by man (father), but its keeper is mother. It is like ‘a founder of a family cell is a father’ and ‘keeper of a family cell is a mother". It is necessary to notice that acquisition by a person of a bow and an arrow is dated between 50 000 - 100 000 years ago and precisely since that period archaeologists date the parking of the person further than 50 km from caves. Another scientific problem is the problem of reliability and deception. ° Problems of reliability and deception begin not with a language exit on interfamily relations but in the family between father and mother. These problems depend on consciousness and mutual understanding of husband and wife. Prime necessity of synthesis of sounds appeared not between mother and child, as suppose some scientists. It appeared when a father was forced to give names to the members of his family to separate them from other anthropoids. This necessity appeared when he had left a cave and created his own house. Therefore, we see an initial synthesis of sounds-words in names. Whether it was necessary for naming of subjects or proper names, the first words should consist of one sound. When sounds were not enough for the definition of subjects or proper names, synthesis and combination of sounds began. ° It was a period of glattogenesis. Scientists have been trying to understand this phenomenon. This phenomenon is brightly illustrated in the etymology of Chechen (Vaynoah), names and words. For example: I sa -Isa; I da - Ida; I ba - Iba. Chechen (Vaynoah) surname necessarily corresponds to a name of one of the forefathers. For example, Isa-Isaev; Ida-Idaev, Iba-Ibaev. Most of the names from religious writings are pidgins which gave rise to creoles”177.

177 Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs 86. Creole Languages and Language Acquisition edited by Herman Wekker. Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter,1996. pp.33-34

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The System of Consciousness, also, mainly consists of nouns, verbs and adjectives with no articles, no prepositions, no conjunctions or auxiliary verbs. Often the grammar has no fixed word order. Compare: Shiva Compare: Eve [iv] Shiva Sh [iv] - adding Sh Vishnu [vi]shnu - rearrangement of components The Chechen oral language and English (spelling) have preserved the initial meaning of each sound in the name of Shiva. Compare now: English Chechen S са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honour, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood h ха [ha] - time, waistband, guard i хьа [ha] - your, look хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed va ба [ba] - grandmother (mother) ‘Ind. Father’

Shiva Са хьа bа! -Your Soul, Grandmother! Your Light, Grandmother! [Sa ha ba] -You are Soul, Grandmother! You are Light, Grandmother! - Ind. Your Light, Father!

Аrabic Chechen J джа [ja] - Lamb (Lambs), faster! i h ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard хьа [ha] - your, look a хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed d да [da] - father

J i h a d Джа хьа да - Faster, your father! Lamb (lambs), your father! [ja ha da]

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Isa (Jesus) – Isaac - Achish Compare:

English Chechen Isa Иса [I-sa] -This spirit, light, eyesight, my Isaac Исакъ [I-sa-ak] -This spirit/light (is) wonderful! -He (is) my wonderful!

Achish Акъ и са [Ak-i-sa] - Wonderful this spirit/light (is)! Achish Акъ иш/уьш [Ak-h-ish] - Wonderful they (are)! Etc.

The first most primitive synthesis was in names and had not syntactic, morphological or other structures. Founders of the Chechen language used the most significant number of sounds. It helps to keep the morphological values in loan words. Therefore, we observe preservation in Chechen language of a sound ‘r’ with Russian pronunciation as well as a sound ‘г1 – r’ with French pronunciation. Special attention is paid to Arab sounds, too. For example: whereas in other languages the sound ‘k’ has only one value and pronunciation, in the Chechen language the same sound has different pronunciations and different meanings: ‘k, kh, k', k1’. However, there is a sound which the Chechen tradition has not accepted until recently. It is a sound ‘f’. We argue ‘the Chechen tradition’ because it was conscious action not of all society but the founders of the Chechen ethnos. Why was this sound not accepted? Because it takes away a phonetic meaning of the sound ‘b’ too far from System of Consciousness. For example: ‘b’ passes into ‘v’; further into ‘p’; and then into ‘f’. It is because the sound word ‘b’ has huge value in the System of Consciousness and it is linked with the names ‘Aba’, ‘Iba’, ‘Eve’. These are the very first names. In such borrowed words as ‘officer’ etc. Chechen elders pronounce a sound ‘f’ as ‘p’ – ‘epsar’. ° The Theory of Unity shows that in their origin, founders of other ethnicities, also, tried to introduce and preserve this System but with a different level of success. We see this process,

317 practically, after every greatest history turning points. New civilisations, new religions, new philosophies included the information partially from this System. That is why we see its splinters everywhere. By oral preservation of the System of Consciousness, during the millennia, was reached unusually high levels of intentional honesty which is necessary for this language System to evolve. We can compare this phenomenon with the polishing of a diamond. Depending on professionalism, one can reach the corresponding quality of a diamond. The preservers of the System would not hand down the information to following generations only for the sake of personal interests of the previous keepers if it is not accurate information. ° Our study shows that there existed a caste of people of higher level of consciousness who have been keeping this System of Consciousness and transferred it through millennia. Linguists consider that there are no existing primitive languages: all modern human populations speak languages of at least roughly comparable complexity and expressive power. However, the twentieth-century doctrine that the world's spoken languages are and always were identical and invariant in complexity is no longer accepted: much recent scholarship has explored how linguistic complexity varies between and within languages over historical time. ° As to the statement that there are no existing primitive languages: all modern human populations speak languages of at least roughly comparable complexity and expressive power, linguists, with meaning or on ignorance, have not paid attention to the Chechen (Vaynoah) language. ° Basis of the Chechen language is the primitive language system consisting of one sound- words. Another problem for scientists is the fact that the more modern a language is its structure is easier, the older a language is, its structure is more complicated, including their grammatical structures. ° We can explain such phenomenon as follows. We think it would be interesting to remind the opinion of some scientists that language evolved not from primate communication but primate cognition. ° Our study shows that in further development, there appeared lots of personalities, and everyone tried to bring their contribution to the development of this primitive language system. Those who tried to synthesize sounds without knowledge, trying only to find a new variation of

318 synthesis, have confused languages. They confused languages the way that this primitive primary language system shown in English spelling and Chechen oral language was lost. ° In parallel, this primitive language system has been preserved and developed naturally. Some of the preservers are Seth, Abraham, Isaac, Israel, Joseph, some of the representatives of the House of Achish (AchishBeth). ° As the human brain evolved too, on each historical period, especially in the beginning of the formation of modern languages, people confused it less and created more logical language structures. ° The simpler the language is, its structure becomes more logically formed. That is why the founders of English spelling and Chechen oral language have simplified language system until the primitive one sound words. Thus, was recreated millennia-old development of human Consciousness. In further development, we can see the confusion of the language even in English. For example: at the beginning, a sound ‘s’ was used correctly in the spelling of the leading names which represent religious hierarchies. We want to pay attention to the fact that there are much more words in the English dictionary for the letter (sound) ‘s’ compared with other letters of the alphabet. However, in these words, they have lost the original meaning of this sound. Here we can use the Russian philosophical saying – ‘Услышал звон, не знает где он’ which means ‘One have heard a sound of a bell but does not understand where it comes from’. It means that later the English linguists felt that this sound had some serious meaning and they used it very often even if they did not understand its original meaning178. In all world languages, there are splinters of our System of Consciousness, and these splinters could serve as the unifying phenomenon for all peoples. However, there are dangerous forces which do not want that people realise that they have common roots. ° A belief and trust are the qualities which distinguish a man from an animal.

178 English Chechen s - са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honor, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood 319

According to our study, at first, there was a belief not in one another between men. The bow and arrow invention, both English spelling and Chechen oral language which gives the same name to a bow and an arrow and a rainbow show that at the beginning there was a belief in God, belief in a signal which was sent by someone who was not near or insight. Language is the signals, first of all. Furthermore, the rainbow was the first signal which pushed a man to a bow and arrow invention. He had believed in this signal, invented a bow and arrow and separated from animals. At the same time, it was a trust to himself. It means that the first trust which distinguishes a person from animals was a trust to himself combined with belief to a God. That is the exact meaning of the Covenant between God and Earth written in the Bible179. However, there are different levels of belief. Therefore, humanity periodically has prophets who are considered as envoys, and they are trusted. We trust teachers, trust preachers, trust seniors, trust relatives, trust those who love, etc. Trust and belief are the notions mostly experienced in diplomacy. How is this trust used? Belief and trust are the points from which the conflict of individuals and the conflict of systems begin. French people are the nation which is considered to be a locomotive of renaissance. Probably in this matter, the strategic interests of the nation as the nation which supports advanced views are put on the second place after momentary political interests. Probably, it is not so easy to turn the look directed on the African continent and the Middle East towards the Caucasus, though French people, according to their prophet Nostradamus, has been waiting for the ‘Prince’ from the Caucasus. Everyone interprets prophecies proceeding from personal understanding of their value. Perhaps, French people drew the image of a beautiful young prince on a white horse etc. We have been planning a documentary and feature film ‘Paris of Troy. Dynasty’s continuation’. We are going to reveal Rome’s historical falsifications which were directed to hide the information about descendants of Paris of Troy. According to our hypothesis, Paris of Troy had descendants. We need to confirm or dis-confirm this hypothesis. For this purpose, we began contacts and acquaintance with the results of our research, well-known representatives of France. We hope that they will help us with our Project.

179 The Old Testament Genesis, 9:13. “I have set my rainbow in the clouds, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and the earth”. 320

Conclusion on Part II: AchishBeth and origin of languages and religions. What contribution can the study of language make to our understanding of human nature? In one or another manifestation, this question threads its way through modern human thought. From the ancient times, the nature of language, mental processes, and character of thought – these were topics for study and speculations by scholars and gifted amateurs with a wide variety of interests, points of view, and intellectual backgrounds. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, as linguistics, philosophy, history, anthropology, and psychology have tried to go their separate ways; the classical problems of language and mind have inevitably reappeared. They have served to link these diverging fields and to give direction and significance to their efforts. “There have been signs in the past decade that the artificial separation of disciplines may be coming to an end. … In short, it seems to be quite appropriate, at this moment in the development of linguistics and psychology in general, to turn again to old questions and to ask what new insights have been achieved that bear on them, and how the old issues may provide direction for contemporary research and study. "180 Many scholars continue to regard the topic about the origin of language as unsuitable for serious study. Though empirical evidence is limited and there is no consensus in ultimate origin or age, it is a widely discussed topic. In 1866, the Linguistic Society of Paris went so far as to ban debates on the subject. That prohibition remained influential across much of the Western World until late in the twentieth century. A presentation of our collection of scientific reports ‘Word is the Witness of History’ in Paris and Brussels in 2008 had a big success. The form of presentation allowed acquainting the highest political and scientific management of Belgium and France with the results of our study. Although reaction to the presentation was ambiguous, its success is evident from our point of view. There was no one to whom this study was indifferent. We could read shock on the faces of some scientists, maybe because of the gravity of results or comprehension that a secret is revealed.

180 Noam Chomsky. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ‘Language and mind’. Enlarged edition. ‘Linguistic contributions to the study of mind’: Past. Page 1. 1968; 1972 by Harcourt Brace Jvanovich, Inc.

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We do not think that for centuries in the Caucasus the Chechen ethnos have been created consciously and skillfully with accurately formed language system, history and philosophy and nobody knew about it. Sure, some knocked on the European and Russian doors, trying to show the language system, history and philosophy based on which this ethnos had been creating when it resisted to enormous power (Russia) during centuries. Probably, they knocked so often and convincingly that the Linguistic community of Paris refused to accept any messages on the existence of ‘Uniform language’ in 1866. Consideration of scientific works in this area has been renewed only in 1960s. Why was this topic considered to be dangerous that reflections about it were out of the law about 100 years? We want to notice that at that period the Chechen ethnos had been already skillfully formed with the unique language system based on Franco-Gothic culture which we show in our collection of scientific reports ‘Word is the Witness of History’. we want to pay attention of the French and European politicians to the fact that the strong influence of various international actors on a political situation on Caucasus during that historical period, i.e. the end of 19 centuries and the beginning of 20 centuries, are well-known. It would be ridiculous to think that, having been created consciously and skillfully the Chechen ethnos based on Franco-Gothic culture, financing a hajj of seven religious Chechens, Mita from AchishBeth181, representative of the House of Achish, at the same time did not finance scientific envoys to Europe and first of all to Paris. Probably, messages about this unique language system of the Chechen language based on Franco-gothic culture were so convincing that if the Linguistic community of Paris did not adopt such treacherous decision concerning the Chechen language France should interfere directly to a situation in Caucasus. Addressing to those who would not like it to be still known we want to tell that you had lost the game the day when we conducted a round table discussion of our study in Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, i.e. on March, 29th, 2004182.

181 “Mita from AchishBeth of Chechen Republic was very rich (19 centuries)". He financed a hajj of seven Chechens. Afterwards, he sent his son to hajj accompanied by bodyguards. His son was named Miti-hajj” /I.J. Aleroev Ibraguim Aliroev - Doctor of philology, Doctor of history, professor, academician of the Russian Academy of natural sciences. 182 The report on a round table discussion is on page 107: in Russian and on page 143; in French of the collection of scientific reports ‘Word is the Witness of History’ Kagirov Sayd-Emi. ISBN: 5-9900164-3-3 322

There is a saying in Russian: “ll the people know the information which is known by two persons”. We can add to this saying: “especially in a century of informatization”. In 2004 professor S. A. Starostin, famous Russian scientist in comparative linguistics was acquainted with my work "Etymological studies of the Chechen language. Chechens - preservers of proto-language at the current stage". However, he refused to participate in a round table discussion in the Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. Members of the academic council of our private Institute of Etymological Studies made a presentation of the results of our researches there. Later the Institute was renamed into the ‘Institute of History, Philosophy and Language of the House of Achish - AchishBeth’. At that time, everything connected with the Chechen people attracted attention to the Russian scientific, diplomatic elite and politicians. After that round table discussion, I was admitted to prepare and present my postgraduate thesis in the Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Afterwards, I was invited twice to make the reports on the most prestigious Russian scientific tribune - MGIMO (U) of the Ministry of Foreign. However, professor Starostin was keeping silence. According to our study, to try to find the first language is nonsense. Let us imagine how many places and regions a man changed after the appearance of first words which consisted of just one sound. Imagine how many times a man needed for the synthesis of first two-sound words etc. So the only possibility in this research is to find out first words (the first philosophically most logical words), not first language. This task was successfully solved by the founders of Chechen oral language and English spelling. In the etymology of the Chechen names, we see that at the beginning several sounds were used in different variations. When these variations did not suffice for the naming of an extending human society, there appeared new sounds. Thus, with the occurrence of new sounds, possibilities of synthesis of sounds increased in a geometrical progression. The languages of the modern peoples confirm our conclusions. There is a different quantity of sounds in different languages. Why in Chechen (Vaynoah) language, there is the largest number of sounds, though the language is the most primitive one, based on one sound words? After all, according to modern scientific concepts, there should be the smallest number of sounds?

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It is because the Chechen language has been skillfully created with a definite purpose. This purpose is to recreate millennia development of System of Consciousness through its basis – one sound words, to collect the splinters of this System scattered in all languages of the World. We want to pay attention to the fact that many words from this System were used in different ancient languages as deities. For example: 1. Ancient Egyptian deity(god) "Hah" - a deity identifying "time". “Hah, also Heh, Huh, Hehu In the Hermopolitan mythology Hah, (MdC transliteration H.H.), was the personification of infinity and eternity, cf. Ogdoad, and a god of heavens. Eight Hah gods were portrayed as supporting Nut in the shape of the cow of heaven. Eight Hah gods and Shu propping up the celestial cow. Shrine of Tutankhamen”183. Hah is generally depicted in human shape at times with a frog's head, holding palm branches in both hands, with which time was measured by cutting notches into them. He is often shown in conjunction with the shen-ring, the symbol for eternity and the ankh-amulet, symbolising life. Hah amulets symbolised eternal life: Compare: The Chechen ‘ха’ - ha – time’. 2. Ancient Egyptian deity(god) ‘Iah, also Aah, Yah”.

‘Iah’, was an ancient, minor moon god, personification of the heavenly body just as the Aten, the sun disk, was the embodiment of the sun. Like the more important moon deities Thoth and Khonsu, with whom he merged, later, he could manifest himself as a crescent new moon, an ibis or a falcon. He became part of the Osiris cult in the time of the 5th Dynasty. In the Pyramid texts of Pepi-I he is referred to as the late Pharaoh's brother. He was especially popular at the beginning of the New Kingdom, possibly as the result of Middle Eastern influences. ‘Iah’ and his cult are but rarely referred to after the early New Kingdom. According to the Late Period Teachings of Amenemope, ‘Iah’ is one of the avenging deities who will establish crimes against evildoers. When someone acquires (something) through a false oath, he will be fettered by the manifested might of ‘Iah’.

183 L. E. Lipiello, 2004; Symbolic Perceptions of New Kingdom Watercraft: Building Boats from Gods, p.13

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Compare: In the Chechen society, the possession of ‘yah’ showed a lot about a man’s character and his status in the community. To be said to have ‘yah’ was the highest possible praise that could be heaped upon a man, implying that he was a paragon to be emulated by the young ones. On the other hand, to be devoid of ‘yah’ meant that he lacked manly qualities, and as such would not be accorded respect in the society. Many epics ‘illi’ end with a wish that no mother would ever give birth to a son without ‘yah’. Chechen: ‘eh’, the sense of shame and guilt. 2. Ancient Chinese deity ‘цин - tsin’ is a deity of energy of blood - Chechen ‘ц1и - tsi’- blood, 3. Ancient Egyptian deity(god) ‘х1у – hu’ - a deity which identifies ‘seed’ – Chechen ‘х1у - hu’ - a seed. 4. Ancient Egyptian deity: Sia184, also Sa, Esya, Esye Sia was the god of wisdom and knowledge, residing in the heart. “Enthrone his majesty in your hearts. He is Esye in the hearts”. According to Breasted, the meaning of this passage is: honour king in your innermost hearts, for he knows your hearts. Compare the Chechen: ‘ca - sa (sin)’ - soul, spirit, my, ‘co - so’ - I; ‘Си -si’ – dignity, honour. Etc. Thus, we see that in their origin, the founders of the Chechen ethnos and Chechen oral language were monotheists. They spoke: ‘ха - ha’ is not a deity ‘time’, it is merely a time; ‘цин - tsin’ is not a deity ‘blood’, it is merely blood; ‘х1у - hu’ is not a deity ‘seed’ it is merely a seed. Etc. Thus, in the subconsciousness of the Chechen ethnos monotheism was put nonviolently. That is why we observe, on the one hand, Chechens as monotheists, who preserved this unique language system and on the other hand their ancient pagan rites, especially at burial places. Humanity aspires to the Perfect World. If in the non-material Perfect World the founders of English spelling and Chechen oral language would take the first (leading) place, as far as the

184 Inscription of Sehetebibre, 12th dynasty J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, §747 325 material world development concerns, this language system is some obstacle which leads the people back to a period of occurrence of languages. These two languages would not be in any way accepted by humanity as leading languages in a material world. It does not matter how perfect they are. We do not take into consideration the role of the English language, which was mostly introduced forcefully. The founders of French language decided - if in the non-material Perfect World, we could not be leaders, let us try to become leaders at least in the material World. Moreover, they began to create artificial sounds pleasant for hearing and introduced them into language. If before Chechens and Englishmen arise a question: if a basis of our languages is the primitive language system, based on which were created all other languages of the World, in what language should we communicate with other nations not to lag in material world development? Our answer is: ‘in French’. In this case, we would be leaders in the non-material Perfect World and the Material World. The founders of French, also, polished it artificially, the way that it would be easy to listen to it. Therefore, proceeding from our study, the native languages of our Dynasty Kahir, AchishBeth, Shechemite clan must be Chechen (Vaynoah) and French languages. In this thesis, we show the main shortcomings of the previous studies in the field of Proto language. As we see, Proto language did not exist in that sense, as scientist imagine, and it is useless to look for it. The language System - System of Consciousness existed and exists today. A specific group of people has preserved it. This group of people includes: - Adam - the inventor of a bow and an arrow; - Noah - the inventor of the plough; - Abraham, Isaac, Israel, Joseph and some representatives of the House of Achish (AchishBeth) - preservers of the Family tree from Bible (O.T.) - Today, of cause, it is me. - Many unknown by names founders of other nationalities, ancient and modern, made their input to its preservation. These people possess a Uniform Consciousness, though, they have different genealogical origin. We call this Uniform Consciousness, a System of Consciousness.

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If we compare one-sound words from our System of Consciousness and words from Svadesh list, we will see between them a huge difference. Morris Swadesh (January 22, 1909 - July 20, 1967) was an influential and controversial American linguist. In his work, he applied basic concepts in historical linguistics to the Indigenous languages of the Americas. The difference is that Svadesh took as a basis the simplest words of generally meaning material concepts. A basis of System of Consciousness consists of the words designating, generally abstract concepts. However, all these abstract concepts define the personality – ‘I am. Me’. If we want to understand the difference between these systems, it is enough to imagine simply the complexity of defining and naming concepts of material and non-material World. If we want to define the first language, indeed, the origin of Consciousness of the person is primary. Moreover, the first person could tell only the first one sound words, and he/she could not start talking in any language. Here is the main mistake of the scientists. They have been looking for the first language, but they should look for the first words. Our study shows that the first synthesised expression consisted of isolated sounds-words. However, these sounds-words were philosophically interconnected. For example: Isa (Jesus) ‘I- sa’ – He (it) is a spirit; He (it) is a light; I sа sа – He is my light. He is my spirit. This spirit is light. This light is a spirit etc. If we want to understand the uselessness of search of any first language, it is enough to imagine how much time passed between the origin of first words and the formation of first simple sentences. Further, imagine how many habitats changed those who formed these first words before the formation of first simple sentences. Of cause, they left everywhere a trace of these first words, which anthropoids (according to Darwin) used proceeding from their cognitive possibilities. Therefore, someone got stuck on the ability to use a hundred words, and others could say thousands, etc. We agree with the method of using certain elementary words of daily usage in the definition of time of emergence of new ethnos. It is logical and correct. Proceeding from this logic, we argue that the Chechen language and, respectively, the Chechen ethnos are artificially created after disintegration of the patriarchal and patrimonial relations of Frankish ethnos.

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What can be simpler than one-sound words? It means that the Chechen ethnos started its formation at the moment of the emergence of one-sound words shown above. We see that the System of one-sound Chechen words, System of their synthesis, corresponds to the System of spelling of English names. Isn’t it persuasive proof of the parallel formation in time of these two systems? It means that the Chechen and English ethnics were formed parallel in time. It does not mean that in the North Caucasus, on such fertile land, nobody lived before. There is even excavation, for example, in the settlement where I lived, Serzhen-Yurt. There were found instruments of labour of a bronze age. We asked Professor Irina Babich: "Is there any scientific confirmation of the fact that the North Caucasian nations existed in the Caucasus with the same names before the 8th century? She answered: “There is no scientific confirmation on the existence of the North Caucasian nationalities with the same names which they have today at that period185. We argue that our ancestors, Francs came to these mountains which they called "Caucasus", assembled representatives of other ancient tribes and skillfully created the Chechen ethnos after one of the periods of Great Migration (VIII century). Scientists like ethnographer Jan Chesnov argue that the first mentioning of the word ‘Caucasus’ in Russian pronunciation is referred to the 8th century. The word Caucasus (in Russian - Kawkaz) in the Chechen language has a form: ‘Kov - ka – аз’ – ‘A gate of a voice of a Lamb’. Lamb is the first sign of Zodiac. However, which Chechen clans are local indigenous? We never will define them, because both local tribes and aliens became indigenous, and there was a precise task which was introduced before them. It is a reconstruction of thousands of years’ development of Human Consciousness from its origin. The founders of English spelling introduced the same task. Concerning the Bible legend about the first uniform language, in this legend is encoded information which has nothing in common with language, as we used to think. About what language mentioned the legend about Babel Tower? We want to say that in our study, we show the meaning of sounds-words. Can any word be simpler than one-sound word? No.

185 Prof. Irina Babich - Academy of Science of Russia. Brussels. Conference at the ULB – University. 328

Less than one-sound word may be only silence. What silence ‘speaks’; one can only understand. Moreover, as soon as we would try to explain it by sounds, or, especially, by polyphonic words - it can turn into a lie of different levels. We can say, only, where it may be stored, this Bible Babylon language. It is stored where we scoop the information. We are - those who told the first time: ‘So sa sa’ (in Chechen) - I am my light, I am my spirit, I am my soul. We are his descendants. We named our first father, Adam. Adam - Ad ма! (in Chechen) - What a rainbow! What a bow and arrow! We are those who store and bear this light, spirit, soul through thousands of years in invariable form. When we could not convince all human beings that we are of the same origin, that Adam is our common father, we named our father Noah and said Noah is a father of all human beings who can process the earth. (in Chechen. Noah - a plough). When we again could not convince all human beings that we are of the same origin, that our common father is Noah, then, we came to mountains between Caspian and Black seas and had been trying to create at least the small people who could live like brothers and sisters - the people of Noah. We named these people as Noahcho (the self-name of Chechens) which means the House of Noah. We called these mountains ‘The Caucasus ‘Kov -ka – az’ - Gate of the Voice of a Lamb’. We named them Vaynoah. Vay Noah (Our people, our Noah). The founder of our clan named our patrimonial settlement as AchishBeth. AchishBeth - House of Achish, because he belonged to the Dynasty Achish, the king of Gath. We gave a name Jigit to create more advanced type of knights. “Before, the word Jigit was pronounced as Jagat”. /The Doctor of history, Doctor of philology I.Aleroyev/. The Jigit - Jagat in the Chechen language has a form: Ja - Ghats - Lamb(s) of Gath. We suppose that all these words were introduced in Caucasian mountains after one of the periods of Great Migration (after the 8th century).

The terminal date for Proto-Indo-European Indo-European language family is the most developed System. Scientists try to find out the Proto-Indo-European language. They hope that after that it would be much easier to find out Proto – Humanity language.

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Some of the scientists argue. The terminal date for reconstructed Proto-Indo-European – the date after which it becomes an anachronism – should be close to the date when its oldest daughters were born. Proto-Indo-European was reconstructed based on systematic comparisons between all the Indo-European daughter languages. The mother tongue cannot be placed later than the daughters. Of course, it would have survived after the detachment and isolation of the oldest daughter, but as time passed, if that daughter dialect remained isolated from the Proto-Indo- European speech community, each would have developed its peculiar innovations. The image of the mother that is retained through each daughter is the form mother had before detachment of that daughter branch. Each daughter, therefore, preserves a somewhat different image of the mother. Linguists have exploited this fact and other aspects of internal variation to identify chronological phases within Proto-Indo-European. The number of phases defined by different linguists varies from three (early, middle, and late) to six. However, if we define Proto-Indo- European as the language that was ancestral to all the Indo-European daughters, then it is the oldest reconstructable form, the earliest phase of Proto-Indo-European, that we are talking about. The later daughters did not evolve directly from this first Proto-Indo-European but from some intermediate, evolved set of late Indo-European languages that preserved aspects of the mother tongue and passed them along. So, when did the oldest daughter separate? The answer to that question depends very much on the accidental survival of written inscriptions. Moreover, the oldest daughter preserved in written inscriptions is so peculiar that it is probably safer to rely on the image of the mother preserved within the second set of daughters. What is wrong with the oldest daughter? Our answer to this question of scientist is straightforward: Nothing wrong with her because the oldest daughter did not exist. There exists a language System which we discovered through English spelling and Chechen oral language. We named it a System of Consciousness. This System is described in our collection of scientific reports ‘Word is the Witness of History’ and in this thesis. All languages derive not from the Proto-family languages, and all language families are derived not from Proto-Humanity language. They all derive from this System of Consciousness preserved during the Modern Age with the help of holy names and words in English spelling and the Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language.

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Conclusion on Part III: The greatest turning points in history. As we mentioned above, human evolution had passed several stages of enlightenment that changed human beings and their way of life. The main of them are fire use, invention of a bow and an arrow, acquisition of ability of processing of the earth. The English spelling and Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language show the encoded in the Bible and Coran (in the names Adam and Noah) information about two of these stages: 1. Invention of a bow and an arrow – ‘Adam’186; 3. Acquisition of ability of processing of the earth, invention of plough – ‘Noah’187 We want to show some later greatest turning points in history which had not only social, economic, political, but mostly philosophical impact on the development of human Consciousness. As we show in the research, the System of Consciousness is a common root of all languages and religions of the World, including ancient ones. All languages are derived not from Proto- family language, and all language families are derived not from Proto-Humanity language. They all derived from this System of Consciousness, which has been preserved during the Modern Age with the help of holy names and words in English spelling and the Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language. It gave rise to different philosophies, including religions and newly forming languages after every greatest turning point in history. Here are some of them.

186 The Old Testament Genesis, 9:13 says: "I have set my rainbow in the clouds, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and the earth". Why does a rainbow serve as a sign of the covenant between God and the Earth? Compare now: English Chechen A d Iад [Ad] - a rainbow, a bow and arrow. a m ма [ma] - what! Adam Iад ма [Ad ma] - What a rainbow (a bow and arrow)! 187 The Chechens call themselves as Noahcho. Linguistic analysis of ‘Noahcho’ demonstrates that the Chechen language has preserved the Old Testament’s meaning of the name of Noah: “Не named him Noah and said," He will comfort us in the labour and painful toil of our hands caused by the ground..."187. Compare now: English Russian Chechen187 Noah Ной Нох [nokh] - Noah нох [nokh] - to reap нох [nokh] - a plough нох(да) [nokh(da)] - to plough ной [noi] - trough нах [nakh] - people чо [cho] - a house, a womb Noahcho Нохчо [Nokh cho] - Noah’s House

The Great Wall of China Stronger states made frequent wars upon others to conquer them. Only a few of more than a hundred had finally survived and were anxious for a new round of war. These states included Qin, Wei, Yan, Zhao, Han, Qi, Chu, also referred to as "the Seven Powers", and others less strong. Furthermore, history came to the Warring States Period (B.C. 475 ~ 221). One man was to transform these warring kingdoms into a united empire, the Empire that took his name. China was born amidst to multiuse change and epic tragedy. Emperor Chin decided to protect his new Empire by building the most massive human-made structure in the World. Great Wall of China proved to be a crucial turning point in world history. It was the first emperor who created the concept as well as the reality of a united China. It was Chin's most significant legacy. His building of the Great wall was the turning point which helped clearly define Chinese identity symbolically dividing a world within from the World outside. The Great Wall, one of the greatest wonders of the World, was listed as a World Heritage by UNESCO in 1987.

Battle of Actium Out of the anarchy that followed Julio Cesar's murder two powerful men found themselves fighting for control of the nomad world, Mark Antony, the victorious Roman general and senator and the young and ambitious Octavia, one of the World's most successful politician. After thirteen years, their final confrontation would come at the battle of Actium, which was one of the greatest turning points in history and there followed a golden age for Rome's fortunes. Octavian's authority proved to be a rock on which Empire would grow, an Empire that would unite Europe for the next four hundred years. Rome's new power was characterised by great architecture, and by the Roman rule. Just four years after the battle of Actium the Senate voted Octavian a new name Augustus Caesar, the final stage in metamorphosis from a boy to a God.

He was to live for another forty years, during which time he turned Rome into the most magnificent city in the World. After two thousand years still, there is testimony to his extraordinary achievements. The Roman World was fundamentally a face-to-face culture, where it was expected that communication and negotiations would be done in person. On can see it in Rome's contacts with

332 other cities, states, and kingdoms weather dependent, independent, friendly or hostile and in the development of a diplomatic habit with its rhythms and protocols that coalesced into a self- sustaining system of communication. Roman envoys were sent abroad with written instructions from their government. Sometimes a messenger was sent, usually to towns. For broader responsibilities, an embassy (legatio) of 10 or 12 ambassadors (legati) was organised under a president. The ambassadors, who were leading citizens chosen for their skill at oratory, were inviolable. Rome also created sophisticated archives, which were staffed by trained archivists. Palaeographic techniques were developed to decipher ancient documents. Other archivists specialised in diplomatic procedures, which became formalised. For centuries these archive-based activities were the primary preoccupation of diplomacy in and around the Roman Empire. Roman law became the basis of treaties and stressed the sanctity of contracts. Late in the Republican era, the laws applied by the Romans to foreigners and foreign envoys coincided with the Greek concept of natural law. It was an ideal code applying to all people, to create a law of nations. The sanctity of treaties and the law of nations were preserved by the Roman Catholic Church in the centuries after the Western Roman Empire collapsed, thus providing a foundation for the more sophisticated doctrines of international law which began to emerge along with the European nation-state a millennium later. The influence of the Apostles Paul and Peter had a significant impact on the history of Christianity of Rome. The Apostle Peter established his headquarters in the city, following his thirty-year ministry in the East. The Apostle Peter was martyred in Rome. In the face of these persecutions, the Church in Rome gave birth to writers to defend the faith. These writers were known as apologists. The early apologists tried to explain Christian doctrine in philosophical terms to pagan intellectuals and Greek philosophers. Their writings provided a reasoned defence which served to quench the hysterical attacks of the unbelieving but failed to convert the Empire to Christianity. After, nearly three centuries of hostility by Roman emperors, the persecution and martyrdom of Christians in Rome the Emperor Constantine (r. 306-337) began the reforms. Constantine was responsible for legalising Christianity throughout the Roman Empire. He became a patron and protector of the Church.

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Troy The legend’s first appearance as a diplomatic or military instrument gives valuable insight. A Greek employed the topic. Pyrrhus, the ruler of Epirus, cited the Trojan connection in 281 to build support against Rome among the Greeks of the West. He announced to his allies the expectation of a successful outcome: as descendant of Achilles, he would recreate the Achaean victory at Troy by subduing the colonists of Troy. The propaganda may or may not have affected, but it was Hellenic propaganda. However, Rome invented Aeneas. Those who altered the Aeneas tale in discrepant and ostensibly unflattering ways were engaged in political propaganda as well as in conventional scholarly wrangling. The notion of a canonical story remained remote. Historians and poets felt free to improvise, extract, conflate and diverge. The multifarious strands of the tradition, long after the embrace of Troy, give insight into a mentality that prized inventiveness over consistency. The adoption of Trojan roots, however, did not entail coalescence of the tradition. Erich S. Gruen concluded188: “Advertisement of the Trojan association had cultural rather than political or diplomatic ends in view. Allusions to the legend in interstate relations of the third and early second centuries represented either Greek initiative or Roman posturing and did not issue in concrete benefits. However, in a broader sense, the distinctions dissolve, and the objectives are mutually reinforcing. The circumstances attendant upon Rome’s new status in late fourth-century Latium and Magna Graecia189 gave incentive for adoption of the Trojan heritage, and the parading of that heritage a century later closely accompanied the display of Roman power in the Mediterranean. The attachment of Troy and Rome carried a comparable symbolism in each case Pre-eminence in the peninsula went hand in hand with the embrace of traditions that gave the suzerain a cultural legitimacy. Moreover, demonstration of military power abroad prompted insistence on the antiquity and the refined credentials of the conqueror". According to our studies which need to be clarified Aeneas was invented personage to mislead the information about the tribe who were real heirs of Troy, descendants of the Prince Paris of Troy.

188 Erich S. Gruen. Culture and National Identity in Republican Rome. Page 51. The making of the Troyan Legend. Cornell University in 1992. First published in Great Britain in 1993 by Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. 189 Britannica Encyclopaedia online - Magna Graecia, (Latin: “Great Greece”) Greek Megale Hellas, group of ancient Greek cities along the coast of southern Italy; the people of this region were known to the Greeks as Italiotai and to the Romans as Graeci. 334

Not only its people but direct descendants of the Prince Paris of Troy formed a new tribe and preserved the memory of their ancestor by giving the name of the city Paris. We suppose that the ruling Dynasty in Troy was descendants of Achish, that is why it appears a personage with the name Anchises. We are sure that further research would confirm this hypothesis. We are going to produce a feature and documentary film ‘Paris of Troy. Dynasty’s Continuation’. We are going to answer the question of why Paris’s descendants are preservers of the Dynasty but not Alexandra’s, the firstborn crone prince. If our hypothesis were confirmed, it would mean that the Troy kingdom was the last where the philosophy of the Dynasty Achish was the official state philosophy. Not only Rome but even later forming nations (kingdoms), for example, English tried to show their ties with Achish Dynasty. However, it is a subject of our further research.

The battles of Salamis The battles of Salamis and Plataea mark a turning point in the course of the Greco-Persian wars as a whole; from then onward, Greece would take the offensive. Some historians believe that a Persian victory would have blocked the development of Ancient Greece, and the extension of western civilisation. It led them to claim that Salamis is one of the most significant battles in human history.

Black Death Spreading throughout the Mediterranean and Europe, the Black Death is estimated to have killed 30–60 per cent of Europe's population. All in all, the plague reduced the world population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in the 14th century. The aftermath of the plague created a series of religious, social and economic upheavals which had profound effects on the course of European history. It took 150 years for Europe's population to recover.

The fall of Constantinople The City was now completely taken over by the Turks. Mehmed renamed the City Istanbul. To further glorify the City he built mosques, palaces, monuments and a system of aqueducts. The

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City was now officially claimed for Islam. New rules and regulations were adopted. The Greeks formed communities within the Empire. The Christians were still allowed to practice their religion but had to dress in distinguishing attire and could not bear arms. So, came the end to the great City of Constantinople190. The Christian re-conquest of Constantinople remained a fascinating and much sought-after event in Western Europe for years to come after its fall to the House of Osman. Rumours of Constantine XI's survival and subsequent rescue by an angel led many to hope that the City would one day return to Christian hands. However, as Western Europe entered the 15th century, the age of Crusading began to come to an end. Initially, the fall of the City seemed to cause a stir of crusading zeal in the West, where, apart from religious sentiments, Renaissance humanism had for about a century been fueling an interest in the cultural and intellectual heritage of classical antiquity, and the role that Byzantium had played in preserving that heritage.

Renaissance Renaissance, literally ‘rebirth’, the period in European civilisation which followed the Middle Ages immediately. Conventionally it has been characterised by a great interest in classical learning and values. The Renaissance also known as the period of discovery and exploration of new continents, substitution of the Copernican for the Ptolemaic system of astronomy, decline of the feudal system and growth of commerce. Applications of such potentially powerful innovations as paper, printing, gunpowder, etc. were invented. After a long period of cultural decline and stagnation began the revival of classical learning and.

The scientific revolution - Copernicus Copernicus’s ‘Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs’ was the opening shot in a revolution consequence of which were higher than those of any other intellectual event in the history of Humanity. The scientific revolution radically altered the conditions of thought and of material existence in which the human race lives, and its effects are not yet exhausted.

190 Runciman, Steven. The Fall of Constantinople. (London; Cambridge University Press, 1965). 336

Copernicus’ daring caused all this in placing the Sun, not the Earth, at the centre of the cosmos. Copernicus cited Hermes Trismegistos191 to justify this idea, and his language was thoroughly Platonic. However, he meant his work as a serious work in astronomy, not philosophy, so he set out to justify it observationally and mathematically. The results were impressive. At one stroke, Copernicus reduced a complexity verging on chaos to elegant simplicity. The apparent back- and-forth movements of the planets, which required prodigious ingenuity to accommodate within the Ptolemaic system, could be accounted for just in terms of the Earth's orbital motion added to or subtracted from the motions of the planets. After each disaster, every greatest turning point in history made some breakthrough in developing Humanity because new thoughts brought new things into being. Every time the House of Achish tried to turn this process into advantage of the Theory of Unity, preserving our System of Consciousness. That is why we see the fundamental philosophical principles of different civilisations included in the newly formed Chechen society. As the Chechens had no state system, we can say that it is the result of public diplomacy.

Conclusion on Part IV The term diplomacy is derived via French from the ancient Greek diploma, composed of ‘diplo’, meaning ‘folded in two’, and the suffix -ma, meaning “an object.” The folded document conferred a privilege - often a permit to travel - on the bearer, and the term came to denote documents through which princes granted such favours. Later it applied to all solemn documents issued by chancelleries, especially those containing agreements between sovereigns. In the 18th century, the French term diplomat came to refer to a person authorised to negotiate on behalf of a state. When diplomacy fails, war may ensue; however, diplomacy is useful even during war. It conducts the passages from protest to menace, dialogue to negotiation, ultimatum to reprisal, and

191 ;(" the thrice greatest Hermes "), an honorific designation of the Egyptian Hermes, i.e. Thoth, the god of wisdom. In late hieroglyphic the name of Thoth often has the epithet " the twice very great," sometimes " the thrice very great "; in the popular language (demotic) the corresponding epithet is " the five times very great," found as early as the 3rd century B.C. It was applied, by Egyptians and Phoenicians, to the inventor of letters, and all useful arts and sciences. The Egyptians called him also Thot, Tiaut. Thoyt or Theut, and placed his image, as benevolent god, by the side of the images of Osiris and Isis, his contemporaries. According to Diodorus, he was the friend and counsellor of the great Osiris. He formed the Egyptian language, and invented the first written characters; he was, moreover, the inventor of grammar, astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, music, medicine; 337 war to peace and reconciliation. Diplomacy builds and tends the coalitions that deter or make war. It disrupts the alliances of enemies and sustains the passivity of potentially hostile powers. It contrives war's termination, and forms strengthens and sustains the peace that follows conflict. Over the long term, diplomacy strives to build an international order conducive to the nonviolent resolution of disputes and expanded cooperation between states. Diplomats are the primary - but far from the only - practitioners of diplomacy. They are specialists in carrying messages and negotiating adjustments in relations and the resolution of quarrels between states and peoples. Their weapons are words, backed by the power of a state or organisation they represent. Diplomats help leaders to understand the attitudes and actions of foreigners and to develop strategies and tactics that will shape their behaviour, especially foreign governments. The wise use of diplomats is a key to successful foreign policy. Historically, diplomacy meant the conduct of official (usually bilateral) relations between sovereign states. By the 20th century, however, the diplomatic practices pioneered in Europe had been adopted throughout the world. Traditional state to state diplomacy had expanded to cover summit meetings, and other international conferences, parliamentary diplomacy, the international activities of supranational and subnational entities, unofficial diplomacy by non-state actors, and the work of international civil servants called public diplomacy nowadays. The newly developing direction is science diplomacy, and its main aim is to identify how science can help to tackle urgent global problems. The history, philosophy and language of AchishBeth might be fascinating to different states as a reconciliation actor in international relations, in determining new frontiers in their science diplomacy. AchishBeth habitually, but not invariably, strived to preserve peace with its diplomacy, being strongly inclined toward negotiation to achieve agreements and resolve issues between clans. The core of this diplomacy was the principle of seeking to develop goodwill between confronting forces, nurturing relations with all actors that will ensure their cooperation or—failing that—their neutrality. During the Modern Age, AchishBeth was directly involved in Caucasian affairs. Our research shows that it was one of the main actors in the formation of Chechens ethnos. In this part of the conclusion, we would like to clarify who are Chechens. Why Russian and other states’ diplomacies, involved in Caucasian conflicts, time after time fail? Is it because of the lack of information about

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Chechens and one of its founders Franco-Gothic clan AchishBeth or this information have been ignored? We want to add some details to what is written above. Thus, the AchishBeth phenomenon might be used in solving some of the modern conflicts. Who are Chechens? We want to begin from a shocking and unacceptable hypothesis of some Chechen scientists and researchers about Chechen history. Would you agree that a name is the beginning of the emergence of any ethnic group? If so, how can the Chechen ethnic group exist in the Caucasus since the far ancient times and nobody knew it until the eighth century? We can see this paradoxical affirmation in work ‘The history of Chechnya since far ancient times’ of professor, Doctor of History (PhD), Yaous Akhmadov, Quotations from Professor Yaous Akhmadov work: - Another widespread ethnonym - Chechen (chatchat, sasan, tsatsan, chachan) presumably appears in Georgian and Arabic written sources from the 8th to the 14th centuries. - From the 1st century BCE to the 1st century AD, the North Caucasus was frequently mentioned in the ancient works of (Roman, Greek) geographers and historians. " Our question: Under what name are Chechens mentioned in these works? - The Chechens writes in the introduction of his book professor Yaous Akhmadov, represent one of the oldest peoples of the Caucasus with a specific anthropological type and ethnic traits. Our question: Who can show these ethnic traits of original Chechen? For example, if we show almost any Armenian, 99% will recognise him/her. - The latest archaeological, linguistic, anthropological, ethnographic and other data allow to suppose the existence of a unique ethnocultural substratum on the slopes, south as well as north of the great Caucasian chain from the Caspian to the Black Sea, based on which different languages and mountainous cultures have been formed for millennia. Our question. What name does this substrate had? Our answer: professor Yaous Akhmadov has no answer to our question, and nobody has. Name other scholars, or other works, who claim that the Chechen ethnic group existed before the 8th century AD. In our collection of scientific reports "Word is the Witness of History", we argue that the Vaynoah (Chechen, Ingush) ethnic group was formed consciously and artificially based on the

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Frankish -Gothic culture following the collapse of Frankish ethnic group. Vaynoah (Chechen, Ingush) ethnic group was formed in parallel to English, French, German, Russian, and other modern ethnic groups. Now ask to any Frenchman: "What would you say about French scholar who would have titled his book ‘History of France since far ancient time’ and who, in the introduction, would have written that the first document written in French is the ‘Oaths of Strasbourg’ dating back to the 8th century AD”? The fact is that not only ordinary citizens, but President of the Russian Federation consult with this Chechen historian since Professor Yaous Akhmadov works (2002) as Deputy Director of the Department of Advisers to the Russian President. Moreover, he prepares with other Chechen officials their recommendations for the President on North Caucasus. Though Yaous Akhmadov got acquainted with our scientific works, he did not mention them in his book. We want to pay attention to the fact that the presentation ‘Impact of patriarchal-clannish relations on the Chechen language’ has been validated and published by the Scientific Council of MGIMO of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. It is included in the brochure of interuniversity conference "Linguistic Studies: Methods, Analysis, Teaching technique" and published by MGIMO192. Mr Sigaouri's book is entitled “Essays on the history and state-establishment of Chechens since the far ancient times”.

192 S-E Kaguirov Le mot, témoin de l'histoire’ pp.81-93 in Russian, pp 94-106 in French. ISBN: 5-9900164-3-3 340

In our collection of scientific reports 'Word is the Witness of History’ we argue that the Vaynoah (Chechen, Ingush) ethnic group was formed artificially assembling representatives of different ancient tribes and clans, based on Franco-Gothic culture after the collapse of the Frankish ethnic group. Moreover, this ethnicity preserved our System of Consciousness encoding in the oral form of language.193 The writer Ruslan Nashkhoev tries to prove the links between Chechens and Sumerians. We made this conclusion after reading his book "The Mysteries of Pkharmat", where Sumerian irrigation systems are described in detail and trying to link it with Chechens. This book has scientific references from Chechen scholars, including the professor, Doctor of History, PhD Yaous Akhmadov, the Doctor of Philosophy, PhD V. Akaev, the doctor of pedagogy, PhD S. Nashkhoev. Question: What is there in common between Sumerian pipelines and Chechen constructions? Nothing. Page 15 of the book ‘The mysteries of the Pkharmat’: ... are the ancestors of contemporary Chechens among the Caucasian ethnic group. Question: Who can decipher the concept of ‘Caucasian ethnic group’? What is it? Page 110: "... on Noah's ark (Nokhi, Noukhi) which was found by scholars ..." Question: Who found this ark, and where is it now? Who are Chechens? We want to begin from a shocking and unacceptable hypothesis of some Chechen scientists and researchers about Chechen history. Would you agree that a name is the beginning of the emergence of any ethnic group? If so, how can the Chechen ethnic group exist in the Caucasus since the far ancient times and nobody knew it until the eighth century? We can see this paradoxical affirmation in work ‘The history of Chechnya since far ancient times’ of professor, Doctor of History (PhD), Yaous Akhmadov, Quotations from professor Yaous Akhmadov work: - Another widespread ethnonym - Chechen (sasan, tsatsan, chachan) presumably appears in Georgian and Arabic written sources from the 8th to the 14th centuries.

193 More in details in the report -Familles royales et voies de leur contribution au futur développement de la civilisation. Kagirov Sayd-Emi ‘Le mot, témoin de l'histoire’ pp.16-37 in Russian, pp.38-57 in French. ISBN: S-9900164-3-3

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- From the 1st century BCE to the 1st century AD, the North Caucasus was frequently mentioned in the ancient works of (Roman, Greek) geographers and historians. " Our question: Under what name are Chechens mentioned in these works? - The Chechens writes in the introduction of his book Professor Yaous Akhmadov, represent one of the oldest peoples of the Caucasus with a specific anthropological type and ethnic traits. Our question: Who can show these ethnic traits of original Chechen? For example, if we show almost any Armenian, 99% will recognise him/her. - The latest archaeological, linguistic, anthropological, ethnographic and other data allow to suppose the existence of a unique ethnocultural substratum on the slopes, south as well as north of the great Caucasian chain from the Caspian to the Black Sea, based on which different languages and mountainous cultures have been formed for millennia. Our question. What name does this substrate had? Our answer: professor Yaous Akhmadov has no answer to our question, and nobody has. Name other scholars, or other works, who claim that the Chechen ethnic group existed before the 8th century AD. In our collection of scientific reports ‘Word is the Witness of History’, we argue that Vaynoah (Chechen, Ingush) ethnic group was formed artificially based on the Frankish - Gothic culture. It was after the collapse of the Frankish ethnic group. Vaynoah (Chechen, Ingush) ethnic group was formed in parallel to English, French, German, Russian, and other modern ethnic groups. Now ask any French: "What would you say about French scholar who titled his book ‘History of France since far ancient time’ and in the introduction have written that first document written in French is the ‘Oaths of Strasbourg’? This document is dating back to the 8th century AD. The fact is that not only ordinary citizens, but President of the Russian Federation consult with this Chechen historian since Professor Yaous Akhmadov works (2002) as Deputy Director of the Department of Advisers to the Russian President. Moreover, he prepares with other Chechen officials their recommendations for the President on North Caucasus. Though Yaous Akhmadov got acquainted with our scientific works, he did not mention them in his book. We want to pay attention to the fact that the presentation ‘Impact of patriarchal-clannish relations on the Chechen language’ has been validated and published by the Scientific Council of MGIMO of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. It is included in the

342 brochure of interuniversity conference "Linguistic Studies: Methods, Analysis, Teaching technique" and published by MGIMO194. Mr Sigaouri's book is entitled “Essays on the history and state-establishment of Chechens since the far ancient times”.

Another statement by one of the Chechen scholars: "We had our alphabet and annals, but we lost them". This affirmation is widely used among Chechen scientists and researchers. And so, the question. Scientists find and discover alphabets and annals of peoples and civilisations that have disappeared thousands of years ago. How is it possible that people still exist, but their alphabet and annals are lost? In our collection of scientific reports 'Word is the Witness of History’ we argue that Vaynoah (Chechen, Ingush) ethnic group was formed artificially assembling representatives of ancient tribes and clans, based on Franco-Gothic culture after the collapse of the Frankish ethnic group. Moreover, this ethnicity preserved our System of Consciousness encoding in the oral form of language.195 The writer Ruslan Nashkhoev tries to prove the links between Chechens and Sumerians. We made this conclusion after reading his book 'The Mysteries of Pkharmat', where Sumerian irrigation systems are described in detail and trying to link it with Chechens. This book has scientific references from Chechen scholars, including the professor, Doctor of History, PhD Yaous Akhmadov, the Doctor of Philosophy, PhD V. Akaev, the doctor of pedagogy, PhD S. Nashkhoev. Question: What is there in common between Sumerian pipelines and Chechen constructions? Nothing. Page 15 of the book ‘The mysteries of the Pkharmat’: ... are the ancestors of contemporary Chechens among the Caucasian ethnic group.

194 S-E Kaguirov ‘Le mot, témoin de l'histoire’ pp.81-93 in Russian, pp 94-106 in French. ISBN: 5-9900164-3-3 195More in details in the report-Familles royales et voies de leur contribution au futur développement de la civilisation». Kagirov Sayd-Emi ‘Le mot, témoin de l'histoire’ pp. 16-37 in Russian, pp.38-57 in French. ISBN: S-9900164-3-3

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Question: Who can decipher the concept of ‘Caucasian ethnic group’? What is it? Page 110: "... on Noah's ark which was found by scholars ..." Question: Who found this ark, and where is it now? What is Chechnya in reality, and who are Chechens? Chechnya today is radically different from Chechnya in 18-19 centuries. Almost every aspect of Chechens (Noahchalla – Chechenness) underwent considerable change during the past 100 years. The Chechens are the largest North Caucasian nationality and the fourth largest in the Caucasus after the Azeris, Georgians and Armenians. Historically, Chechens and Ingush (Vaynoah) lands lay to the east of the Georgian Military Highway, with the headwaters of the Terek forming the western limit. Vaynoah (Chechen and Ingush) history is perhaps the most poorly studied among those of the various peoples of the North Caucasus. Much research effort had been expended on the history of the Russian – Caucasian War. As a place, it has had precarious boundaries, expanding and contracting from time to time. In short, no simple description is enough. As a society, Chechnya has been primarily unique society with its philosophy, language and history. Although the Chechen language is traditionally included in the Iberia-Caucasian group of languages, it is a fixed system which is not similar to any other language of the world196. In this thesis, we describe this system and why the Chechen language has no analogues. We see that the system of one sound Chechen words, system of their synthesis, corresponds to the system of spelling of English names. Isn’t it very convincing proof of parallel formation in time of these two systems? It means that the Chechen and English ethnics were formed parallel in time. It does not mean that in the North Caucasus, on such fertile lands, nobody lived before. There is even excavation, for example, in Serzhen-Yurt, where were found instruments of labour of a bronze age. For question, if there is any scientific confirmation that the North Caucasian nations existed with the same names before 8th-century professor Irina Babich answered: “There is no any scientific confirmation about the existence of the North Caucasian nationalities with the names which they have today at that period. We argue that our ancestors Franks came to these mountains which they called ‘Caucasus’, assembled representatives of other ancient tribes and skillfully

196 Professor Y.D. Déchériev made a great contribution to the examination of the problem of the origin of the Chechen language. The researchers concluded that: "Although the Chechen language is traditionally included in an Ibero- Caucasian language group, it is a self-contained system that is unlike any other language in the world." 344 created the Chechen ethnos after one of the periods of Great Migrations (VIII century). However, which Chechen clans are indigenous ‘local aborigines’? We never will define them, because both local tribes and aliens became ‘aborigines’ and there was a precise task introduced before them. It is a reconstruction of thousands of years of development of Human Consciousness from its origin. The founders of English spelling introduced the same task. The Chechens refer to themselves as Noahcho (pl. Noahchii) or ‘Noahchiin qam’ (The Chechen People’) and call their Homeland ‘Noahchichoe’, Noahchiin mokhk’ which means ‘Chechens Homeland’, ‘Daimokhk’ which means Homeland, literally Fathers’ land. A number of these names derive from the ethnonym and toponym of a sizeable Chechen tribe, the Noahchamakhkahoi, and its domicile in southeast Chechnya. The name Noahcho derived from the name Noah (Biblical and Koranic patriarch of Humanity) Literally: ‘Noahcho’ means ‘Noah’s House. Our family clan ‘AchishBeth’ belongs to ‘Noahchamekhkahoi’ tribe. We suggest that our understanding of ‘Noahchalla’ Chechenness must recognise the following: - it is living and changeable; it is also the product of shared historical experience whose language system has continually influenced its growth; - it has become a self-conscious matter increasingly for Chechnya; - it should be related to what appears to be or to have been, Chechens in the eyes of non- Chechens. In this context, the following questions may be asked. In what ways did the first Chechens feel that they were Chechens? How did that sense of ‘Noahchalla’ Chechenness change over the centuries? How much of that sense is still relevant today? Moreover, how does this self-image compare with how others see Chechens? The Chechens are accustomed to democratic ways, and their social structure was firmly based on pluralism. They formed an independent nation with its language, social and political structures based on autonomous clans with mutual support relations that linked them into larger tribal confederations. These tribes generally coincided with dialects. A respected elder headed each clan. The closeness of social ties and the difficult mountain conditions gave rise to a complex system of mutual help and charity called ‘belkhi’. These traditions, which were prevalent all over the North Caucasus, played a role in fostering social cohesion. Intricate etiquette regulated the mechanisms of offering and accepting assistance, saving one’s face. The greeting ritual had an

345 embedded help-offering component, which was not a mere formal adjunct. There was also a corpus of sayings exhorting people to mutual assistance. Parents shied away from talking about Chechen history to their children. Very few children were told about it, especially the deportation after the Second World War. It created the paradox of a generation which was a victim of state atrocity but loyal to that state. Many of the survivors went into denial, absolving the authorities of guilt. Life challenges brought the Vaynoah (Chechen and Ingush) nation closer together. It facilitated the adoption of fateful collective resolutions to redress the humiliation and to compensate for the horrific loss of life. The already steely personality was made firmer still. The internal Chechen way of life expanded to uncharted frontiers of human experience. Nevertheless, children of exile were raised with consummate care, which allowed them to fit into society upon return, instead of harbouring feelings of resentment against the system. Many Chechens joined the Red Army. Writers, artists, musicians and academicians made their contribution to national and Soviet science and cultures. All the Soviet Union scientific and cultural doctrines and activities have been directed to discredit noble Chechen clans and to rise to the top of the power the representatives, basically, of clans of slaves' origin. One of the means of perpetuating clan loyalty was teaching the young their familial histories. Traditionally, a Chechen, an Ingush (Vaynoah) man was expected to know the names and places of origin of his paternal ancestors going back for several generations. Some women could also trace their ancestors in this way, while some keener people could recite their maternal ancestors as well. This tradition which is not uniquely Chechen-Ingush but North Caucasian, means, that significant territorial disputes in the North Caucasus among the indigenes should be resolvable since all parties know whose ancestors lived where and when. Vaynoah (Chechen, Ingush) society was known for its tolerance towards foreigners who took refuge or just decided to live in their land, allowing them to join the existing clannish system or form clans of their own, adopting to the local languages, customs and values in the process. The origin of some of these ‘taips’ could be descended from their names. Although ‘taips’ acted independently in peaceful times, all clans and tribes assembled in the face of external danger.

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Sub-divisions of the ‘taip' include in descending 'г1а’ and ‘neque' and a 'г1а’ includes several ‘neques’ which form a lineage. A ‘neque’ is a group of households sharing the name of fourth or earlier ancestor. The basic social unit was an extended family ‘doozel’, consisting of parents and families of their male offspring, usually comprising three generations, with four not being very unusual. Traditional customs regulated family relations, which had always been characterised as being very strong and built on the sacred principle of equality. Each individual has a set of rights and responsibilities, and all treated each other with dignity and respect. It was unseemly for the man of the House to interfere in womanly affairs. There was a strict hierarchy within the family, though the elders and the young ones had reciprocal feelings of responsibility for each other. The former was asked with keeping family relations intact and fostering harmony and understanding. Children had harmonious relationships with their grandparents and were taught to venerate and obey them. They referred to their grandfathers as 'grandfather – vokhdada’ and to their grandmothers as ‘grandmother– yokhbaba’. The patriarch ‘dooezalan daa’ had the final say in important and contentious issues. Tiffs among children and women were resolved by the eldest male or female member of the family. It was a bad manner to pay excessive attention to children’s petty quarrels. If someone hurt the feelings of her children, a woman would not normally complain to her husband, but instead consulted one of his relatives. The elders were in general very considerate towards their daughters-in-law. A paternal uncle had a specific relationship with his nephews and nieces, being most attentive to their requests and needs. Some children called their parents by name, but they never called their uncles, aunts, grandfather of grandmother by name. According to an ancient custom, parents, in their old age, were lodged in an adjacent residence. First thing sons did, returning from work was to check up on their parents and make sure that all their needs were catered for. A good daughter-in-law started her morning by cleaning her husband parents' House before attending to her household chores. Customs and traditions, which have always been at the centre of Chechen way of life, are enshrined in 'Noah-challa’. It is a code of conduct and system of ethics that regulated Chechen society for centuries. Noah-challa derives fom Noah-cho ‘Chechen’, with a state-expressing suffix, and can be rendered as ‘Chechenness’ – the quality of being a Chechen.

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Decency ‘ghillakkh’ was a function of three parameters. The Vaynoah cod of masculine ethics was embodied in ‘yah’ which means ’pride’; thought to be connected with ‘yueh’ – face, and its tenets ‘yahyan kostash’ namely fortitude, valour, modesty, moderation, generosity, charity and competitiveness. The Chechen folklorist Adam Dolatov summed up the spirit of ‘yah’ as follows: “Endeavour to fathom the deepest recesses of your soul and gain the deepest insight of your ancestors. Never compromise your ‘yah’197, always live in dignity and decency. You should never fear death. It would be terrifying to lose one's 'yah' and live a life devoid of dignity and decency, for this means that freedom would be forfeited as well”. (E. Isaev198 1999) It sounds like Confucianism. In the Chechen society, the possession of ‘yah’ said a lot about a man’s character and his status in the community. To be said to have ‘yah’ was the highest possible praise that could be heaped upon a man, implying that he was a paragon to be emulated by the young ones. On the other hand, to be devoid of ‘yah ‘meant that he lacked manly qualities, and as such would not be accorded respect in his village. Many ‘illi’ epics end with the wish that no mother would ever give birth to a son without ‘yah’. The two other significant formers of Chechen character and morality were the concepts of 'bekhk’, the sense of duty and responsibility, and ‘eh’, the sense of shame and guilt. Hospitality was a sacred institution all over the Caucasus and respect for guests was a source of pride for all Caucasian peoples. All Chechens were conversant with proper table manners and seating arrangements at home and as guests. A guest was received for as long as he wished, and also lodged in the best quarters offering choicest victuals. He was always seated in the best place in a room or at the table. Hospitality was not conditional, and no compensation was expected, any offer in this regard is considered a big insult. A guest, however, could present the children of his host with gifts. There were many ways of greetings, depending on circumstances. The principle of equality was the basis of greeting procedures, too. For example, a rider was obliged to utter his salute first upon encountering a person on foot, and he who went downhill always greeted those coming up.

197 Yah or si - (Chechen: яхь [yah], си [si]) dignity and decency. 198 Edi Isaev ‘Ethics of Vaynoah’ 348

The weak and poor were always met with warm words. Elders had to be greeted in a standing posture, and always accorded the right of way. If the elderly passed by man (a group of men), a woman (a group of women), the children, all would stand up in respect. The ritual veneration of the elders was closely associated with the cult of ancestors. The village elders were the ultimate arbiters in all affairs. Obedience to one’s seniors was one of the binding rules of the code of conduct, its contravention being regarded as a grave censurable defect. Elders always had the right to speak first and the right of way, and it is considered unseemly to interrupt them during conversation. It was anathema to talk back to them or smoke and drink alcohol in their presence. A person stood up in respect when the older came into a room. In more recent times, young people offered senior citizens the most comfortable seats on public transports. The philosophy, history and language of AchishBeth were the core of the formation of Chechen society. It shows that this society is a very small ethnos in quantity but vast civilisation in the sense of thought, with unique language and philosophy. We hope to attract to the AchishBeth’s teachings many followers, including students, state officials. We believe that our views and advice would be popular among modern heads of governments, royal families which they might use in practice. We are sure that some of the followers of this theory would be able to make successful careers in governments. Indeed, they need to be politically more flexible. “Rulers must be responsible for their subordinates. They earned their privilege through promoting the welfare of the population”. During the formation of Chechen ethnicity in Caucasus, its founders used, mostly, the philosophy of Confucius combined with Abraham’s monotheism. It was after one of the periods of Great Migrations (8th century). As a philosophy, it was a careful consideration of the function and responsibility of leaders and society. It contained a moral code applied to minutia of greeting a friend as well as to proper function and ethics of leaders. Maybe it was vice versa because the House of Achish already had this philosophy combined with monotheism during the Gath kingdom in the Middle East, long time before Confucius was born. We see it clearly from the Biblical legend when David had fled to the Kingdom of Gath, and Saul stopped persecuting him. - 27:2 So David and the six hundred men with him left and went over to Achish, son of Maoch king of Gath. 27:3 David and his men settled in Gath with Achish. Each man had his family with him…. 27:4 When Saul was told that David had fled to Gath, he no longer

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searched for him. 27:5 Then David said to Achish, “If I have found favour in your eyes, let a place be assigned to me in one of the country towns, that I may live there. Why should your servant live in the royal city with you?”. 27:6 So on that day Achish gave him Ziklag, and it has belonged to the kings of Judah ever since.

It means that Saul stopped persecuting David because of Achish and because he knew the responsibility of Achish towards citizens of his kingdom and towards those whom he had given a refugee shelter. Confucius himself represented his teaching as lessons transmitted from antiquity. He claimed that he was 'a transmitter and not a maker' and reflected his 'reliance on and love for the ancients'. The unity of the diversified world is in this philosophy and language of AchishBeth. Though different civilisations used only part of the theory and language, our House stays on the position 'So sa sa – I am my soul, I am my light, I am my spirit’ from the Adamic period. Maybe it was formulated with the same word ‘sa’ only while forming the Chechen language, but understanding of their ‘Me, I am’ comes from the Adamic period from the time when a bow and an arrow were invented. Even if we do not agree with some parts of different ancient or modern philosophies, they help us to develop and to promote our philosophy. We cannot imagine how we would present the history, philosophy and language of AchishBeth without knowing different philosophical teachings. The history, philosophy and language which were preserved by AchishBeth had a direct impact on the development of all languages of the world, on the development of different philosophical teachings as it is shown in this research. Why are the greatest turning points in the history of our specific interest? Because after every greatest history's turning point, a new history with new philosophy begins. Difference between Chinese Confucianism and Chechen moral code which was applied to all spheres of life is as follows: the Chechen moral code, being so close to Confucianism in every day interfamily, inter-clannish and international relations, had its particularity as far as monotheism of Abraham concerned. For example, it was expressed about God, in the Chechen language – ‘Deel’ which means ‘De El’– Father’s El. What does it mean? When we say: “We believe in Deel” it means that even if we cannot explain it, we are monotheists because we believe to our fathers’ El. The fathers of the House of

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Achish (AchishBeth) were Adam, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Israel, Joseph, Manasseh, Shechem, Achish and others. They surely were monotheists. Israel named his God ‘El Elohu Israel’ (Old Testament, Genesis)

- Our ‘Deel’ was a God of Abraham, Issac, Israel, Joseph, Achishbeth. - About which ‘Lamaroi’s’ deity writes Amjad Yamoukha? “The Nakh Pantheon was remarkable for its complexity and high level of development. Representations of deities were placed in sanctuaries and temples, and a form of idolatry was practised. ‘Deela’ was the supreme deity, presiding over a crew of gods, semi-gods, deities and patrons, each controlling one aspect of the universe. He commanded complete obedience from the other gods, refractory behaviour drawing harsh punishment, as when he gouged out the eye of his son Elta”199. - Where are these constructions (sanctuaries and temples) in Shatoi, the central village of ‘Lamaroi’? There were no sanctuaries and temples.

The Chechen code of ‘Noah-challa – Chechennes' also coincides with the Confucian's attitude towards ancestors. The core of the Confucius's philosophy is respect to elders, to a memory of ancestors. Nevertheless, this core was expressed by Abraham, Isaac, Israel, Achish and others by preserving their genealogies long time before Confucius’s philosophy appeared. Now compare. “Confucianism emerged as a more coherent philosophy when faced intellectual competition from other schools that were growing in the fertile social upheavals of pre-imperial China (400 – 200 BC). Taoism, Mohism, and Legalism all attacked Confucianism. Some of the Confucius quotations200: - He who rules his state on a moral basis would be supported by the people, just as all the other stars encircle the Polar star. p. 12 - People will obey you if you promote righteous men and suppress evil men. And they will disobey you if you do the contrary. - If one learns the truth in the morning, one would never regret dying the same evening. p.51

199 The Chechens. Chapter: Religion and beliefs, p. 111. Amjad Yamoukha. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor & Francis Group. London and New York. 200 Analects of Confucius. Cai Xiqin editor and translator. Beijing: Sinolingua, 1994.

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- A gentleman always keeps even-tempered without being arrogant, while a petty man is arrogant without being even-tempered. p.246. - Daoism also spelt Taoism, indigenous religious-philosophical tradition that has shaped Chinese life for more than 2,000 years. In the broadest sense, a Daoist attitude toward life can be seen in the accepting and yielding, the joyful and carefree sides of the Chinese character, an attitude that offsets and complements the moral and duty-conscious, austere and purposeful character ascribed to Confucianism. Daoism is also characterised by a positive, active attitude toward the occult and the metaphysical (theories on the nature of reality), whereas the agnostic, pragmatic Confucian tradition considers these issues of only marginal importance. /Britannica – online/

- Mohism, also spelt Maoism, school of Chinese philosophy founded by Mozi in the 5th-century BCE. This philosophy challenged the dominant Confucian ideology until about the 3rd century BCE. Mozi taught the necessity for individual piety and submission to the will of heaven, or Shangdi (the Lord on High), and deplored the Confucian emphasis on rites and ceremonies as a waste of government funds. In contrast to the Confucian moral ideal of ren (“humanity” or “benevolence”), which differentiated the special love for one’s parents and family from the general love shown to fellow men. /Britannica – online/

- Legalism - school of Chinese philosophy that attained prominence during the turbulent Warring States era (475–221 BCE) and, through the influence of the philosophers Shang Yang, Li Si, and Hanfeizi, formed the ideological basis of China’s first imperial dynasty, the Qin (221–207 BCE). /Britannica – online/

Another similarity of the Chechen and Chinese philosophies is. “Seven years after the death of Emperor Chin, a new long-lasting dynasty of Han established itself and brought peace to China. Chin was the first emperor who created the concept as well as the reality of a united China. It was Chin's most significant legacy. His building of the Great Wall was one of the greatest turning points in history. Until the Communist Revolution in 1949, China had one of the most developed cosmological systems in the world. It was so complicated that ordinary people could not hope to understand more than a fraction of the system. The services of cosmological interpreters (fortune-tellers and geomancers201) were required for any event or venture that might involve an element of risk – from selection of auspicious date for a wedding to setting of a new building. Perhaps the most important of the many elements in the Chinese cosmological system was the ‘yin-yang’ dichotomy.

201 Geomancy) is a method of divination that interprets markings on the ground, or the patterns formed by tossed handfuls of soil, rocks, or sand. The most prevalent form of divinatory geomancy involves interpreting a series of 16 figures formed by a randomised process that involves recursion followed by analysing them, often augmented with astrological interpretations. Once practised by people from all social classes, it was one of the most popular forms of divination throughout Africa and Europe in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

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‘Yin’ was normally seen as the collective representation of all forces in the universe that emanate from darkness, while ‘yang’ was the representation of light. It followed from this primary division that aspects of human experience were often conceptualised as opposites. For example: day-night; life-death; good-evil and male-female. The sexual dichotomy showed its unambiguous connotation of male supremacy. In the traditional view, women are thought to be week, emotional and untrustworthy – characteristics that relate to their ‘yin’ nature. At a higher, more philosophical level, the ideas about ‘yin’ and ‘yang’ were less concrete and, rather than a distinct dichotomy, the forces were seen as complementary. In the esoteric literature of Daoism, for example, ‘yin’ and ‘yang’ were inseparable and interacted in a dialectical relationship202. This philosophical comparison was used by the founders of the Chechen ethnicity while forming the Chechen words: The Chechen words:203 Ye – 1. give birth, to seed, make 2. kill. (for feminine and subjects) Yin - 1. given birth, seeded, something is made 2. Someone or something is killed. (for feminine, subjects and animals)

Ve - 1. give birth, to seed, make 2. kill. (only for man) Vin - given birth (only for man 2. Somebody is killed (only for man)

De - 1. give birth, to seed, make 2. kill. (for child, subjects, animals) Din - Yin - 1. given birth, seeded, something is made 2. Someone or something is killed. (for child, subjects, animals)

Another similarity of the Chechen and Chinese philosophies is as follows. Mencius (Chinese philosopher) (372 – 289 BC) developed a more idealistic version of Confucianism stressing ‘ren’204 as an innate inclination to good behaviour that does not require

202 Beliefs, customs and folklore. The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of China, p 288. Editor Brian Hook, Univesity of Leeds. Cambridge University Press. Second edition 1991. 203 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 44, 127, 123. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 204 Britannica – online: ren (Chinese philosophy), the foundational virtue of Confucianism. It characterises the bearing and behaviour that a paradigmatic human being exhibits in order to promote a flourishing human community. 353 education. Hsun Tzu205 (313-238 BC) on the contrary, argued that acquired language and other social forms shape all inclinations. Compare this hypothesis with the philosophy of the House of Achish - ‘AchishBeth’ introduced in a conscious formation of English spelling and Chechen (Vaynoah) oral language which does not allow verbosity. The production of meaningless sounds is minimised. For example:206 са [sa] - spirit, soul, light, eyesight, my си [si] - honour, dignity со [so] - I цIа [tsa] - house, home цIе [tse] - name, flame цIи [tsi] - blood

ха [ha] - time, waistband, to keep watch, guard хьа [ha] - your, look хье [he] - brain хи [hi] - water хьо [ho] - you хьу [hu] - forest, disease хIу [hu] - seed

"According to Cicero about the specific feature of the Roman Republic variant of aristocratic political culture: 'in order to remain effective, socially 'profitable', and available for particular purposes of political advancement in a competitive environment, the symbolic capital of individuals and families had to be carefully cultivated and renewed continuously. The 'power of a great name’ as a criterion of aristocratic status could only be effectively used if it was up-to-date, present - as it were, in living memory – and well known”207. - Marcus Tullius Cicero, 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC, was a Roman statesman, orator, lawyer and philosopher, who served as consul in the year 63 BC. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the Roman equestrian order and is considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists. His influence on the Latin language was immense: subsequent prose was either a reaction against or a return to his style, not only in Latin but in European languages up to the 19th century. Cicero introduced the Romans to the chief schools

205 Xunzi, Wade-Giles romanisation Hsün-tzu, also spelled Hsün-tze, original name Xun Kuang, honorary name Xun Qing (born c. 300, Zhao kingdom, China—died c. 230 BCE, Lanling, Chu kingdom, China), philosopher who was one of the three great Confucian philosophers of the classical period in China. He elaborated and systematised the work undertaken by Confucius and Mencius, giving cohesiveness, comprehensiveness, and direction to Confucian thought that was all the more compelling for the rigour with which he set it forth /Britannica – online/

206 Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 44, 127, 123. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004 207 Karl-J. Holkeskamp. Reconstructing the Roman Republic. Chapter - ‘Symbolic capital as social credit’. Page 111. Princeton University Press. 2010. 354

of Greek philosophy. He created a Latin philosophical vocabulary (with neologisms such as evidentia, humanitas, qualitas, quantitas, and essentia), distinguishing himself as a translator and philosopher. Every greatest turning point in history remains immensely crucial to the House of Achish - AchishBeth. We are very interested in what part of our System of Consciousness (Theory of Unity) would be implemented in a New Era, during the age of globalisation. Science and diplomacy can work together, bridging the gap between nations, their political systems, cultures, religions. So, the science, together with diplomacy holds the key for spreading our ideas around the world which would help build a strong foundation of the secure world.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. A.P.Martinich. The Philosophy of Language. Third editions. II Speech acts. Page 117. Oxford university press. 1996. 2. Adam Dolatov - the Rector of the Chechen institute of improvement of professional skill of the teachers. /bulletin CHIPKRO – 3d edition, Grozny 2003, p.108/. 3. A.P.Ippolitov - «Ethnographic sketches of Argunsky district. The collection of data on the Caucasian mountaineers», Tiphlis (Tbilisi), 1868. 4. A.Sulejmanov. Toponymy of the Chechen Republic. Chechen state publishing house "Zhajna". 1997 5. Amjad Yamoukha. The Chechens. Chapter: Religion and beliefs, p. 111. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor & Francis Group. London and New York. 6. Amjad Yamoukha. The Chechens. Chapter: Society, p. 92. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor & Francis Group. London and New York. 7. Collins, Roger (1990). The Basques. Basil Blackwell. pp. 116. ISBN 0-631-17565-2. 8. Crowley, Roger (2006). Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453. Faber. ISBN 0-571- 22185-8. (reviewed by Foster, Charles (22 September 2006). "The Conquest of Constantinople and the end of empire". Contemporary Review. "Some say the Middle Ages ended then"). 9. Duiker, William J. Spielvogel, Jackson J. Edition: 5, illustrated. (2006). World History: Volume I: To 1800. Thomson Higher Education publishing. ISBN 0-495-05053-9, ISBN 978- 0-495-05053-7. p.78. 10. Erich S. Gruen. Culture and National Identity in Republican Rome. Page 51. The making of the Troyan Legend. Cornell Univercity 1992. First published in Great Britain in 1993 by Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. 11. Fletcher, Richard (2006). Moorish Spain. Los Angeles: University of California Press.p.35. ISBN 0-520-24840-6. 12. Gavin D. The science of language, Chapter 16, in Gavin D. Flood, ed. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism Blackwell Publishing, 2003, 599 pages ISBN 0-631-21535-2, ISBN 978-0-631-21535-6. p. 357-358. 13. Herman Wekker. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs 86. Creole Languages and Language Acquisition edited by Herman Wekker. Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1996. pp.33-34 14. Ibragim Aliroev - Doctor of History, Doctor of Philology, professor, academician of the Russian academy of natural sciences. 15. Jacobs Z, Roberts RG. (2009). Catalysts for Stone Age innovations: What might have triggered two short-lived bursts of technological and behavioural innovation in southern Africa during the Middle Stone Age? 16. J. H. Breasted. Inscription of Sehetebibre, 12th dynasty, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, §747 17. S-E Kaguirov «Le mot, témoin de l’histoire» pp.81-93 en russe, pp 94-106 en français. ISBN: 5-9900164-3-3 18. S-E Kaguirov «Le mot, témoin de l’histoire» pp. 26-27 et 112-113 en russe, pp.47-49 et 148- 149 en français dans le livre. ISBN : 5-9900164-3-3 19. S-E Kaguirov «Le mot, témoin de l’histoire» pp. 16-37, pp.38-57. ISBN : 5-9900164-3-3 20. S-E Kaguirov “Le mot, témoin de l’histoire”. pp.107-142; 143-177. ISBN : 5-9900164-3-3

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21. S-E Kaguirov. « Etimologicheskie iziskaniya Chechenskogo yazika. Chechenci khraniteli « Prayazika » na sovremennom etape - Etymological studies of the Chechen language. Chechens are the conservers of the ancestral language at the present stage». Moscow. 2003. ISBN : 5-9900164-1-7 22. Karl-J. Holkeskamp. Reconstructing the Roman Republic. Chapter - ‘Symbolic capital as social credit’. Page 111. Prinston University Press. 2010. 23. Levine, Robert A. (7 November 2000). "See Israel as a Jewish Nation-State, More or Less Democratic". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 January 2011. 24. L. E. Lipiello, 2004; Symbolic Perceptions of New Kingdom Watercraft: Building Boats from Gods, p.13 25. Lomax, D.W. (1978). The Reconquest of Spain. Longman. pp. 15–16. 26. Mariel Tsaroieva. Mythes, Legendes et Prières Ancestrales des Ingouches et Tchétchènes, p.67. L’Harmattan, 2009. Paris. ‘Selon la légend, cette famille remonte à un certain ‘Akish’ fondateur de l’aoul d’Akishbatoi …’. 27. Mariel Tsaroieva. Mythes, Legendes et Prières Ancestrales des Ingouches et Tchétchènes, p. 71. L’Harmattan, 2009. Paris. 28. Mango, Cyril (2002). The Oxford History of Byzantium. New York: Oxford UP. p. 280. 29. Noam Chomsky. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “Language and mind”. Enlarged edition. “Linguistic contributions to the study of mind: Past. Page 1. 1968; 1972 by Harcourt Brace Jvanovich, Inc. 30. Noam Chomsky. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “Language and mind”. Enlarged edition. “Linguistic contributions to the study of mind: Future. Pages 66-67. Paperbound ISBN: 0-15-549257-8; Hardbound ISBN: 0-15-147810-41968; 1972 by Harcourt Brace Jvanovich, Inc. 31. Noam Chomsky. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “Language and mind”. Enlarged edition. “Linguistic contributions to the study of mind: Past. Page 1. Paperbound ISBN: 0-15- 549257-8; Hardbound ISBN: 0-15-147810-4. 1968; 1972 by Harcourt Brace Jvanovich, Inc. 32. Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891-1924 (New York: Viking Press 1997), 767. 33. Roger D . The Ancient Languages of Europe. Chapter I, page 1. Edited by Roger D. Woodard. Cambridge University Press 2008. 34. Runciman, Steven. The Fall of Constantinople. (London; Cambridge University Press, 1965). 35. Staal, J. F., The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science. North-Holland Publishing Company, 1986. p. 27 36. Schwartz, B., 1985, The World of Thought in Ancient China, Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 37. Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 381. ISBN 0-582-05383-8. entry "Jacob". 38. Wood, Frances. (2008). China's First Emperor and His Terracotta Warriors. Macmillan publishing. ISBN 0-312-38112-3, ISBN 978-0-312-38112-7. p 2. 39. Waley, A., 1938, The Analects of Confucius, New York: Vintage Books. 40. Wilson, T. A., 2002, On Sacred Grounds: Culture, Society, and the Formation of the Cult of Confucius, Cambrdige: Harvard University Asia Center.

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My scientific reports: 1. “Relation patriarcales et claniques reflétées dans la langue Tchéchène”. Interuniversity seminar at MGIMO (U) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation on June 10-11. Kagirov Sayd-Emi «Le mot, témoin de l’histoire» pp. 81- 93 en russie, pp.94- 96 en français. ISBN: S-9900164-3-3

2. The report at the "round table" discussion at the Foreign Languages Department of the Diplomatic Academy, Russian Foreign Ministry 29 of March 2004. /page 107 in Russian and on the page 143 in French of the collection of scientific reports «Word is the Witness of History») Kagirov Sayd-Emi . ISBN: S-9900164-3-3/

3. Report "Royal families and the ways of their contribution to the future development of a civilization" by S-E.Kagirov, the post-graduate of the department of foreign policy and international relations of the Diplomatic Academy of the Russian Foreign Ministry on 4th Convention of the Russian association of the international studies (RISA) in MGIMO (U) of the Russian Foreign Ministry (on September, 22-23nd 2006). /Kagirov Sayd-Emi «Le mot, témoin de l’histoire» ISBN : S-9900164-3-3/

Religious books: 1. Coran, 2-Cow, verse 29. 2. Coran, Mary, verse 51. 3. Dan. 8.16; 9.21; Luke-1.19, 26, 27 4. Genesis 12:6-7 5. Genesis, 32:28, 35:10 6. Exodus 6:16–20 7. New Testament, Luke, 1:19 8. New Testament, John, 1:1 9. Old Testament. Genesis, 4:26. 10. Old Testament, Genesis, 5:29 11. Old Testament Genesis, 9:13 12. The Old Testament, Genesis 17:5 13. Old Testament, Genesis, 21. 14. Old Testament, 1 Samuel 27:2-6. 15. Old Testament, Numbers, 26 :28 – 26 :34 16. Old Testament, 1-Samuel, 27:2. 17. Old Testament, Genesis, 28:19 18.Old Testament. Numbers, 26:31. 19.Old Testament. Genesis 4:26.

Dictionaries: 1. Proto (usu. prot- before a vowel) comb. form: original; primitive. … Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006. 2. Michaelmas – n. the feast of St. Michael, 29 September. - ORIGIN OE … ‘St. Michael’s Mass’, referring to the Archangel. Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006.

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3. Jihad (also jehad) n. Islam – a war or struggle against unbelievers. (greater jihad) the inner spiritual struggle against sin. ORIGIN from Arab. jihad, lit. ‘effort’. Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006. 4. Hajj (also haj) n. the greater pilgrimage to Mecca which all Muslims are expected to make at least once if they can afford to do so. ORIGIN from Arab. (al-) hajj ‘(The Great) Pilgrimage’. Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006. 5. Salaam – n. a gesture of greeting or respect in arabic speaking and Muslim countries … ORIGIN : from Arab. (al- salam (‘alaikum) ‘peace (be upon you). Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006. 6. Pagan – °n. a person holding religious beliefs other than those of the main world religions. °adj. relating to pagans or their beliefs. – DERIVATIVES: paganish adj. paganism n. paganize or paganise v. Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006. 7. Chechen – n. (pl. same or Chechens) 1 a member of the largely Muslim people inhabiting Chechnya, an autonomous republic in SW Russia. 2 the North Caucasian language of the Chechen. Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition; Oxford University Press. 2006. 8. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 44, 127, 123. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 9. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 190, 195. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 10. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov.Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 159, 190, 194, 195, 211, 213, 217, 219, 220, 223, 224, 225, 234 RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 11. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 50, 78, 111, 234. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 12. Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 111, 211, 213, 217, 219, 220, 223, 224. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 13. Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 179, 227. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. Routledge Curzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 14. Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 15. Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 72, 76, 79, 81, Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 16. Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 17. (As we use the oral form of Chechen language transcription given on dictionary may not correspond exactly to the one-sound words given in our research. Some of these words are not included in the dictionary). 18. Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages 159, 239. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004. 19. Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 44, 127, 123. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004.

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20. Chechen-English; English-Chechen Dictionary. Pages: 44, 127, 123. Johanna Nichols and Arbi Vagapov. RoutledgeCurzon. Taylor&Francis Group. London and New York. 2004

Encyclopedias: 1. Beliefs, customs and folklore. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of China, p 288. Editor Brian Hook, University of Leeds. Cambridge University Press. Second edition 1991. 2. The origin of languages. p. 291. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Second edition. David Crystal. Cambridge University Press. 1997. Sixth printing 2005. 3. Sound symbolism. p. 176. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Second edition. David Crystal. Cambridge Univesity Press. 1997. Sixth printing 2005 4. The Cambridge encyclopedia of Language. Second Edition. Social identity. p. 38. David Crystal. Cambridge University Press. 1997. Sixth printing 2005 5. Beliefs, customs and folklore. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of China, p 288. Editor Brian Hook, University of Leeds. Cambridge University Press. Second edition 1991. 6. Paterson Encyclopaedia of Archery p. 37 7. Beliefs, customs and fork lore. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of China, p 288. Editor Brian Hook, University of Leeds. Cambridge University Press. Second edition 1991. 8. Redford, Donald B., ed. (2000). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. "Cleopatra VII was born to Ptolemy XII Auletes (80–57 BCE, ruled 55–51 BCE) and Cleopatra, both parents being Macedonian Greeks."

Web-sites: 1. Britannica –online: Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev. 2. Britanica-Encyclopedia: jihad, also spelled jehad. 3. Britanica – online: David, (born , Bethlehem, Judah—died c. 962 bc, Jerusalem. 4. Britanica-online : Abraham 5. Britanica-online: Shiva, ( Sanskrit: “Auspicious One”) also spelled Śiwa or Śiva , one of the main deities of Hinduism. 6. Britanica-online: Vishnu, ( Sanskrit: “The Pervader”) one of the principal Hindu deities. 7. Britanica Encyclopedia online - Dalmatia. 8. Britanica Encyclopedia online - Pannonia. 9. Britanica Encyclopedia online - Noricum. 10. Britanica Encyclopedia online - Raetia. 11. Britanica Encyclopedia online - Magna Graecia. 12. Britanica Encyclopedia online – Poseidonius. 13. Britannica – online: Daoism. 14. Britannica – online : Mohism. 15. Britannica – online : Legalism. 16. Britannica – online : ren (Chinese philosophy). 17. Britannica – online: Xunzi, Wade-Giles romanization Hsün-tzu. 18. Britanica Encyclopedia online - Magna Graecia. 19. Wikipedia online - Geomancy ( Greek: γεωμαντεία, "earth divination"). 20. Wikipedia online - The Preobrazhensky Regiment (Russian: Преображенский полк, lit.- Transfigurational regiment)

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21. Wikipedia online – HERMES. 22. http://www.greatthoughtstreasury.com/?q=node/191741 23. http://www.travelchinaguide.com/ 24. www.achishbeth.fr.ms 25. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confucius/

1. Black Death may have originated in China. Daily Telegraph. 1 Nov 2010. 2. Prof. Irina Babich - Academy of Science of the Russia. Brussels. Conference at the ULB – University. 3. Analects of Confucius. Cai Xiqin editor and translator. Beijing: Sinolingua, 1994. 4. The Cicero, xxii. 5. Lunyu 7.22, 6. Lunyu 2.3, (see also 13.6) 7. A History of Russia, 7th Edition, Nichlas V. Riasanovsky & Mark D. Steinberg, Oxford University Press, 2005. 8. Barton & Bowden 2004, p. 126. "The Merneptah Stele... is arguably the oldest evidence outside the Bible for the existence of Israel as early as the 13th century BCE."

Works of the Russian scientists: 1. I. Aleroev. “The history and culture of Vainakh”. 203. ISBN: 5-87444-192-1 2. A. Yandarov. Sufism and its role in development of an Islamic society. Materials of the International conference. – Chechen republic, 2008. p. 76–77. 3. Karina Rekosh «The French language. Some problems of the European right in treatment of the European and French experts» 4. http://vainah.info/biblioteka/knigi/item/399-vaynahskaya-etika-edi-isaev - Edi Isaev « Ethics of Vainakh » 5. Vedenina, L͡iudmila. Georgievna, “Nekotorye priemy stilisticheskogo issledovani͡ia teksta”. Shor, E. N. Published 1973 6. Vedenina, Liudmila Georgievna. « Pertinence linguistique de la présentation typographique ». 1989.

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ANNEX

Indo-European languages and nations. Geographical distribution: Before the 16 century: Europe; South, Central and Southwest Asia; today - worldwide.

Linguistic classification: One of the world’s major language families. Proto-language: Proto-Indo-European (Unknown). Subdivisions: Albanian Anatolian (extinct) Armenian Balto-Slavic (Baltic and Slavic) Celtic Germanic Hellenic (Greek) Indo-Iranian (Indian and Iranian) Italic (includes Romance) Tocharian (extinct)

Uralic languages and nations Geographical distribution: Eastern and Northern Europe; North Asia.

Linguistic classification: A number of proposals linking Uralic to other language families have been made, all currently controversial.

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Proto-language: Proto-Uralic (Unknown). Subdivisions: Finnic Hangarian Khanti Mansi Mari Mordvinic Permic Sami Samoyedic

Dravidian languages and nations Geographical distribution: South Asia.

Linguistic classification: Dravidian. Proto-language: Proto-Dravidian (Unknown). Subdivisions: Nothern Central South – Central Southern.

System of Etc. Consciousness Theory of Unity

Proto-Indo-European Proto-Uralic Proto-Dravidian language (unknown) language (unknown) language (unknown)

Indo-European Uralic lanuages Dravidian languages languages 363

Religions Religions Religions Language families.208 Indo-European 386 2,500,000,000 Sino-Tibetian 272 1,088,000,000 Austronesian 1212 269,000,000 Afro-Asiatic 338 250,000,000 Niger-Congo 1354 206,000,000 Dravidian 70 165,000,000 Japanese 12 126,000,000 Altaic 60 115,000,000 Austro-Asiatic 173 75,000,000 Tai 61 75,000,000 Korean 1 60,000,000 Nilo-Saharan 186 28,000,000 Uralic 33 24,000,000 Amerindian (North, Central, South America) 985 22,400,000 Caucasian 38 7,800,000 Miao-Yao 15 5,600,000 Indo-Pasific 734 3,500,000 Khoisan 37 300,000 Australian aborigine 262 30,000 Palaeosiberian 8 18,000 Isolates 296 2,000,000

System of Consciousness (Theory of Unity) is discovered by Sayd-Emi Kagirov (Achish Emile de Kahir) and described in his collection of scientific reports “Word is the Witness of History“. The System of Consciousness is a common root of all languages and religions of the World, including ancient ones. All language families are derived not from the Proto language, but from this System of Consciousness, which has been preserved during the Modern Age with the help of religious names and words in English spelling and the Chechen (Vainakh) oral language.

Saïd-Emi Kaguirov « Le mot, témoin de l’histoire » Sayd-Emi Kagirov « Word is the Witness of History » 1. La Librairie Européenne -www.libeurop.be tel.+32(0)2 231 04 35 2. Presses Universitaires de Bruxelles- -www.ulb.ac.be/ulb/pub/ tel.+32(0)2 649 97 80 3. «Tropismes » -www.tropismes.com tel.+32(0)2 512 88 52 4. « Filigranes » -www.filigranes.be tel.+32(0)2 511 90 15

208 The Cambridge encyclopedia of Language. Second Edition. Social identity. p. 289. David Crystal. Cambridge Univesity Press. 1997. Sixth printing 2005. 364