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Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation

Course Syllabus

Name of Course: History I HIST 401 - The First !000 Years

Name of Instructor: Russell Schwarz 210.478.7560 [email protected]

Course Description:

The Bible does not teach us everything about the outworking of God’s plan of redemption. We learn from church history how God’s plan of redemption has been worked out from the time of the end of the first century until today. This class will cover the period of time from the apostolic age to the year 1000 AD.

Course Goals:

Upon completion of this course, the student should be able to:

• Have a working knowledge of the primary events affecting the Church during each century. • Know the key theologians and apologists and their contribution to the expansion of the church. • Recognize various conflicts and controversies in the church leading to church councils and the establishing of fundamental beliefs. • Understand the source of church and how they were dealt with.

Course Textbooks

1. Any “” of the Bible that the student is comfortable with. The instructor will be using the NIV 1984.

2. Church History In Plain Language by Bruce Shelly, 4th Edition

Grades: This is a pass/fail class and students who attend all classes or complete the make-up will pass the class. There will be a final exam.

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Class 1: The First Century: Foundations

Class 2: The Second Century: Heretics, Apologists, Canon

Class 3: The Third Century: , Unforgivable , Martyrs

Class 4: The Fourth Century: Legalization, Creeds and Worship

Class 5: The Fifth Century: Controversy, Councils, and Papacy

Class 6: The Sixth Century: The Death of and the Birth of Muhammed

Class 7: The Seventh Century: Rise of

Class 8: The Eighth Century: and the Holy Roman Empire

Class 9: The Ninth Century: The Eucharist, , Filoque, and

Class 10: The Tenth Century: Expansion

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Class 1: Introduction and The First Century

Introduction:

I. Warrant for the Study of Church History

A. The Bible does not teach us everything about the outworking of God’s

______plan.

B. In the study of church history, we see the ______of God over all history.

C. The Christian ______is historical in character.

II. The Value of Church History

A. We need to understand where we came from.

B. It reveals the ______outworking of .

C. It reveals the ______with surrounding culture.

D. It provides ______on the study of scripture.

1. We can learn from interpretations and distortions of the past. 2. It provides perspective on what is important vs. less ancillary. 3. It reminds us how dependent we are on who have gone before.

III. Church History and the History of Dogma

A. Church history is not simply a story, but the study of Christian ______.

B. Christian teaching is both limited and defined by ______.

IV. The Limits of Church History

A. Not ______

B. Limited ______

V. Church History and the Development of Godly Character

A. ______

3 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation B. ______

The First Century

I. The Historical Context of the Church

A. Second Temple Judaism (538 BC - AD 70)

1. Unifying Factors

a) ______

b) ______

c) ______

d) ______

e) ______

f) ______

g) ______

h) ______

(1) ______

(2) ______

(3) ______

(4) ______

2. Diversity

a) ______

b) ______

c) ______

d) ______

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e) ______

f) ______

B. Roman Rule (63 BC-70 AD)

1. Political ______

2. ______and ______stability

3. ______

4. Intellectual and religious ______

5. Philosophy

6. ______religion

C.

______: good, soul, heaven, immaterial

______: evil, body, earth, material

D. Judaism and the Birth of

1. The ______

2. Herod the Great and the relativizing of the ______and Temple

Final Reflection on the historical context of the church: Although the groups we have surveyed in many ways were full of error, especially in the light of Christianity, these religious and philosophical movements addressed deep needs in people. Through people’s dissatisfaction and longings, God was at work preparing the world to receive the !

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II. The Separation between Judaism and Christianity

A. Initial Connections

B. Theological Considerations: Foundations for a definitive break. Notice the growing distance and divide from Jerusalem.

1. ______(Acts 1-5) Hard line vs. native Hebrews

2. ______(Acts 6) Hellenists vs. Native Hebrews

3. ______(Acts 7) Stephen openly negative toward Judaism

4. ______(Acts 8:1) First took the to non-Jews

5. ______(Acts 8) Philip breaks the divide between Jew and Samaritan

6. ______(Acts 10) Cornelius, Caesarea (gospel moves further north)

7. ______(Acts 11) The Church is first called “Christians)

8. ______(Acts 13) ’s ministry takes the gospel west.

C. Nero’s Persecution of the Church in AD 64

D. The Jewish War and the Destruction of the Temple

1. The Jewish War - AD 66-73

2. The destruction of the Temple in AD 70

a) The Jews redefine their view of Christianity

b) Christian redefine their view of their .

(1) Christianity moves out on its own (2) Center specifically on Jesus as true Judaism (3) Shift toward Gentile predominance (4) Contextualization of the gospel in new frontiers (5) No longer bound to address the Jew-Gentile issue

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Key Points: 1st Century

1. The words and sayings of Jesus are collected and preserved. writings are completed. 2. A new generation of leaders succeeds the apostles. Nevertheless, expectation still runs high that the Lord may return at any time. The end must be close. 3. The Gospel taken through a great portion of the known world of the Roman empire and even to regions beyond. 4. New churches at first usually begin in Jewish synagogues around the empire and Christianity is seen at first as a part of Judaism. 5. The Church faces a major crisis in understanding itself as a universal faith and how it is to relate to its Jewish roots. 6. Christianity begins to emerge from its Jewish womb. A key transition takes place at the time of Jewish Revolt against Roman authority. In 70 AD Christians do not take part in the revolt and relocate to Pella in . 7. The Jews at the Council of Jamnia in 90 AD confirm the canon of the Hebrew Scriptures. The same are recognized as authoritative by Christians. (Jamnia still exists as a good-sized village under the name of Jebuah, about two from the sea, seven miles S of Joppa.) 8. Persecutions test the church. Jewish historian Josephus seems to express surprise that they are still in existence in his Antiquities in latter part of first century. 9. Key persecutions include Nero at Rome who blames Christians for a devastating fire that ravages the city in 64 AD He uses Christians as human torches to illumine his gardens. 10. Emperor Domitian demands to be worshiped as "Lord and God." During his reign the of Revelation is written and believers cannot miss the reference when it proclaims Christ as the one worthy of our worship.

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Class 2: The Second Century: Conflicts and Canon

Introduction: Clarifying Terminology

I. Clarifying Terminology

A. Apostles - eyewitnesses of Jesus

B. Early : A category covering leaders in the church for the first ______centuries.

C. : A subset of church fathers who ministered ______.

II. Orthodoxy and : Notable heresies and heretics in the second century

A. Ebionites (Pharasaic Judaizers)

1. Refused To Recognize ______.

2. All Christians Should Be ______.

3. Denied ______.

4. Jesus Was Chosen By God Because Of His ______.

5. Denied His ______.

B. Gnosticism

1. The Greek gnosois means special ______.

2. Believed that creation was the result of a pre-cosmic ______.

3. The fall of eve is symbolic and describes the pre-cosmic catastrophe in which the female power, or the “Mother” (god) went astray.

4. The gnostics were ______believing that the spirit is everything and the body is nothing.

5. Jesus was ______but not ______.

6. They worshiped ______.

8 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation 7. They depreciated the ______.

C.

1. Montanus of Mysia (NW ) claimed to have received ______

______.

2. Emphasized ______.

3. Emphasized the nearness of ______.

D.

1. Came from Asia Minor to Rome and was excommunicated in 144 AD.

2. Wrote ______.

3. Maintained that the God of the OT could not be ______.

4. Docetic. Jesus lacked full humanity. Had a body only in appearance or in one’s imaginings, but not in reality.

Note: The Role of Heresy

III. The Apologists: “Defenders of the Faith”

A. ______(100-165 AD)

B. ______(155-230 AD)

C. ______(dates unknown but between 115 and 142 AD)

D. ______of Antioch (b ? - died about 185 AD)

IV. Summary and Significance of the Apologists

9 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation A. Illustrate ______.

B. Illustrate ______.

C. Preserve fundamental or cardinal ______.

D. Preserve a High ______.

E. Emphasized ______, ______, ______,

______.

F. Showed the rational character of the Christian faith and its reasonableness.

G. Presented ______for the truth of Christianity.

1. Pagan philosophy anticipates Christianity., 2. The of Christ and the apostles proved the truth of Christianity. 3. Fulfilled prophecy proved the truthfulness of Christianity. 4. Only Christianity could satisfy the deepest needs of men. 5. The spread of Christianity despite its great resistance was evidence of God’s work. 6. That the gospel changed character and lives of Christians.

V. The NT Canon (Canon = law, rule, principle, something by with to judge)

A. The criteria for canonicity

1. ______

2. ______

3. ______

B. Objections to the criteria of apostolicity

1. ______

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2. ______

3. ______

C. Objections to the widespread acceptance of the church

1. What about Revelation?

2. What constitutes widespread acceptance.

3. What about ?

D. Church Life: Order and Authority in the church by the end of the 2nd Century

1. Apostolicity or

2. Episcopy (governing order)

a) Three Offices

(1) ______

(2) ______

(3) ______

E. Persecution (6 reasons)

1. ______

2. ______

3. ______

4. ______

5. ______

6. ______

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F. Worship (The whole service lasted about 3 hours)

1. Service of the Word (1.5 - 2 hours)

a) Greeting b) OT reading c) Psalm or hymn d) NT reading e) Psalm or hymn f) Gospel reading g) h) of non-baptized attenders

2. The Eucharist (thankful or grateful) (1.5 - 2 hours)

a) Prayers b) Communion (1) Greeting (2) Offertory (3) Dialogue (4) Breaking of loaves (5) Distribution of the wine (6) Benediction

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Key Points: 2nd Century

1. The Lord has not returned as soon as expected, so organization is needed to continue the ministry, resist persecution, oppose heretical teachings, and spread the word. Thus the office and role of the becomes stronger. 2. While persecution continues intermittently from without, heresies pose major dangers from within and must be answered. Heresies include: 1. GNOSTICISM -- A kind of New Age movement that claimed special knowledge. 2. MARCIONISM -- An attempt to reduce the Scriptures--both the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures -- to a few select books 3. MONTANISM -- A charismatic movement that got carried away with new revelations, prophecies, and judgmental attitudes toward other Christians. 3. Apologists, or explainers of the faith, emerge to combat heresy and answer the church's opponents. Key apologists include and . 4. The churches are not legal and have no public forum or church buildings. Local persecution can break out at any time. A profound public witness emerges as Christians are put to death because they will not deny the faith at any cost. Examples: Martyrdom of 84-year-old bishop (AD 155) and a whole group mercilessly tortured at in AD 177. 5. The strongest centers of the Church are Asia Minor and North . Rome is also a center of prestige. 6. The church continues its amazing spread reaching all classes, particularly the lower. Callistus--a former slave--actually becomes bishop of Rome and makes claims for special importance of the Roman bishop.

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Class 3: The Third Century

Introduction:

Four major questions faced the church in the 3rd century:

1. What to make of ______?

2. What about ______?

3. What about ______?

4. What is true ______?

Major Players in the Third Century:

Church history divides the 3rd Century church fathers into two groups.

______Fathers

______Fathers

By the 3rd century, the most influential Christian leaders emerged from North Africa, primarily Carthage (in modern-day Tunisia) (the toe of the boot of points at it); and Alexandria (in modern day on the coast north of Cairo).

1. Carthage

a. ______(155-220) A Father

• Called the ______of Latin Theology.

• Laid the groundwork for 4th century ______.

• First to use words like ______, ______, and

______.

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• Major weakness: ______.

• Argued that ______was of equal importance to ______.

• Believed there was no such thing as an ______.

• Was hostile toward ______.

b. ______(200-258) A Latin Father

• Became ______of Carthage in 247.

• Saw NT presbyters as ______.

• Interpreted Communion in ______terms.

2. Alexandria

a. ______(150-215) A Greek Father

• Believed Christians should ______between Christianity and Gentile learning.

• Christ is the source of true ______.

• includes the ______.

• The Logos is ______to the Father.

• Heathen have an opportunity to ______.

• Taught that there are five meanings is of Scripture:

1) ______

2) ______

3) ______

4) ______

5) ______

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b. ______(184-254) A Greek Father

• His father was a ______.

• Studied under ______.

• Taught that there was a threefold interpretation of Scripture:

1) The ______meaning

2) The ______meaning

3) The ______meaning

• His ______held into the time.

• Baptism includes the ______.

• Strange Beliefs:

1) The ______of human souls

2) Resurrection is non- ______.

3) Emphasized ______.

4) at the end of the age will include ______.

5) Hell is ______.

6) He was a ______believing in the end everyone will be saved.

The Apostles Creed

➼ I believe in God the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, ➼ And in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord, ➼ Who was conceived by the Holy Ghost, Born of the Mary, ➼ Suffered under Pontius Pilate, Was crucified, dead, and buried. ➼ He descended into hell; The third day He rose again from the dead; ➼ He ascended into heaven, And is seated at the right the Father Almighty; ➼ He will come again to judge the living and the dead. ➼ I believe in the Holy Spirit; ➼ The Holy Church, the Communion of ; ➼ The Forgiveness of sins; ➼ The Resurrection of the body, ➼ And in life everlasting. Amen. 16 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation

The Creed gradually took shape throughout the church from about ______to ______.

Church tradition says that the 12 components of the creed are written by each of the 12 apostles but that is highly unlikely.

Apostolic Succession and the fight to preserve unity.

Three things the church had in common in the 3rd century:

1. ______

2. ______

3. ______

Apostolic Succession: In the 2nd century, apostolic succession was to follow in the teachings of the apostles. By the 3rd century, there was a growing belief that Bishops were apostles! (Bishop of Carthage - d. 258) represents well for us the developing attitude toward Bishops:

1. The apostles were the first ______and bishops were the new apostles.

2. Not infallible, but absolutely ______.

3. Had ______to administer life giving sacraments.

4. The Bishop of ______ought to be given special reverence.

Overview of the 3rd Century: Peace, Prosperity and Persecution

A. Peace and Prosperity

1) Many ______families became Christians and helped spread the gospel.

2) ______began to be constructed

3) The first Christian ______was built in Rome.

4) Emperor Alexander Severus (222-235) a) Employed a Christian, Julius Africanus (160-240) to organize Rome’s public library. b) Alexander’s private chapel had images of Jesus and alongside pagan gods. c) His mother arranged a meeting for him with to discuss .

17 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation B. Peace and Persecution

1) Septimius Severus (202-11): Conversion to Christianity was forbidden.

2) Maximinus (235-36): Execution of many Christian church leaders.

3) Decius (249-51)

a) ______persecution of believers.

b) Christians required by the state to return to or face ______.

c) Believed that a series of invasions by northern Germanic tribes (the ) was the result of the Christians’ “atheism” – the gods were angry, so to appease them he decided to eliminate them.

d) Executed ______of Rome, Antioch, and Jerusalem.

e) ______was most famous victim.

4) Valerian (257-60)

a) It was ______- for Christians to assemble.

b) ______was often confiscated.

c) Attempted to ______all the church’s leaders (bishops and presbyters).

d) ______was his most famous victim.

Council of Carthage (251 AD)

Because there were so many defectors from the Christian faith, divisions arose within the church over what to do with the disloyal?

The Council of Carthage convened to decide this question. Cyprian played a leading role.

1) Cyprian’s doctrine of the church made leaving the and it’s bishops a

______.

2) They decided that a lapsed Christian could be received back into the church, but only after a period of time during which they would be proving their sincerity by doing “penance.”

3) Cyprian argued that the bishops alone had the right to decide this question.

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Summary of the Third Century

By 300 Christianity was effectively represented in all parts of the empire. Its distribution was very unequal, but it was influential in the central provinces of political importance, in Asia Minor, Macedonia, , Egypt, northern Africa, central Italy, southern [= ] and Spain. During this period it won many officers of government and imperial servants.

Most important of all, it now began to penetrate the army on a considerable scale.

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Key Points: 3rd Century

1. At beginning of century, Edessa (Urfa in modern Turkey) becomes first

Christian state.

2. Emperor Septimus Severus (202-211) persecutes; forbids conversion

to Christianity. Then a generation of peace for the church. Amazing growth and

spread of faith continues and church buildings begin to be built.

3. North Africa a key Christian center. Egypt alone has a million Christians by the

end of 3rd century. Carthage and Alexandria leading centers of Christian

theological development with such figures as Origen, , Clement of

Alexandria.

4. The first empire-wide persecution instituted under Decius in AD 250. Everyone

must offer pagan sacrifice and show certificate of proof.

5. Church has to deal with the difficult problem of how to handle the "lapsed"--

those who relented during the persecution and now want back into the church.

6. The role of the bishop continues to grow in strength.

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Class 4: The Fourth Century

A. Church Controversies

1. ______(a local North Africa problem)

a. Believed that ______Christians should not be permitted reentry into the church.

b. They bitterly divided the NW African church over this issue.

c. They refused to acknowledge the ______because the bishop who had ordained him had handed over the Bible to be burnt during Diocletian’s persecution.

d. Donatists argued that Christian must be ______for their ministry to be effective and their prayers and sacraments to be valid.

2. ______(The key doctrinal controversy and heresy of the century)

a. The ______alone is God, absolutely.

b. Both the Son and the Spirit were ______by the Father before the creation of the world.

c. The Son is the ______created being.

d. Jesus is only called God as an ______, in much the same way as magistrate or judge was called gods in the Old Testament.

3. The______(325) (Asia Minor)

a. Convened by ______.

b. ______bishops discussed the issues arriving at . . .

We believe in one God the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father, only-begotten, that is, from the essence of the Father, God from God, light from light, true God from true God, begotten, not created, being of one substance with the Father, through whom all things were created both in heaven and on earth; who for us human beings and for our came down and was incarnate, was made man, he suffered and rose again on the third day, ascended into heaven, and is coming again to judge the living and the dead, and [we believe] in the Holy Spirit.

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c. The creed, though generally agreed upon ______settle the matter.

e. A major question left unanswered was the matter of the ______of the Holy Spirit. In addition the controversy over the led by the Arians over the deity of Jesus continued to persist.

f. For ______years the fires of controversy raged.

4. The Council of ______(381)

a. Convened by Theodosius (Emperor of )

b. Revised the , reaffirming and extending the teaching of the Council of Nicaea.

c. The creed:

We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible; And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Only-begotten, Begotten of the Father before all ages, Light of Light, Very God of Very God, Begotten, not made; of one essence with the Father; by whom all things were made: Who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, and was made man; And was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and was buried; And the third day He rose again, according to the Scriptures; And ascended into heaven, and sits at the right hand of the Father; And He shall come again with glory to judge the living and the dead, Whose kingdom shall have no end. And we believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, and Giver of Life, Who proceeds from the Father, Who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified, Who spoke by the Prophets; And we believe in one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church. We acknowledge one Baptism for the remission of sins. We look for the Resurrection of the dead, And the Life of the age to come. Amen.

d. It established ______in the church, (Niceans and Origenists) and agreement agains the Arians. (One essence; three natures) e. It settled the dispute surrounding the deity of the ______

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B. Church-State Relations: From Persecution to Power

1. Emperor ______(d 311) a. This represented the last and most terrible persecution of the church by the Roman Empire.

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b. Four anti-Christian : 1) All church ______were to be destroyed, all Bibles burnt, and all forbidden (303) 2) All ______arrested and imprisoned (303) 3) All clergy must offer ______to the gods or face torture (303) 4) All ______throughout the Empire were to sacrifice to the gods or face execution (304)

2. ______(274-337)

a. The empire was divided east and west. b. 306: Constantine was proclaimed emperor of the West c. Constantine had two visions. First vision of ______. d. The second was before the ______of the Milivian Bridge (312) e. In 313, he established the ______of ______: Freedom for all .

3. Constantine and the Council of Nicaea (325) a. Constantine’s twofold rationale: To bring doctrinal uniformity and political stability. b. Constantine actually helped formulate the Creed of Nicaea. c. The banishment of ______was the first time that the state had punished someone for heresy

4. Constantius (Constantine’s son) (East 337-353; West 353-361) a. Much more aggressive against paganism than his father b. Banned all ______sacrifices c. Ordered all pagan ______to be closed d. Ordered bishop Hosius of Cordova to accept ______at the Lord’s Table

5. ______I (379-395) 6. ______of Milan (339-397)

24 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation a. Provincial ______who became bishop of Milan in 374

b. Magnificent ______c. Pioneer ______d. Introduced congregational ______to the West

f. Outspoken on ______-______relations

C. Doctrine, Church Order, and Worship in the 4th Century:

1. Doctrine

a. The ______of the word of God

b. (310-386), bishop from 350, wrote:

“No doctrine concerning the divine and saving mysteries of the faith, however trivial, may be taught without the backing of the holy Scriptures. We must not let ourselves be drawn aside by mere persuasion and cleverness of speech. Do not even give absolute belief to me, the one who tells you these things, unless you receive proof from the divine Scriptures of what I teach.”

2. Church Order a. Church government becomes more complex - multi-layered

b. ______no longer equal

c. Graded in order of importance by their ______

d. Major cities had more authority

e. Council of Nicaea decreed that all the bishops should ______

f. Bishop of a provincial capital was called a ______bishop, or sometimes

g. Many churches came into existence without a bishop at all.

i. A few bishops became even more powerful than the metropolitan bishops; they were called (patriarchal bishops).

1) ______: Only in the West.

2) ______: Extremely important because it was located in the capital of the Eastern/.

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3) ______

4) ______

5) ______

3. Worship

a. Until now all church services were in ______.

b. West increasingly used ______until it replaced Greek in 350.

c. Syrian churches and Egyptian churches conducting worship in their own languages. d. Increasing emphasis on ______– a fixed, written form of worship, less wiggle-room for bishops.

e. ______celebrated differently

1) ______: Previously only Easter Sunday was celebrated, but now 40 days of Lent and the Easter week, with as important as Easter Sunday.

2) ______:

a. Celebrated in the West on Dec 25 (c. 336) b) Date was the pagan festival for the birth of the Sun c) Customs of the old Roman festival of Saturnalia: Dec 17-21 with the lighting of candles, gift exchange, held parties – these things became attached to Christmas. d) Celebrated in the East on Jan 6 f. Greater use of ritual and ceremony: First use of special vestments, incense, and the carrying of lamps, candles, and tapers

f. The understanding of the meaning of Baptism: It ______away the guilt of all sins committed to baptism

g. Expansion of honoring ______and ______.

h. ______Church is constructed in Rome. (322)

D. ______.

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Key Points: 4th Century

The fourth century, like the sixteenth, and perhaps our own twentieth, is one of those periods in church history when momentous changes take place that stand out as pivotal turning points in the history of God's people.

The century witnessed major changes and transitions in church relations with state and society. Here are six: 1. Empire Persecutes Church -- At the beginning of the century the church went through the "Great Persecution"--the last and the worst. Instituted by emperor Diocletian in 305, it was intended to wipe out the church. It failed. 2. Empire Tolerates Church -- Emperor Constantine professed Christianity and the church was given legal status. Often you will hear that Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the empire. He didn't. But he did restore its losses and gave it favored treatment as one among many tolerated religions. 3. Empire Challenges Church -- Paganism didn't give up without a battle. Emperor Julian (361-363) attempted unsuccessfully to reestablish paganism. 4. Empire Adopts Church --Christianity was officially made the state religion under emperor Theodosius IX in the year 381. 5. Church Challenges Empire -- In a dramatic confrontation that foreshadowed centuries of church-state jockeying for position, Bishop of Milan defied the emperor. 6. Canon of New Testament confirmed. In the 367 AD Easter letter of Athanasius, and at Councils in 382 and 397, final recognition was given. These do not create the Christian scriptures but confirm what was already generally recognized and accepted. 7. Millions of new members pour in. Becoming a Christian is no longer a risk, but can even be politically and socially opportune, so the church has to deal with a new laxity in standards of belief and behavior. 8. Major Councils - Church now needs to clarify and define what it believes. Long time required to understand and explain person and nature of Christ. Under emperor Constantine the first major council of church held in Nicea (modern Turkey) in 325. Second major Council held at in AD 381. 9. Church Buildings Flourish -- After legalization the church gets big into real estate. Often its great basilicas are built on the sites of what were formerly pagan temples. 10. Capital of Empire moves to Constantinople -- In 324 city founded. City dedicated on May 11, 330. Rome no longer the center of power for the empire and church begins to fill in the gap at Rome. 11. ' Church History --Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea becomes the first significant church historian and gives us invaluable documentation on the early church. 27 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation

Class 5: The Fifth Century

A. The Players: Key Fathers of the 5th Century

Though the work of these Fathers begins at the end of the fourth century, their most significant work and the preponderance of their influence is keenly felt in the fifth century.

1. ______344-407

a. Preacher and Expositor

1) Called John ______and was one of the greatest preachers in the history of the church.

2) “Father” of ______- preached verse by verse

3) Promoted ______exegesis (known as the Antiochene school of interpretation) over and against Origen’s allegorist.

b. The one ugly blot on Chrysostom's character was his harsh ______views that were often used and quoted by Adolph Hitler.

2. ______(347-420)

a. is frequently remembered for his ______!

b. He was above all a ______- scholar, translating most of the Old Testament from the Hebrew.

c. It took him______years to complete and he finished in 405.

d. Jerome is particularly important for having made a translation of the Bible which came to

be called the ______(edition).

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3. ______(354-430)

Life:

a. Augustine came under the influence of ______who convinced him of the truthfulness of Christianity,

b. ______: “Let us behave properly as in the day, not in carousing and drunkenness, not in sexual promiscuity and sensuality, not in strife and jealousy. But put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh in regard to its .”

Theological emphases:

1) The importance of the ______for Christians

2) The ______of the church

3) ______and total depravity

4) The ______of God in salvation – grace does and must overpower our will

5) Further defined the West’s understanding of the ______.

Augustine’s view of the Apocrypha and his ecclesiology influenced RC Church.

1) Apocrypha was ______because Augustine believed that the Septuagint (LXX) was inspired. 2) Outside the church there was no salvation even among those we might think would have good reason to leave it.

4. (378-444 AD)

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5. Patrick? (385-461)

B. The Problems: Controversies

The 5th Century was marked by two great controversies concerning the doctrine of salvation and the doctrine of Christ.

1. The Doctrine of Salvation

a. : also called Pelagian heresy, is the Christian theological position that the original did not taint human nature and mortal will is still capable of choosing good or evil without special divine aid or assistance.

1) Named for Pelagoius, a British who came to Rome around 383

2) Tenets

a) Men are born ______, just like

b) Sinless = morel neutrality - not righteous

c) People sin because they follow______example not because of corruption

d) Some are able too remain______sinless and perfectly holy in this life

e) Grace is God’s gift of ______lto all human beings

3) Augustine vigorously opposed Pelagianism writing three significant works against it. Basically he taught:

a) That sin is ______but it comes from a ______will.

b) That sin is the ______of the good.

c) ______was the life-giving power of the Holy Spirit, who created a good will in evil people

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b. Semi-Pelagianism: in its original form was developed as a compromise between Pelagian and the teaching of Church Fathers such as Saint Augustine, who taught that people cannot come to God without the grace of God. In semipelagian thought, a distinction is made between the beginning of faith and the increase of faith. Semipelagian thought teaches that the latter half – growing in faith – is the work of God, while the beginning of faith is an act of free will.

Declared a heresy at the Council of Orange in 529.

2. The Doctrine of Christ

a. Apollinarianism: is a Christological concept proposed by Apollinaris of Laodicea (died 390) that argues that Jesus had a normal human body but a divine mind instead of a regular human soul.

1) Man is ______and ______

2) Christ had a human ______, but not a human ______.

3) The mind and spirit of Christ were ______so . . .

4) At the ______, the divine Word took the place of Jesus’ soul, so . . .

5) Jesus wasn’t ______.

BUT - if Christ wasn’t fully man (body, soul and spirit), he could not redeem us.

b. : asserted that the person of Jesus Christ has only one, divine nature rather than the two natures, divine and human, that were established at the in 451. Proposed by Eutyches (378-454), leader of a at Constantinople

1) Christ’s divine nature ______his human nature becoming a third thing

2) Jesus was neither fully human nor fully divine, but a ______of both natures

c. : there were two separate persons, one human and one divine, in the incarnate Christ. It opposes the concept of hypostatic union (two natures in one person) and emphasizes that the two natures of Jesus Christ were joined by will rather than personhood. (Nestorian was Bishop of Constantinople)

1) Concerned with ______being referred to as , the mother (bearer) of God. (tokos: to bring forth; theo:God)

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2) Said she should be called christotokos, bearer of Christ.

3) Christ should be thought of as a man to whom the ______had united himself.

4) Nestorius believed that Jesus had two “______”: human and divine.

5) Now although Nestorius believed that Jesus had two natures in one person (what would become the orthodox doctrine of Christ), many in his camp believed that the Christ was two persons.

C. Councils

1. The Council of ______(431)

a. Called by Emperor Theodosius II in June 431 (Eastern Empire: Constantinople) b. Required to ratify decision by Celestine, bishop of Rome, c. Deposed Nestorius d. Condemned Pelagianism as a heresy on the basis of Augustine’s arguments (made before he died) e. Monophysitism (Eutychianism) rejected since according to this scheme, since Christ is not fully God or fully man, he incapable of saving us (salvation is from the Lord) and he is incapable of representing us (through one man’s obedience the many are made righteous). f. Began to resolve the debates over the two natures of Christ…but not completely. That wouldn’t happen for another 20 years.

2. The Second (449) Basically dealt only with who was excommunicated and who was reinstated in the church. No real doctrinal issues were covered.

3. The Council of ______(451)

a. Called by new emperor, Marcian (450-457) b. 400 bishops present c. Arrived at what’s called the Creed of Chalcedon

Following, then, the holy fathers, we unite in teaching all men to confess the one and only Son, our Lord Jesus Christ. This selfsame one is perfect both in deity and in humanness; this selfsame one is also actually God and actually man, with a rational human soul and a body. He is of the same reality as God as far as his deity is concerned and of the same reality as we ourselves as far as his humanness is concerned; thus like us in all respects, sin only excepted.

32 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation Before time began he was begotten of the Father, in respect of his deity, and now in these “last days,” for us on behalf of our salvation, this selfsame one was born of Mary the virgin, who is God-bearer in respect of his humanness.

We also teach that we understand this one and only Christ-Son, Lord, only- begotten — in two natures; and we do this without confusing the two natures, without transmuting one nature into the other, without dividing them into two separate categories, without contrasting them according to area or function. The distinctiveness of each nature is not nullified by the union. Instead, the “properties” of each nature are conserved and both natures concur in one “person” and in one reality. They are not divided or cut into two persons, but are together the one and only and only begotten Word [Logos] of God, the Lord Jesus Christ. Thus have the prophets of old testified; thus the Lord Jesus Christ himself taught us; thus the Symbol of Fathers [the Nicene Creed] has handed down to us.

(1) Considered the ______, orthodox definition of the biblical teaching by Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox.

(2) Christ’s ______and ______natures retain their own properties and remain distinct, yet they are eternally and inseparably united together in one person.

(3) “Remaining what he was, he became what he was not.”

(4) “The Incarnation was an act of addition rather than subtraction.”

33 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation D. Church Life

By the end of the fifth century the following unscriptural doctrines and practices had become deeply rooted in the Church:

• prayers for the dead; • a belief in (place in which souls are purified after death before they can enter heaven) • the view that the Lord’s Supper is a sacrifice, and that its administrators are priests; a sharp division of the members of the church into clergy (officers of the church) and laity (ordinary church members); • the veneration (adoration) of martyrs and saints, • and above all the adoration of Mary; • the burning of tapers or candles in their honor,; • veneration of the of the martyrs and saints; • the ascription of magical powers to these relics; pictures, images, and altars in the churches; • gorgeous vestments for the clergy; • more and more elaborate and splendid ritual (form of worship); • less and less preaching; • to holy places; • ; • worldliness; • persecution of heathen and heretics

Additionally:

• Infant baptism: One of Augustine’s arguments for was that if original sin were not true, then why would the church baptize babies? This demonstrates that by the fifth century, infant baptism had become the normal practice for the Church.

• Marian theology: Increasing devotion to Mary as theotokos. Within another few centuries, Mary had become as important to Christ in the religion of many Christians

• The papacy and Leo I, patriarch of Rome from 440-461. In many ways, the founder of the papacy; for he believed that Christ had appointed the Apostle Peter as the senior bishop and final court of appeal for all Christians and that the whole church should accept all doctrinal statements by Peter’s successors (the of Rome).

• That the patriarch of Constantinople had equal status with the Patriarch of Rome (since it was the newer capital of the Empire).

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Key Points: 5th Century

As the barbarians increasingly threatened the Empire, sacking the city of Rome, Augustine wrote City of God (413-426), showing that the true movement of history was the unseen conflict between sin and salvation, between the city of man and the kingdom of God.

1. Nestorianism spreads in the eastern church, emphasizing a distinction

between Christ's human and divine natures. Chalcedon creed describes

Jesus Christ as fully human and fully divine, with the two natures existing

together without confusion.

2. As the emperor's power declines, the Bishop of Rome's increases. Pope

Leo I (440-461) asserts authority over other bishops, claiming bishop of

Rome is successor to Apostle Peter.

3. Patrick (c. 390-460) sold as slave at age 16. He later escapes, goes to

Ireland where he undertakes monumental mission.

4. 496--Frankish King Clovis converted to Christianity and baptized.

Conquers half of France and paves the way for Charlemagne’s (8th) "Holy

Roman Empire.”

5. Church calendar with the Christian year begins to be in place. Cult of

martyrs and relics widespread, and glorification of Virgin Mary grows.

Incense is first introduced into a Christian church service in the West.

6. With upheavals and disintegration of secular society, church hierarchy

becomes more established and influential.

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Class 6: The Sixth Century

A. Background: A Brief History of the fall of Rome (376-550 AD)

The is the modern-day term for the western half of the Roman Empire after it was divided in two by the emperor Diocletian (284-305 CE) in 285/286 AD.

The Dissolution of the Empire

Even so, the two halves of the empire continued to prosper equally until the reign of the Emperor Theodosius I (379-395 CE) when internal and external forces exerted themselves to break the two halves apart. These forces included, but were not limited to:

36 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation

1. ______instability

2. The self-interest of the two halves

3. ______of barbarian tribes

4. Government ______

5. ______armies

6. Over-reliance on ______

7. Massive ______

8. The rise of ______

2. German Tribes invade the Empire

• ______• ______invaded the Eastern Empire • ______Roman army is annihilated • ______Theodosius, a pious Christian, defeated the Goths • Failing in the east, the Goths set their sights on the ______. • It took them ______years to conquer the western part of the empire.

3. The Fall of the Western Empire (410)

• In ______Rome was sacked by the Goths under Alaric, king of the . • Meanwhile, ______, an East Germanic tribe from modern day Poland, had moved east into Gaul and Spain and then into North Africa. • They crossed the and captured Rome in ______AD. • The ______had moved down from Asia ravaging Europe. They were defeated at the battle of Châlons in 451 by a coalition of Visigoths and Romans. After the defeat, Attila the Hun turned toward Rome, but was defeated. • Eventually, the barbarians conquered every province of the western Empire: Italy, North Africa, Spain, Gaul, the Netherlands, and Britain.

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4. The distribution of peoples

• The East • This part of the Empire was not ______by the ______• Mainly ______(at least nominally) • Advanced in ______and ______

• The West • ______• Originally inhabited by many tribes • Most of the Goths had converted to Christianity before they invaded the Empire through the preaching and teaching of Ulfilas (c. 310-383), a half-Gothic bishop who translated a large part of the bible into Gothic. • Occupied by Ostrogoths (East Goths; Arian) • Southern Gaul and Spain: Occupied by Visigoths (______) • Eastern Gaul: Burgundians (A ______Germanic tribe) • Southern Spain and North Africa: Vandals (______) • Northern Gaul, Belgium, southern Netherlands: (______) • Northwestern Netherlands; Frisians (______) • Eastern Netherlands: Saxons (______) • Britain: Anglo-Saxons (______)

• Outside the Empire • : Celts (originally from Europe and Asia Minor) (______) • Denmark, Norway, Sweden: Scandinavians (______) • East of the Rhine: German tribes (some ______, some ______) • Russian tribes (______)

• In light of this new landscape, the task of the church in the sixth century becomes Christianizing and educating the new peoples of the Empire. The church was largely successful.

38 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation B. Key Players in the Sixth Century

1. ______of Tours:

• Among the most important ______of the early medieval period in Western Europe. His work is a 10 volume set beginning with creation and then on to the conversion of the Franks.

• Gregory became ______for the city of Tours in 573.

• For many years, he was involved in a dispute with Clovis's grandson Chilperic (KIL- pur-ik; ruled 561–84), a harsh king whose reign was characterized by war, high , and conflict with the clergy, or priests.

• Comparing him not only to one of the cruelest emperors of ancient Rome, but also to the Herod, who had tried to kill the baby Jesus, Gregory called Chilperic "the Nero and Herod of our time."

In addition to History of the Franks, Gregory wrote a book on the lives of the saints, and one on famous miracles—both popular topics for historians.

2. (480-547) Father of Western monasticism.

• Was a ______; lived in a cave in Subiaco, Italy (east of Rome)

• Founded the ______of Monte in 539 (between Rome and Naples). His chief concern was the secularization of the church.

• From here he ______, fed the poor, ______the sick (miraculously, it was believed), and attracted a growing army of disciples.

• Wrote his own ______of ______for the monastery (the “Benedictine Rule”) • Day divided into three periods • Collective worship, lasting four and a half hours; • Manual labor, lasting six or seven hours; • The study of the Bible and the early Church fathers, lasting from 3-5 hours. • Eight hours of sleep.

• Because of their attention to ______, the Benedictine were instrumental in preserving the of the NT, copying, storing, studying, and using them in their worship.

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3. ______the Great: (540-604; pope 590-604)

a. Political Leadership

1) Under him, the ______began to emerge as the great political as well as spiritual power to dominate Western Europe for a thousand years.

2) Made ______with invaders without consulting the Emperor.

3) Used church ______to give food and shelter to many who had been made destitute by the invaders.

b. Church Leadership

1) Used his ______to promote church life and to strengthen the position of the papacy.

2) Directed the conversion of ______from to Catholicism.

3) Famous and fierce ______with patriarch John the Faster of Constantinople (582-95) • The Byzantine Emperor () had bestowed on the bishop of Constantinople the title “ecumenical” or “universal” patriarch – the spiritual leader of all Christians.

4) Deeply committed to the ______of the Germanic tribes who were still pagan.

• Greatest concern was for the tribes that had conquered ______

• Augustine of reported that ______people, including the king had been baptized (all voluntarily).

c. Theology

• Taught that all human beings are born ______, and that Christ alone by his sovereign grace can rescue sinners from their bondage to sin. • Salvation comes through ______in which the Holy Spirit causes the sinner (even newborn baby) to be spiritually reborn.

• Christian must make up for sins committed after ______through works of love.

• Taught that ______had the power to wash away post-baptismal sin.

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• If at death a Christian had any sins left that had not been dealt with, he or

she must pay for them by suffering in ______

• Introduced the practice of celebrating special ______services for the dead.

d. Worship

• By this time people were calling the celebration of holy communion “the mass” from the closing words of the Latin communion liturgy, “ite missa est” (“Go, the congregation is dismissed”). The term “mass” was first used in the fifth century, but became standardized in the West in the sixth century. • Opposed veneration of images or of Christ, the Virgin Mary and the saints, but approved of using them to adorn church buildings as teaching aids for those who could not read (think of it as sixth century flannel graph). • Introduced changes in the liturgy for holy Communion, including a new collection of hymns to be sung alternately by presbyter and congregation or –

the “______.”

e. Writings

• Letters: ______have survived, all addressed to bishops, , and political leaders. • Commentary on using ______threefold method of interpretation.

• The • Set forth ideals of Christian ministry. • A pastor must set forth a personal example by the way he lives. • Be a servant not a ruler • Meditate daily on the word of God • Love truth more than popularity • Give a high place to preaching b) • Became standard textbook in the in the West, and is generally considered a classic on the subject.

MEANWHILE . . . Around 570 or 571 AD in the city of Mecca a baby boy was born. 41 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation

Key Points:

We are now in the . This, the longest era in Christian history, is the one most difficult to grasp and interpret.

Let me suggest five "M" words to give some overview hooks for the Middle Ages:

1. Migrations of barbarian tribes that reshaped Roman world 2. Missions--often heroic ventures that over seven centuries reached all Europe 3. Monasticism--first a reaction against worldliness, becomes preserver of learning, Scripture and spearhead of missions and education 4. Men of the papacy becoming stronger and more politically influential 5. The founder and leader of Islam which overtook established Christian centers and posed grave threat to Christianity is born

The was preserved from extinction, and European civilization with it, by the two ecclesiastical institutions that alone had the strength and efficiency to withstand the impress of the surrounding barbarism: ...monasticism and the papacy.

1. 529--Responding to growing secularization of the church, Benedict of Nursia establishes monastery of and the Benedictine Order. Benedict's "Rule" for monks (c. 540) will become the most influential over future centuries. 2. 530-532--Boniface II, first pope of Germanic ancestry 3. Church and State are becoming more closely intertwined. 4. Church buildings become more monumental. Justinian builds Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, dedicated to Christ as the "Holy Wisdom." Constructed 532-537. 5. Dionysius Exiquus (d. c. 550), a monk in Rome, establishes modern system of dating, using events after Christ as "Anno Domini," in the year of our Lord. (He missed the date of Christ's birth by a few years.) 6. Conversion of barbarian groups continues. 7. Pope Gregory the Great ((c.540-604) gives the mass much of the shape it has today.

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7. THE SEVENTH CENTURY

A. In the East: 570-632

Around 570 AD in the city of Mecca Muhammad is born. His father had died before he was born so he was raised first by his grandfather and then by his uncle. He grew up in a poor but respectable family that was active in Meccan politics and trade.

Many of the tribes living in the Arabian Peninsula at the time were ______trading goods as they crisscrossed the desert.

Most tribes were ______, worshipping their own set of gods.

The town of Mecca was an important ______center.

The most famous site was the Kaaba. It is believed to have been built by ______.

In his ______, Muhammad began working for a wealthy merchant woman named Khadijah, 15 years his senior.

The Prophet Muhammad

• Pilgrimages in 610, he was meditating in a cave called Hira • The appeared • Islamic tradition holds that the first persons to believe were his wife, Khadija and his close friend Abu Bakr (regarded as the successor to Muhammad by Sunni ). • Most people in Mecca either ignored him or mocked him. • His message condemned idol worship and polytheism. • Sensing a threat, Mecca’s merchants and leaders offered Muhammad incentives to abandon his preaching, but he refused.

Resistance to Muhammed grew and they were forced to emigrate from Mecca to ______.

In 630, the Muslim army marched into ______, taking the city with minimum casualties.

In 638, Muslims captured ______.

The Death of Muhammad: ______

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B. In the West: St. ______(560-636)

• In ______AD, ten years before Muhammad was born, Isidore was born in the middle of the sixth century.

• ______at an early age, he was educated by his older Leander.

• The range of his knowledge was extensive, and included the study of Hebrew and Greek.

• He was passionate about converting the barbarian ______from Arianism to Christianity.

• As he was dying his house was filled with crowds of ______he was giving aid and to.

C. In Rome: The ______becomes a church (609)

In 608, the emperor donated the Pantheon to the Pope so that it could be turned into a church.

Pagan temple in the years 125 to 395: 270 years.

Closed down, no official religious use 395 to 609: 214 years.

Church 609 to 2010: 1410 years.

D. The Typos of Constans: (648)

The Type of Constans (also called Typos of Constans) was an imperial issued by Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II in 648 in an attempt to defuse the confusion and arguments over the Christological doctrine of Monotheletism (one nature in Christ not two - divine and human).

• The Type attempted to ______the entire controversy, on pain of dire punishment.

• Emperor Constans II was a young man of ______, and he was supremely indifferent to the religious debates convulsing the Church.

44 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation • This edict made it ______to discuss the topic of Christ possessing either one or two wills. • In Rome, (d. 655) ______to sign Typos. Martin is seized and banished to Crimea and dies. He is last pope to be venerated as a martyr.

E. ______and ______(about 660)

The introduction of church organ music is traditionally believed to date from the time of Vitalian's papacy (657-672).

In AD 400, (Italy) introduced church bells into the Christian Church. In AD 604, Pope Sabinian officially sanctioned their usage.

The ringing of church bells is traditionally believed to drive out ______.

F. ______: (692)

G. Back to Muhammad . . .

1. Muhammad a. Born in Mecca (south-western coast of central Arabia) in 570 or 571. b. Successful merchant; journeys brought him into contact with Jews and Christians. c. Monotheistic (“one true god”) religions sprang up at this time in Arabia under the influence of Judaism and Christianity. Previously there were pagan tribal religions in the region. d. In 610 received what he believed was his first of many revelations from God.

2. Suffering in Mecca, flight to ______a. Increasingly persecuted in Mecca from the majority of the city’s inhabitants. b. Ridiculed, beaten, tortured, and killed followers of Islam. c. Muslims eventually forced to flee from Mecca to Medina (the more northern coastal city) in 622, called the year of the hejira, the “emigration.” d. Reversal of fortunes in Medina 1) ______met with almost universal success.

2) Muhammad became the religious and ______leader of the city.

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3) Medina the first ______Muslim community.

4) Attracted converts from the surrounding region.

e. In 630 Muhammad returned to Mecca marshaling ______warriors after several bloody battles with the pagan forces from Mecca.

1) Won over the pagan population by granting a general amnesty to the conquered peoples. 2) Destroyed the ______of Mecca’s pagan gods. 3) Made the ancient Meccan shrine, the ka’ba into the most holy place of Islamic worship.

f. Political unity in Arabia by the time of Muhammad’s death in 632 through conversions and military conquests.

1) From the outset Islam spread with the ______.

2) Within ______years of Muhammad’s death, his successors had created a huge Islamic Empire, stretching from to Spain.

3) Armies like this rarely known: brave, tough, sober (no drinking allowed), and burning with zeal for the faith that made them unafraid of death.

g. The Christian world offered little to no ______to this effort.

3. Tenets of the religion of Muhammad

a. God was a ______person.

b. Jesus was Muhammad’s ______, sinless and virgin-born, a - worker, the greatest of God’s prophets apart from Muhammad himself, but not the divine, eternal son of God who became man (denied deity of Jesus).

c. Did not believe that Jesus had been ______; God would not allow his prophets to be treated with such shame.

d. God alone was the cause of all things, both good and evil.

e. was the ______sin.

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f. The “Five Pillars” of Islam

1) Shahadah, or the confession of faith: “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet.”

2) Salah, or prayer five times a day, facing Mecca.

3) Zakah, or giving charitable gift of money as welfare contribution for the poor.

4) Sawm, or fasting in the holy month of Ramadan.

5) Hajj, or the to Mecca, which a Muslim must try to make at least one time.

g. “______,” often translated “holy war” means “struggle.

4. Sources of authority and revelation: The Quran, hadith, and ijma make up the threefold authority that Muslims must follow. a. The Quran 1) A series of 114 ______dictated to Muhammad by the angel Gabriel. 2) Othman (644-56), Islam’s third successor (caliph) collected these into a single authoritative addition. 3) The beauty of the Arabic is a “proof” of the book’s authenticity as a revelation from God and the only miracle ever performed by Muhammad. 4) Translations of the Quran are considered not inspired, but interpretations of the original.

b. Hadith, or traditions about what Muhammad had said and done, were also important because Muhammad is the prefect example of how a man should life. The hadith collectively form the sunna (or “path”). c. The ijma, or the consensus of the Muslim community, or according to some, of Islamic legal scholars.

5. Life for Arabs and the church under Islamic rule

a. Toward ______peoples – the general policy was to force nonMuslims into Islam. b. Policy toward non-Arab peoples was generally one of ______. 1) Christians and Jews considered by Muhammad to be worshippers of the one true God, but according to Islam had corrupted the true religion.

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2) Zoroastrians and other ancestral faith ties were not caused to be destroyed.

c. Serious disadvantages for Christians 1) Became segregated communities and ______citizens.

2) Muslim masters required them to organize as a under a ______who was charged with political responsibility over them.

3) Paid a heavy ______.

4) Had to wear distinctive ______.

5) Forbidden to own or use ______or ride horses.

6) No public ______carrying icons or crosses were allowed.

7) No ringing of bells or beating of drums to announce ______.

8) ______between Christians and Muslims was forbidden.

9) Christians were forbidden by law from ______the gospel to Muslims.

10) Conversion from Islam to Christianity was punishable by ______.

11) Churches under Islam declined steadily in number.

12) Majority of professing Christians converted to Islam for the benefits of citizenship. 13) In local areas, despite official tolerance, Christians were ______.

d. Some flourishing of Christianity under Islamic rule 1) Christians of education and higher learning employed to translate the great works of Greek philosophy into Arabic. 2) (675-749) – the last of the Greek early church fathers.

6. Christian responses to Islam a. The pen and the sword…but mainly the ______. Christians felt they had little alternative in light of the Muslims’ militancy. b. Notable attempts to evangelize Muslims in the Middle Ages, but much later (12th century).

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Key Points:

1. 600-636— Isidore, Bishop of . His writings provide invaluable and

encyclopedic knowledge for the Middle Ages. He is known for important efforts to

resist barbarism and heresy in Spain, founded schools and convents and

evangelize Jews.

2. 609— Pagan pantheon in Rome consecrated as church of St. Maria Rotunda. As

part of the dedication, Pope Boniface (609-610) confirmed All Saints' Day.

3. Organs begin to be used in churches. Church bells are used to call people to

worship and to give the hours to the monks in the .

4. 648— Emperor Constans II issues "The Typos" limiting Christian teachings to

that defined in first five ecumenical councils. Pope Martin I (d. 655) refuses to

sign Typos. Martin is seized and banished to Crimea and dies. He is last pope to

be venerated as a martyr.

5. Mohammed (c. 570-629) begins the religion of Islam, which begins to supplant

Christianity across the Middle East and North Africa.

6. 638— Islamic capture of Jerusalem

7. 692 — Early Origins of the Schwarz family: two brothers, “Ewald der schwarze

und Ewald der weisse,” (Ewald the Black Schwarz and Ewald the White Schwarz)

worked as missionaries in Westphalia (Modern )

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8. THE EIGHTH CENTURY

A. Charlemagne and the Holy Roman Empire

1. Before Charlemagne

a. ______(c. 690-741)

1. was born in ______in Frankia

2. In Europe Frankia’s power was both ______and respectable but Islam had spread from India to the south of France, and by the 720s was directly menacing Martel and his kingdom.

3. Successful ______and ______career.

a) In 732, he led the Franks in victory against Muslims at the ______

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Many historians see this as a decisive battle because it permanently halted the western progress of the Islamic Empire. The Franks forced the Muslims back into Spain where they remained for 700 years.

4. ______Support

a) Early in his life he initiated friendly contacts with the ______.

b) He directly assisted ______and other missionaries who were busy among the Germanic tribes of the north.

b. ______(714-768) Charles divided his realm between his two sons, however the younger would gain the dominance:

1. Pepin was crowned ______over his brother by the great Boniface in the name of the pope.

2. This was the first time a ______had claimed that his apostolic authority involved the right to sanction the dethroning of one king and his replacement by another. 3. It meant that the new royal family in France owed its legal authority to the papacy. 4. Pepin was troubled by the relentless revolts of the ______and the Bavarians.

He campaigned tirelessly in Germany, but the final subjugation of these tribes

was left to his son ______.

5. Pepin’s reign is largely overshadowed by that of his more famous son.

2. ______, a.k.a. ______(742-814) became emperor in 768.

a. From the beginning of his rule, he acted in concert to expand his own power and to strengthen his connections with the pope.

1) Saved the pope from ______invaders, a Germanic tribe. 2) Delivered the pope again in 799 from the of ______.

3) Leo was ______in Rome by partisans of the late

51 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation , and fled to Charlemagne at Paderborn.

4) Leo subsequently crowned Charlemagne as ______.

which was not approved in ______.

b. Imposed his rule on the whole of the civilized ______

c.

Military campaigns

1) Forced Islam back beyond the ______. 2) Only suffered one loss in his long and illustrious career (he spent most of his 43-year reign fighting wars).

d. ______and ______Christian

1) Called the “______” because he led the Germans out of their barbarism. 52 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation

2) Typically required conquered peoples to become Christians or be

______.

3) Extremely motivated by the Christianity in his reign and brought about a variety of reforms and initiatives in the church.

a) Appointed ______to significant roles in government.

b) Made ______a mandatory rest day.

c) Made ______to the church mandatory and punishable by excommunication.

d) Regularized the______of the West.

4) Believed his ______“It is my duty, with the help of the divine Mercy, to defend the Holy Church of God with my arms, everywhere.”

a) ______authority ought to go hand in hand with ecclesiastical power.

b) He saw the ______as a means by which he could train and reform society for the service of God.

3. The “______”: Charlemagne sought to use his power to regulate the lives of the priests and to set up schools throughout the land, leading to what is commonly called the “Carolingian Renaissance,” a period during which learning flourished, and during which the foundation was laid for the great scholarship of the Middle Ages.

1) ______: Created “Carolingian minuscule,” which marked a reform in handwriting on which our modern printed letters are based;

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2) ______: Most of our surviving texts from ancient and Rome have come down to us from Carolingian copies.

3) ______: revised the text of the Latin Bible and established a standard edition of the (Jerome late 4th).

4) ______:

5) ______: Gregorian , was established as the standard religious chant and music became a permanent part of church service throughout Western Europe.

4. “______”: This refers to the notion that the king is the vicar of God while the bishop is only the Vicar of Christ (the mediator); therefore, the monarchy has authority over the church.

a. In ______, without consulting Pope Adrian I, he issued the Western Church’s response to the iconoclastic controversy.

b. Despite the ______of Pope Leo III, Charlemagne supported the inclusion of the clause into the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (381). From the sixth century onwards, Western Christians had added “and from the Son” to the line which says that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father. The Council of Toledo (Spain, 589) added the Filioque clause to the creed.

Filioque (“and from the Son") is a Latin term added to the original Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, and which has been the subject of great controversy between Eastern and .

5. The coronation of a new Roman king: ______, 800

a. “By the time he came to Rome in 800, Charlemagne’s success against the Saxons to his north and east, the Spanish in the west, and the to his south had made him lord over more of Europe than anyone since Theodosius at the end of the fourth century.”

b. The pope crowned Charlemagne as ______of the Holy Roman Empire of the West.

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B. The ______of the Papacy in the

1. Papacy advanced its ______of secular sovereignty.

2. Important developments in France: It was in Rome’s interests to secure such an

______, as the threats against Rome at this time were coming from

different places.

3. Sponsorship of ______drew the papacy more and more into the concerns of northern Europe. Boniface was born in England and served as an effective missionary to Germany.

The three roles Boniface played that made him "one of the truly outstanding creators of the first Europe”:

The apostle of ______,

The ______of the Frankish church, and

The chief fomenter of the alliance between the papacy and the Carolinian family

4. ’s papal coronation

a. In exchange, Pepin extracted Rome from its last lingering tie to Constantinople and in 756 gave the pope a “donation” that gave the pope control of Italian territories won by Pepin from the Lombards and also committed his successors to act as protectors of the papacy. b. Pepin’s gift to pope Stephen furthered the rift between Eastern and Western churches by giving to him, which until that point had been under Byzantine control, but even though protested, Pepin argued that he was under no obligation to Byzantium since he was serving the glory of God, the apostle Peter, and the pope. c. Gave the papacy a huge independent state (the “” across west- central and northeastern Italy). From now on popes would be heads of state as much as they would be leaders in the church.

5. The ______of Constantine: This was a forged document that surfaced in the eighth century which claimed to be a letter from to in which Constantine said that the pope was to the emperor and granted the papacy the right to govern the city of Rome and all imperial territory in Italy and the West.

55 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation C. Theological Controversies and Setbacks

1. ______

a. Two Spanish bishops put forth the idea that although Christ in his divine nature was the eternal Son of God, in his human nature he is an adopted son of God, just as believers are.

b. At the root of the issue was whether sonship belonged properly to

______

f. Condemned at the Council of Frankfurt in 794.

2. ______Controversy

a. Icons

1) Renderings of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints and in heaven) were almost always pictures – drawings, paintings, , wood or stone carvings in low relief. To this day Orthodoxy opposes statues of Christ, Mary, saints and angels.

2) The reveals the ______of Christ

4) Development of ______saw art entering the churches

5) Appeared not only in places of worship, but homes, shops, on clothes, and in jewelry.

b. Affected West and East, but mainly the East – the center of the controversy was in Constantinople/Byzantium.

c. Leo II (emperor in the East from 717-40)

1) Declared ______on all icons.

a) Believed that he was called by God to cleanse the Eastern Empire

b) Began a campaign against images in 726 – seeking to destroy them all.

2) Issued his famous ______against icons

56 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation a) Required images to be destroyed, calling them idolatrous. b) Monasteries housed his main victims

d. The Roman popes backed the iconophiles (or iconodules) because…

1) They believed that the iconophile position was essentially theologically accurate. 2) They believed that the iconoclast emperors were overstepping their bounds in subjecting the Eastern Church to the state. 3) Pope Gregory II condemned the (the rejection of images as heretical).

e. This controversy also became an argument over issues of church and state.

3. The loss of ______in public worship

a. The fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century brought grave problems to the church, not least that there was a widespread decline in the

______among the clergy.

b. Most clergy limited themselves to carrying out ______but no longer preached their own .

c. Instead, they used ______

Charlemagne’s died January 28, 813, seven days after he took to his bed, at nine o' in the morning, after receiving holy communion, at the age of seventy-two and having reigned for forty-seven years.

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Key Points: 8th Century

1. Spain is invaded by the , Moslems from North Africa; Charles Martel

defeats them at the Battle of Tours in 732--a decisive juncture in Christian

resistance to Moslem advance.

2. Boniface of England is a missionary to the Germans for 40 years. Finally is

murdered by pagans in 754.

3. Iconoclastic controversy over the veneration of images divides the Byzantine

Emperor and the Pope.

4. Papacy asserts its earthly rule and establishes the papal states in Italy. Pope

Leo III (d. 816) separates from the Eastern Empire and becomes supreme

bishop in the West.

5. Charlemagne becomes sole King of the Franks in 771; later is crowned "Holy

Roman Emperor," establishing dream of a kingdom with a Christian king.

6. Nestorian Christians in develop missionary activities and build Christian

monasteries.

7. Schools for are established at Paris, Cologne, Soissin, and Metz.

8. 781-- of York, England becomes advisor to Charlemagne and catalyzes

the "Carolingian Renaissance.”

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9. THE NINTH CENTURY

Introduction: In November 799, Charlemagne (ca. 747 - 814) set out for Rome. The pope had summoned him, because he could no longer fend off his enemies in the city. After Charlemagne settled the matter, the two rulers attended a Christmas mass in St. Peter’s. Those in attendance that Christmas Eve found themselves witness to a show of historical dimensions. . .

So, the 8th century came to an end and the began.

9. THE NINTH CENTURY

A. Theological Controversies

1. ______

a. ______

b. ______Only clergy and monks took part on a regular basis. By the 6th century, only three times a year That slowly turned into once a year at Easter. Let me suggest two reasons for this shift:

1) ______These feelings were increased further still by the increasing strength in the belief that the bread and wine were miraculously converted into the actual body and blood of Jesus.

2) ______(Charlemagne forced people to be baptized upon pain of death)

c. Radbertus (785-860) and Ratramnus (d. 868): ______& ______

1) Anticipating a full-blown doctrine of ______

a) Rad is ______: He argued that the bread and wine of 59 Biblical Institute for Basic Literal Interpretation communion were actually converted, changed completely into the flesh and blood of Christ.

b) But Rad isn’t all that bad: He also argued that the believer

ate Christ’s flesh and blood in a ______sense.

2) Hints of Lutheran and Reformed doctrines of Holy Communion

a) Rat is ______. Through the bread and wine the Holy Spirit worked secretly to nourish and strengthen the souls of Christians with the risen life of Christ.

3) Neither view ______at this time – the Western church saw both as valid views. Rad’s, however, became increasingly popular and would eventually evolve into the doctrine of .

2. Over ______

a. The opponents

1) Gottschalk of Orbais (805-69) Gottschalk of Orbais was a Saxon theologian, monk and poet who is best known for being an early advocate of the doctrine of two-fold predestination. 2) (776-856) Archbishop of Mainz in East (Germany) 3) Gottschalk was an over-zealous Augustinian; he accused his , Rabanus, of Semi-Pelagianis (Man and God cooperate to achieve man's salvation)

b. The ______of the argument

1) Christ died only for the ______, and that…

2) The precise number of the______is specified by an eternal

decree of God, a ______to death that runs parallel to the

decree of election to life, also known as ______.

c. And the winner was…

1) Gottschalk lost the argument and was condemned

d. Continued controversy over the issue between eminent scholars of the period, which ultimately were never resolved.

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3. Over the ______clause

a. From the sixth century onwards, Western Christians had added “and from the Son” to the line which says that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father.

b. Photius the Great (820-95)

1) Called the wisest man of the Middle Ages (a brilliant scholar and theologian)

2) Patriarch of Constantinople (858-69 and again 877-86).

3) The West had attacked the East for rejected the addition of the phrase, and Photius responded by writing an encyclicalm letter) to denounced the filioque clause as heretical.

The letter also condemned the Western Churches growing insistence on clerical celibacy.

Some have suggested the difference between the East and the West:

West—One nature (essence) exists in three persons: Father, Son, Spirit East—Three persons: Father, Son and Spirit share one essence

West = One is three East = Three are one

5) He also objected to the clause on the grounds that the West had no right to insert it into the Creed in the first place because it belonged to both the east and the west.

6) He assembled a Council in Constantinople in 867 that excommunicated .

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B. The Strength of the Carolingian Renaissance and the Popes of Rome

1. ______Scotus Erigena (810-77): succeeded Alcuin as the leading scholar in France.

a. Irishman and one of the greatest thinkers of the Carolingian Renaissance.

b. Sided with Gottschalk in the two-fold predestination controversy.

2. ______of Lyons (779-840): This character is important because his writings give us the clearest picture of pop culture during the Carolingian Renaissance. In particular, they reveal how widespread paganism was in the nominal Christian West.

a. He was ordained as a priest ______,

b. Agobard is notorious for his vocal attacks on the local ______population.

c. In the 820s, a controversy emerged over the ______policies of Rome. This stance was opposed by Louis the Pious (Charlemagne’s son). Agobard opposed the growing stance in Rome.

3. The decline and disintegration of the Holy Roman Empire

a. Upon Charlemagne’s death, the Empire significantly ______.

b. ______(814-40), Charlemagne’s son and successor continued to govern according to his father’s ideals, but was a poor leader.

c. At the end of Pious’ reign, the Empire was ______among his ______sons.

d. Were it not for the Carolingian Renaissance, the church might have been ______.

e. The popes used this disintegration to reassert their own supreme ______.

f. Nevertheless, the disappearance of a powerful emperor meant the loss of their greatest ally. Without an effective emperor to protect them, they fell increasingly under the control of the Roman , and simply became political pawns in the conflicts of different aristocratic factions.

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C. Notables in the 9th Century

1. England: ______(847-899)

Religion and culture In the 880s, Alfred, undertook an equally ambitious effort to revive ______.

During this time period the ______raids (Danelaw above is the Viking territory) were often seen as a divine punishment.

Very little is known of the church under Alfred.

Alfred undertook no systematic reform of ecclesiastical institutions or religious practices.

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He was equally comfortable distributing his translation of Gregory the Great's (Pope Gregory

590-604)______to his bishops so that they might better train and supervise priests and using those same bishops as royal officials and judges.

2. ______: Missionary to Denmark, Sweden, and Germany (801-865)

Anskar was a Saxon ______, born in ______, in 80. Anskar led a group to Denmark, and a few years later to Sweden.

Anskar went into ______, where he served as first Archbishop of Hamburg.

Anskar laboured for ______with earnest devotion and with great success.

In addition he: 1. ______and the

2. ______of captives; and

3. persuaded the giving up the ______, which had been a source of great profit, but which Anskar taught them to regard as contrary to the Christian religion.

Anskar was made archbishop of Hamburg and Bremen, and is styled "The Apostle of the North.” He died in the year 865. It is told that when some of his friends were talking of miracles which he was supposed to have done, he said, "If I were worthy in my Lord's sight, I would ask of Him to grant me one miracle--that He would make me a good man."

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Key Points: 9th Century

1. 800--On Christmas day Charlemagne (Charles the Great, c. 742-814) is

crowned the first "" by Pope Leo at St. Peters in Rome.

Charlemagne noted for military conquests, strong central government,

ecclesiastic reform and educational patronage.

2. 831--Radbertus (c. 790-865) publishes first writing in the West on the

Eucharist. It provokes controversy and anticipates later doctrine

of transubstantiation.

3. John Scotus Erigena (c. 810-877), one of greatest theologians of early middle

ages, helps pave way for . Involved in eucharistic controversy with

Radbertus and maintains in the supper we partake of the Lord "mentally not

dentally.”

4. Anskar (801-865), "Apostle of the North," lays foundation for Christianity in

Scandinavia.

5. Significant missionary efforts make further inroads among heathen peoples of

Europe. Cyril (826-869) and Methodius (c. 815-885), the "Apostles of the ,"

work in Moravia and invent an alphabet for the Slavs.

6. Photius (c. 820-895), a renowned scholar and layman, made Patriarch of

Constantinople in 858. Later deposed and reinstated at least twice. Conflicts with

pope and Rome over spiritual jurisdiction and doctrine ("filioque controversy")

foreshadow deepening rift and eventual split between churches in East and West.

7. Alfred the Great is King of in England. Translated Christian writings into

the language of the common people. Set up a palace school and founded two

monasteries. Devoted half his time and money to religious purposes.

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10. THE TENTH CENTURY

Introduction: Growth of the Church in Numbers.

Era Estimated Christians World Population? First century 500,000 200,000,000 Second century 2,000,000 200,000,000 Third century 5,000,000 200,000,000 Fourth century 10,000,000 205,000,000 Fifth century 15,000,000 205,000,000 Sixth century 20,000,000 205,000,000 Seventh century 24,000,000 210,000,000 Eighth century 30,000,000 220,000,000 Ninth century 40,000,000 230,000,000 Tenth century 50,000,000 300,000,000

THE TENTH CENTURY

A. The Flourishing and Renewal of ______in East and West:

1. In the Byzantine Empire

a. Two great monastic centers

1) The “______” in Constantinople – housed ______monks, founded in the mid- fifth century.

2) Mount ______in Greece, often called “the ______.”

a) According to tradition the ______had once stopped here on a journey

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b. Two great monks

1) ______of Calabria (901-1005 AD)

a) Personal life: After his wife died, he became a ______.

b) Ministry accomplishments

— Founded several monastic communities — Became abbot of a monastery

— Won a vast reputation for ______

c) Relationship with the West

— In the 990s, ______invaders forcing Nilus and his 60 monks to flee.

— Invited to ______in the church when the Western ______weren’t using it.

2) ______the New Theologian (949-1022): The greatest of the Byzantine mystics.

a) Personal life

— While young joined the ______, but alarmed many of the other monks for his spiritual intensity

— Was transferred to ______Saint Mamas monastery where he was soon elected abbot in 980.

b) Spiritual life and ministry

— Produced a steady stream of ______, ______, and treatises on the ascetic life.

— When he led in worship his face shone like an ______.

— He often made ______about individuals, which apparently came true.

— Had a ministry of ______.

— Had the “______,” highly prized in Eastern .

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— Spoke freely and openly about his ______experience of God (which was unlike other Byzantine mystics).

— Fierce critic of nominal Christianity; thought that ______and church attendance were worthless unless they bore fruit in a changed life.

— Spent his life trying to turn people away from religion that was all ritual and ceremony to an inward spirituality of the heart.

— Insisted that a true knowledge of God could come through ______, in which the believer came to know God personally in feeling and experience.

c) Controversial figure – asked by patriarch Sergius II of Constantinople to leave the city in 1009 for the sake of the church’s peace. Founded another monastery, where he enjoyed peace.

2. In the West

a. The ______reforms

1) One monastery led the way in re-establishing Christian virtue in Western society – the monastery of Cluny in southeastern France.

a) Founded in ______by William the Pious, of .

b) Led by a series of great , most notably Abbot ______.

— Established daughter monasteries from Cluny.

— In ____, Pope John XI gave Cluny the right to ______the other monasteries he had founded.

— Cluniac appointed by Odo himself, took a vow of ______o the abbot of Cluny.

— By the year ______there were ______Cluniac monasteries.

2) The main thrust of the Cluniac reforms was to revive and purify existing monasteries, and establish new and better ones.

a) ______Cluniac liturgy was geared toward making worship awesomely beautiful and magnificent, to make worship as glorious an experience as possible.

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3) Cluniac independence

a) Enjoyed ______)_ from all secular and political control

b) In ______received from Pope Gregory V freedom from episcopal authority – He was answerable to the Pope alone.

c) Free to pursue his own ______without interference.

d) Despite the freedom from political control, there was a close alliance between the Cluniac Monks and the secular rulers .

B. The Expansion of the Church

1. Northern and Eastern Europe

a. The ______()

1) When they came to rout England conquered by the Christian king Alfred the Great. One of Alfred’s terms of peace was for the Danish king (and his court) to accept Christian baptism.

2) In ______itself in 972 the king of Denmark and his entire army accepted Christian baptism.

b. In ______, King Olaf made Christianity into Norway’s national faith.

c. ______became Christian under its own King Olaf, but the faith only prospered in the southwest; most people continued to practice paganism.

d. ______received the Christian faith through missionaries sent from Norway.

e. The ______(Hungary), an Asiatic people who migrated into and invaded central Europe at the beginning of the 10th century. ]

f. For the ______(Czechs) the Christian faith became a powerful force under King Wenceslas. (more in a moment)

g. The ______converted to Christianity through their king Miezko I.

h. The ______, embraced Western Christianity while the ______their neighbors embraced its Eastern form.

i. The ______began to embrace the Christian faith (its Eastern form) from the late ninth century.

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j. ______accepted baptism into the Easter faith through their tsar Boris in 865. Under (893-927), the greatest of the Bulgarian tsars, a great Slavonic Christian literature was born.

2. ______

a. Through ______with the Byzantine Empire, the Russians were exposed to the Christian faith.

b. By ______a church had been established in the city of Kiev.

c. ______acceptance of the Christian faith came under Prince Vladimir (980-1015). Russian tradition says that he invited representatives of the four great religions of the world – Judaism, Islam, and Eastern and Western Christianity and found himself persuaded by the East. So in 988, Vladimir embraced the Christian faith.

d. ______Orthodoxy is the largest branch of in the world.

C. The Continued Blurring of Church and State: Germany as a Test Case

1. ______and ______

a. What was ______?

2) From the Latin, feudum, meaning “______.”

3) Kings would divide their kingdoms among their leading ______.

4) Those who received land were called ______.

5) The lands which were held upon these conditions were called ______.

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b. ______grants to the ______

1) It was not uncommon for ______Christians to donate some of their fief to churches or monasteries.

2) When once land was received by the church, those who granted the land

looked upon church officers, including the popes, as their ______.

3) The lords who gave the land to the church saw it as their right to appoint who would occupy the local church and its land as priest or bishop.

4) The feudal system therefore swept away the ______by clergy and congregation.

5) This weakened the church’s ______.

2. Feudalism and Germany

a. ______the Great (936-973)

1) Made Germany into a great ______, uniting Saxony, Thuringia, Franconia, Lorraine, Swabia, and Bavaria against the invading Magyar peoples.

2) Revived the ideal of the ______from the Carolingian period.

3) Invaded ______to rescue the lands of the papacy from ______aggression.

4) Crowned ______in 962.

5) Made great use of ______in government, setting them in positions of power as secular lords (counts, , princes) in order to accomplish two things:

a) Bishops were ______and therefore could serve the king.

b) Bishops were ______, which meant that they would have no sons to inherit their lands.

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Key Points: 10th Century

Christianity continues to spread among the peoples of eastern Europe during this century.

1. To the east, Hungarians and Poles begin to convert to Christianity, and Christianity reaches Iceland and Greenland to the west. 2. Ecclesiastical leaders were increasingly becoming embroiled in the political struggles of the European continent. 3. Benedictine monastery established 909 at Cluny; becomes the center of a reform movement for the church to rid itself of the increasing secularization of its institutions and practices. 4. Bohemian people embrace Christianity, but their "Good King [Duke] Wenceslaus" is soon murdered c. 929 by opposing pagan rivals. 5. 988--Vladimir, sole ruler of Kievan Rus is baptized. There people were baptized at Pentecost. That same year Vladimir married Princess Anna, sister of Basil II, Emperor of Byzantium. 6. Otto the Great (emperor 936-973) revives Charlemagne's dream of a Holy Roman Empire among the German people. In some form Otto's empire continues until the time of Napoleon. 7. 993--Saints begin to be officially canonized by the Roman church. 8. Private confession develops from public confession in both Eastern and Western Churches. The Roman Church begins the concept of indulgences. (No sure evidence of this before the 11th century.) 9. Papacy reaches a low point in morality. 10. As the year 1000 approaches, many fear the end of the world and the .

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