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Properties, Requirements and Possibilities of Smart Windows for Dynamic Daylight and Solar Energy Control in Buildings: State-of-the-Art Ruben Baetens a,b, Bjørn Petter Jelle a,c,* and Arild Gustavsen d a Department of Building Materials and Structures, SINTEF Building and Infrastructure, NO-7465 Trondheim, Norway. b Department of Architecture, Urbanism and Planning, Catholic University of Leuven, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium. c Department of Civil and Transport Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway. d Department of Architectural Design, History and Technology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway. * Corresponding author: [email protected], tel. +47 73 593377, fax +47 73 593380. Abstract A survey on prototype and currently commercial dynamic tintable smart windows has been carried out. The technologies of electrochromic, gasochromic, liquid crystal and electrophoretic or suspended-particle devices were examined and compared for dynamic daylight and solar energy control in buildings. Presently, state-of-the art commercial electrochromic windows seem most promising to reduce cooling loads, heating loads and lighting energy in buildings, where they have been found most reliable and able to modulate the transmittance up to 68 percent of the total solar spectrum. Their efficiency has already been proven in hot Californian climates, but more research is necessary to validate the products for colder climates, and to improve furthermore the commercial products in order to control the indoor climate in a more energy efficient way by reducing both heating and cooling loads. Keywords: Transparent conductor, Smart window, Electrochromic window, Gasochromic window, Liquid crystal window, Suspended-particle window, Electrophoretic window, Daylight control, Solar energy control. 2 Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 1 Contents .................................................................................................................................................. 2 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 3 2. Transparent conductors .................................................................................................................... 4 3. Electrochromic windows ................................................................................................................... 5 3.1. Tungsten oxide .......................................................................................................................... 5 3.2. Other electrochromic metal oxides ............................................................................................ 5 3.2.1. Nickel oxide ................................................................................................................... 6 3.2.2. Iridium oxide .................................................................................................................. 6 3.2.3. Niobium oxide ................................................................................................................ 6 3.2.4. Other inorganic electrochromics .................................................................................... 7 3.3. Polymer electrochromics ........................................................................................................... 7 3.2.1. Polyaniline ...................................................................................................................... 7 3.2.2. Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) ................................................................................. 8 3.4. Electrochromic windows and devices ....................................................................................... 8 3.2.1. Tungsten-based electrochromic windows ...................................................................... 8 3.2.2. Non-tungsten-based electrochromic windows ................................................................ 9 3.2.3. Photovoltaic integrated electrochromic devices ........................................................... 10 3.2.4. All-solid-state switchable mirrors ................................................................................ 11 3.5. Gasochromic windows and devices ........................................................................................ 11 3.5.1. WO3-based gasochromic windows ............................................................................... 11 3.5.2. Gasochromic switchable mirrors .................................................................................. 12 4. Liquid crystal devices ...................................................................................................................... 13 5. Electrophoretic or suspended-particle devices .............................................................................. 14 6. Commercially available smart windows ......................................................................................... 14 6.1. Requirements and expectations ............................................................................................... 14 6.2. Transparent conductors ........................................................................................................... 15 6.3. Electrochromic windows ......................................................................................................... 15 6.3.1. Properties of available electrochromic windows .......................................................... 15 6.3.2. Aesthetic and energetic consequences of available electrochromic windows .............. 17 6.4. Gasochromic windows ............................................................................................................ 17 6.5. Liquid crystal smart windows ................................................................................................. 18 6.6. Suspended-particle smart windows ......................................................................................... 18 6.5.1. Properties of available suspended-particle windows .................................................... 18 6.5.2. Applicability of available suspended-particle widows ................................................. 18 6. Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 19 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... 19 References ............................................................................................................................................. 20 Appendix A - List of transparent conductor manufacturers ........................................................... 26 Appendix B - List of smart window manufacturers .......................................................................... 27 3 1. Introduction Windows are often regarded as a less energy efficient building component with a larger maintenance requirement. Nevertheless, their technology has grown by leaps over the last several years. A new class of windows promises to set the technology bar even higher. Dynamic tintable or so-called smart windows, where an example is shown in Fig.1, can change properties such as the solar factor and the transmission of radiation in the solar spectrum in response to an electric current or to the changing environmental conditions themselves. The application of such windows may lead towards a drastic reduction of the energy consumption of highly glazed buildings by reducing cooling loads, heating loads and the demand for electric lighting. Heating loads may be reduced compared to glazings with static low-emissivity coatings and similar, i.e. as smart windows have the possibility to admit more of the solar energy when heating is needed. Various techniques are known to derive switchable windows. However, taking into account the specific properties of window glazing in buildings, one strict rule has to be reckoned with: A transparent mode of the glazing has to be possible. Presently, three different technologies with external triggering signal are commonly known for this purpose and start to be available on the market: Chromic materials, liquid crystals and electrophoretic or suspended-particle devices. Here, the chromic devices may be divided in four categories, i.e. electrochromic, gasochromic, photochromic and thermochromic devices, where the last two possibilities will respond automatically to respectively changes in light and temperature. However, because one can not control the outdoor weather conditions and hence neither the properties of the photo- and thermochromic windows, they will be mostly neglected in this review. Smart windows are to be judged on several specific factors. Of most importance are their transmittance modulation range in the visible and whole solar spectrum. The modulation range is often expressed for a single wavelength in literature, but this gives little or no information on the overall performance of the smart device. Secondly, the expected lifetime and number of achieved cycles without or only minor degradation are of uttermost importance. Thirdly, the switching time for colouration and bleaching

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