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This Thesis Has Been Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for a Postgraduate Degree (E.G This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: • This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. • A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. • This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. • The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. • When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Oriental Orientalism: Japanese formulations of East Asian and Taiwanese architectural history Liang-Ping Yen PhD The University of Edinburgh 2012 ABSTRACT In the West architectural historiography, or writing on architectural history, can be considered as a modern practice. Its emergence accompanied with the development of modern nation states. Architecture’s reflection on its historical texts came to find particular expression in the search for the origins of architecture. The formation of oriental architectural history tended to follow this pattern. Oriental architectural historiography was initiated by a Japanese scholar, Chūta Itō. In his formulation, the origins of Japanese architecture were linked not only with Chinese and Indian architecture, but also with Classical Greek architecture. In addition, Itō’s theoretical formulation of architectural history was also followed by other Japanese scholars, and it informed those later scholars who studied Taiwanese architectural history. That is, the formulations and classification systems that Itō set out for Japanese architecture framed subsequent scholarship on the architecture of other parts of East Asia, including Taiwan. The system that Itō established has been widely regarded as being based on modern and scientific academic research. This thesis investigates Itō’s system, its significance for architectural scholarship in other parts of East, as well as its claimed scientific basis. The thesis pays particular attention to the architectural history of Taiwan in the Japanese colonial period. The thesis hypothesises that the historiographical tradition that Itō’s work established was based on an unbalanced colonial relationship of power and uneven structure of authority, It explores how authenticity in East Asian architecture was authorised, and how hidden ideologies and methodologies lie behind these historiographical practices. This is the first ambition of the thesis. The examination of Japanese construction of oriental and Taiwanese architectural history in this thesis pays particular attention to the context of Japanese colonialism. In doing so it draws on a range of contemporary postcolonial theoretical perspectives. In addition, the particular kind of oriental colonialism, as a materialised colonial medium, Japanese writing on oriental and Taiwanese architectural history provides an additional perspective on that current and recent postcolonial criticism expressed through such concepts as Edward Said’s orientalism, Homi Bhabha’s hybridity and Gayatri Spivak’s strategic essentialism. At a theoretical level, the thesis argues that since these concepts emerged from the colonial/anti-colonial operation and negotiation between the west and its colonies, a refined analysis is required for thinking through Japanese colonialism. To this end, the thesis supplements postcolonial theory with the idea of oriental orientalism as developed by Yuko Kikuchi. In so doing, the thesis aims to contribute to an enriched discussion of contemporary postcolonial criticism in general, and as it applies to East Asian in particular. iii The exploration of architectural history as the subject of a wider colonial operation and the revision of the core conceptual tools of postcolonial criticism in the context of Japanese colonialism in East Asian, and Taiwan, provides further possibilities for the the construction of identity in those formerly colonised subject in places such as Taiwan. A postcolonial reading of Japanese writing on architectural history shows both the limitation of postcolonial criticism, and to question the framework of architectural discourse in the discipline. This project has to be based on an inquiry into the way in which the other’s architecture has been formulated and constructed in the discipline of architecture in the light of postcolonial criticism. Without such an inquiry, we are unable to open the metaphorical ‘space’ to negotiate the self-writing of Taiwanese subjects on their own architecture and architectural history. iv COPYRIGHT DECLARATION By signing this declaration I certify that: • This thesis was composed only by myself. • The thesis comprises is my own. • This work has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification except as specified. The author Liang-Ping Yen v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT iii COPYRIGHT DECLARATION v TABLE OF CONTENTS vii LIST OF ILLSTRATIONS xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xiii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1-1 INTRODUCTION 1 1-2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS 3 1-3 CHAPTER STRUCTURE 6 1-3-1 PART ONE: MAPPING THEORIES 7 1-3-2 PART TWO: LOCATING HISTORY 9 1-3-3 PART THREE: DISCUSSION – TOWARD POSTCOLONIAL OPENING 10 CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT AND RESEARCH METHODS 13 2-1 POSTCOLONIAL ARCHITECTURE 13 2-2 ORIENTAL ORIENTALISM 24 2-3 THE COMPLEX HISTORY OF TAIWAN 26 2-4 TAIWANESE ARCHITECTURAL HISTORIOGRAPHY 29 2-5 RESEARCH METHODS 37 CHAPTER 3 THE ORIENTALISING OF ORIENTALISM: JAPAN AS THE HINGE BETWEEN EAST AND WEST 43 3-1 EDWARD SAID: FROM ORIENTALISM TO CULTURAL AND IMPERIALISM 48 3-2 HYBRIDITY AND CULTURE AS A VARIED FIELD OF NEGOTIATION 57 3-3 YUKO KIKUCHI’S FORMULATION OF ORIENTAL ORIENTALISM 67 3-4 ORIENTAL ORIENTALISM AND POSTCOLONIAL THEORY 76 CHAPTER 4 MINGEI THEORY AND THE MATERIAL CULTURE OF ORIENTAL ORIENTALISM 81 4-1 MINGEI THEORY 84 4-2 MINGEI AS A CRITERION OF BEAUTY 88 4-2-1 SETTING A NEW STANDARD 88 4-2-2 MINGEI THEORY AS HYBRIDIZED ORIENTALISM AND OCCIDENTALISM 93 4-3 MINGEI THEORY AS A MATERIALIZED JAPANESE CULTURAL AND NATIONAL vii REPRESENTATION 100 4-3-1 MINGEI AS MATERIALIZED JAPANESE IDENTITY AND GETEMONO AS THE REPRESENTATIVE OF INNATE JAPANESENESS 101 4-3-2 MINGEI AS MATERIALIZED JAPAN’S ORIENT AND ORIENTAL ORIENTALISM 106 4-3-2.1 KOREA 117 4-3-2.2 OKINAWA 110 4-3-2.3 AINU 114 4-3-2.4 TAIWAN AND CHINA/MANCHURIA 116 4-3-3 MATERIALIZED ORIENTAL ORIENTALISM 118 CHAPTER 5 THE PRIMITIVE OTHER IN THE ARCHITECTURAL DISCIPLINE 127 5-1 THE ARCHITECTURE OF OTHERNESS AS PRIMITIVE HUT 130 5-1-1 MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO 133 5-1-2 ANTONIO DI PIETRO AVERLINO (FILARETE) 134 5-1-3 MARC-ANTOINE LAUGIER 135 5-1-4 GOTTFRIED SEMPER 139 5-1-5 RECONSIDERING THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE OTHER IN THE PRIMITIVE HUT 144 5-2 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE OTHER FILLS IN THE BLANK IN WORLD ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY 146 5-2-1 JAMES FERGUSSON’S HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 149 5-2-2 SIR BANISTER FLETCHER’S A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE UPON THE COMPARATIVE METHOD 155 5-2-3 RECONSIDERING THE OTHER’S ARCHITECTURE IN ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY 159 5-3 VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES AS AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO THE DISCIPLINE 160 CHAPTER 6 THE FORMATION OF JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE AND THE ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEM 167 6-1 THE BACKGROUND OF CHŪTA ITŌ’S ARCHITECTURAL KNOWLEDGE 169 6-1-1 CHŪTA ITŌ’S WESTERN DISCIPLINARY ARCHITECTURAL KNOWLEDGE 169 6-1-1.1 JOSIAH CONDER’S INFLUENCE 169 6-1-1.2 KINGO (金吾) TATSUNO’S (辰野) ENCOURAGEMENT 175 6-1-2 CHŪTA ITŌ’S JAPANESE ARCHITECTURAL KNOWLEDGE, KIYOYOSHI (清敬) KIGO’S (木子) LECTURE 176 6-1-3 CHŪTA ITŌ’S ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION 177 6-2 CHŪTA ITŌ’S KENCHIKU TETSUGAKU (ARCHITECTURAL PHILOSOPHY, 建築哲学) AS A THEORETICAL GROUND OF THE FORMATION OF JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE 179 6-3 CHŪTA ITŌ’S FORMATION OF THE HŌRYŪJI AS A SEARCH FOR A NATIONAL ORIGIN OF JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE 184 6-4 CHŪTA ITŌ’S DISCOVERY OF THE YUNGANG GROTTOES AS A HINGE BETWEEN THE WEST AND THE EAST 189 6-5 CHŪTA ITŌ’S ORIENT 199 6-5-1 CHŪTA ITŌ’S FORMATION OF ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEMS 199 6-5-2 CHŪTA ITŌ’S FORMATION OF CHINESE ARCHITECTURE 205 viii 6-6 CHŪTA ITŌ’S LOCATION OF JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE 208 CHAPTER 7 JAPANESE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF TAIWANESE ARCHITECTURE IN 213 7-1 MASANAO YASUE’S ‘TAIWAN KENCHIKU SHI (TAIWANESE ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY, 臺灣建築史)’ UNDER THE ACTIVITY OF THE ‘KYŪKAN CHŌSA’ (AN INVESTIGATION OF TAIWANESE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, 舊慣調查) BY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF TAIWAN BETWEEN 1901 AND 1919 216 7-1-1 THE ‘KYŪKAN CHŌSA’ AS A COLONIAL ENTERPRISE 217 7-1-2 MASANAO (正直) YASUE’S (安江) ‘TAIWAN KENCHIKU SHI (TAIWANESE ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY, 臺灣の建築)’ 224 7-2 DAISAKU (大作) TANAKA’S (田中) ‘TAIWAN KENCHIKU NO SHI TEKI KENKYŪ (HISTORICAL RESEARCH ON TAIWANESE ARCHITECTURE, 台灣建築の史的研究)’ AND TAIWAN SHIMA KENCHIKU NO KENKYŪ (A RESEARCH ON TAIWANESE ARCHITECTURE, 台湾島建築の研究) 232 7-3 GAIZIRŌ (亥治郎) HUZISIMA (藤島) AND TAIWAN NO KENCHIKU (TAIWANESE ARCHITECTURE, 臺灣の建築) 243 7-3-1 BACKGROUND 243 7-3-2 THE CONTENT OF TAIWAN NO KENCHIKU 246 CHAPTER 8 DISCUSSION: TOWARDS A POSTCOLONIAL OPENING 253 8-1 JAPAN’S CONSTRUCTION OF ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY AS A PROCESS OF ORIENTAL ORIENTALISM 256 8-1-1 JAPAN’S HYBRID CONSTRUCTION OF ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY 259 8-1-2 JAPAN’S CONSTRUCTION OF AN ORIENTALIST ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY 263 8-2 RECONSIDERING POSTCOLONIAL THEORY 269 8-3 POSTCOLONIAL CRITICISM OF DISCIPLINARY ARCHITECTURAL KNOWLEDGE: THE PRIMITIVE HUT, ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY AND VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE 276 8-4 TOWARDS A POSTCOLONIAL OPENING 283 BIBLIOGRAPHY 287 ! ix LIST OF ILLSTRATIONS 4‐1 Mokujikibutsu by Mokujiki Shōnin. 86 4‐2 Yanagi’s classification of crafts. 90 4‐3 Chinese pottery, Bowl.
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