San Fernando Valley State College
THE IMPRINT OF JAPANESE BUDDHISM ON THE CULTURAL , , LA NDSCAPE OF ·THE SAWTELLE A REA OF
WEST LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA
A the sis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements fo r the degree of Master of Arts in
Geography
by
Donald Keith Fellows
September, 1968 Committee Chairman
San Fernando Valley State College
September, 1968
11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
would like to make acknowledgement and to I
offer my thank s to
Dr. Stanley Ro ss
Dr. Karl Francis
Dr. Gordon Lewthwaite
Dr. Richard Preston
who offered encouragement, criticism, and
hope, at a fine institution, San Fernando Valley
State College.
Donald Keith Fellows
Septemb er, 1968
lll TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPROVA L PAGE ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIS T OF MAPS Vl
LIS T OF PHOTOGRAPHS vii
LIS T OF TABLES viii
LIS T OF SKE TCHES ix
ABST RACT 1
CHAP TER PAGE
I. INT RODUCTION 3
II. THE JAPANESE AND SAWTELLE 8
III. THE HE RJTAGE OF BUDDHISM 24
IV. MODIFICA TION OF JAPANESE BUDDHISM
IN THE AME RJCAN SETTING 39
Acculturation and Assimilation 40
The Buddhist Churc h in an American Setting 49
The Role of Women in the West Los
Angeles Buddhist Churc h 65
Modifications in Worship Services 65
Modification in Buddhist Symbolism 69
iv CHAPTER PAGE
V. INTERNAL ASPECTS OF THE JAPANESE
BUDDH IST COMMUNITY 73
Architectural Design 73
The Religious Garden 77
Other Internal Aspects 89
VI. EXTERNAL ASPECTS OF THE JAPANESE
BUDDHIST COMMUNITY 92·
VII. SUMMARY 102
VIII. CONCLUSIONS 107
BIBLIOGRAPHY 112
GLOSSARY 118
v LIST OF MAPS
MAP PAGE
1. Los Angeles and Vicinity 15
2. Land- Use Map of Sawtelle 19
3. Distribution of Jodo Shin Shu Churches ,
Los Angeles, 1940 52
4. Distribution of Jodo Shin Shu Churches ,
Los Angeles, 1968 54
5. Distribution of Japanese Buddhists and
Japanese Methodists in Sawtelle, 1968 61
6. Distribution of Churches in Sawtelle 63
7. Distribution of Japanese Buddhist Gardens
in Sawtelle 78
8. Distribution of Japanese Buddhist Gardens
Buddhist and Methodist Owned 80
9. Japanese Business District in Sawtelle 93
10. Distribution of Landscap e Nurseries
in Sawtelle 98
V1 ..
LIS T OF PHOTOGRAPHS
PHOTOGRAPH PAGE
l. Aerial Photograph of Sawtelle; northern
portion 9
2. Aerial Photograph of Sawtelle; southern
portion 11
3. The West Los Angeles Buddhist Church 56
4. The West Los Angeles Community
Methodist Church 56
5. Single Family Residence 75
6. Apartment House 75
7. Religious Garden 82
8. Religious Garden 82
9. Buddhist Dry Garden 85
10. Elaborate Religious Garden 85
11. Shin-style Religious Garden 87
12. Tea Garden 87
13. Garden of Priest's Residence 90
14. Zen Garden in Sawtelle 90
15. Japanese Import Store 96
16. Japanese Landscape Nursery 96
vii LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
l. School Level Completed by Persons 14
years old and older, by sex 45
2. Japanese in Sawtelle 59
viii LIST OF SI-<:E TCHE S
SKET CH PAGE
l. Shin- style of Buddhist Hill Garden 28
2. So- style of Buddhist Hill Garden 30
3. TYPical Buddhist Garden in Sawtelle 34
4. The Buddhist Wheel of Life 66
ix ABSTRACT
THE IMPRINT OF JAPANESE BUDDHISM ON THE CULTURAL
LANDSCAPE OF THE SAWTELLE AREA OF
WEST LOS ANGELES, CA LIFORNIA
by
Donald Keith Fellows
Master of Arts in Geography
September, 1968
Working wi thin the framework of the geography of religions, and using some of the techniques and concepts of urban geography, this study investigated the imprint of the Japanese fo rm of Buddhism upon th e land and culture of th e Sawtelle area of West Lo s Angeles,
Califo rnia.
The Sawtelle area is distinctively 11Japanese, 1' yet it lies within a typical American suburban setting. It was discovered that the original Japanese to settle the area were farmers who chose the site fo r its climate and its soil conditions, as well as fo r proximity to the Los Angeles market area. Their specialty wa s truck garden- ing and horticulture. Although they prospered in Sawtelle, th ey were fo rced to leave during World War II due to the relocation of Japane se in the Pacific Coastal regions. When they returned at the end of the war, th ey found the farming areas gone and many of them turned to
1 2
la ndscape ga 1·dening.
The majority of the Japane se in Sawtelle are Buddhists of the
Jodo Shin Sect, and they show their intense awarene ss fo r religion in their reverenc e fo r their religious gardens. This is du e, firstly, to , the legend which tells that the baby Buddha wa s born in Lumbini Ga r- den, India, and, secondly, to th e Buddhist attempt to recreate the cosmos, the universe, in a small space near the temple or the home.
Each element of the true Buddhist garden ha s impo rtant religious sym- ' bolism: th e Gua rdian Rock upon wh ich the universe symb olically rests, certain other rocks, stone lanterns, and shrub s.
Japanese Buddhism ha s been modified since its arrival in the United States, most impo rtantly th rough contact with th e Ameri- can 11way of life11 and the American form of Protestant Christianity.
Whereas in Japan religious worship wa s conducted mo stly in the home, the situation is reversed in this country. The Japanese temple has become the American Buddhist Church. The Buddhist prie st is now called the 1 1reverend, 11 and Sunday services are held, complete with organ, congregation, and hymns.
The interaction between Japane se Buddhism and the la nd and culture of Sawtelle has worked in both directions, and to th e benefit of each. Japanese Buddhism has made an important impression upon
Sawtelle 1 s cultural landscape. CHAPTER I
INT RODUCTION
Within the great me tropolitan region of Los Angeles, Califo r nia , the re is an intermingling of many diffe rent racial groups and cul tures. Incoming 11fo reigners, 11 however, often lose their unique iden- tity, becoming submerged in time by the overpowering dominance of
1 what has been called the 1American Way of Life. rrl So great is the de sire of mo st fq_ reigners to become acculturated to American ways and to be accepted as 11Ame ricans , 11 that they usually cast aside or tend to downg rade the old cult ure , language , or religion in orde r to embra ce the new. Throughout Lo s Angeles, as in most American cities and urbanized areas, the re are innumerable enclaves of foreign immig rants , along with their American-born de s cendents , yet mo st of the se minute 11culture regions11 are scarcely recognizable as such.
There are some, however, that manage--despite the pres sure s and temptations--to wi th stand the urge to change and are able
to retain certain clcn-.cnts of their andcnt cultural heritage. One :-;nch enclave is the Japanese community in the suburban area known local ly as Sawtelle. To the average visitor, Sawtelle may appear to be a typical American suburb. Yet , on closer observation, one notices a
Japanese shopping cente r , a few houses with the Japanese ethnic
3 4
11 11touch, the presence of a large numb er of Buddhist religio us garden s ':' in the front ya rds of the Japane se residences, as well as th e building and gardens of the West Los Angeles Buddhi st Church. These latter
elements ma rk the area as having a religiously-inspired cultural landscape. An inve stigator making a preliminary survey of the area would find himself confronted by a number of que stions:
1. Why did the Japanese choose thi s particular site fo r settlement wh en th ere were many other potential sites? Why did they return to this area after having been for cibly removed during World War II?
2. What are the features of the Buddhist religion that pro mote group solidarity and cause th e Buddhists to look at thela nd the way the y do ?
3. How has th eir form of Buddhi sm (Jodo Shin Shu) been modified in this new and Ame rican setting of Sawtelle ?
4. What are the internal aspects of Jodo Shin Shu Budd hi sm in Sawtelle: What are the vi sible signs of a Buddhi st imprint up on th e cultural landscape?
5. What are the external aspects ? What is the interaction of the Buddhi sts with non-B uddhists ?
Essentially, th ese questions can be reduced to one primary question: Have the Japanese Buddhists, acting with varying intensity on the land and culture of Sawtelle, combined to produce a cultural landscape that can be identified as a religious one ?
':'For the purposes of thi s study, the term 11Japanese11 will be used to denote all persons of Japanese ancestry. Diffe rentiation as to country of birth will be made by referring to the classifications th e Japane se th emselves have used: Iss ei, Ni sei, Sansei, Chisei, and
Kib ei. For the definitions of th ese terms, as well as othe rs which apply to the Japanese and to the Buddhist religion, see th e Glossa ry. 5
Fo r a discussion of some broad que stions as to the appropri
ateness of the study of the imp rint of a religion upon a cultural land
scape, the 1· eader is referred to th e works of such eminent proponents
of th e geography of religions as Sopher2 , Isaac3 , Zelinsky4 , Ficke
ler5 , and Broek6 , among others. These men generally ag ree that a
s·tudy of the influence of religion up on the development of the cultural
landscape has moved beyond the bounds of a restrictive consideration
of past history. They are more concerned with the clarification of
.the role of religion in today' s world, as it applies to the fields of
study embraced by cultural geography. Although some of them, nota-
bly Isaac 7, believe that modern secular culture (especially in th e
Western world) either obscures or hinders th e effective development
of a religiously-inspired cultural landscape, the cultural geographer with an understanding of a particular religion will be able to offer a partial separation of the specifically religious from the social, eco nomic , and ethnic matrix in which it is embedded8 .
Competent analysis of the Japanese Buddhist settlement in
Sawtelle is more difficult than, fo r example , a compa rable analysis of the impact of Islam in a North African city, or of Roman Catholicism in a Mexican pueblo. The reason fo r this is the time factor, the time needed to develop a unique and religious-oriented cultural landscape.
·while the Morn'lons, fo r example, have had more than a century in wh ich to produce a cultural landscape in Utah that is recognizably Mor- 6
rnon, 9 the Japane se occupance of Sawtelle ha s existed for only about forty years--and during this period there was a four-year interrupt ion because of th e "relocation1 1 of the Japanese during World War IL
The imprint of Japanese Buddhism in Sawtelle, th erefore, does not date from th e original settlement in the early 19201 s. It stems, rather, from the return of the Japanese in 1946. Today, unlike some other religio-cultural enclaves in Los Angeles that have tended to "fade in to the backg round" of the larger American culturel O , th e Sawtelle community is gene rally recognizable as being Buddhist as well as
Japanese.
The methodology of this inve stigation included prior know ledge of Buddhism, both the original Indian version and th e va rious forms as practised by the Japanese, as well as innumerable field trip s into the area. A numb er of interviews were conducted with the residents of Sawtelle, as well as with non-residents who have con siderable knowl edge of the region. In addition to library research , much info rmation was gainedfrom the Los Angeles City Planning Com mission, the Fair Employment Practices Commission, th e Los'·Ange les County Farm Bureau, and the Los Angeles County Farm and Home
Advisors. 7
FOOTNOTES
lseymour Lipset, The First New Na tion (New York: Ba sic Books, 1963), p. 165.
2 David E. Sopher, Geography of Religions (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1967) , p. 1.
3Erich Isaac, '' Religious Geography and the Geography of Religion, " University of Colorado Studies: Series in Earth Sciences No. 3, Man and the Earth (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 1965)' p. 1.
4Wilbur Zelinsky, "An Approach to the Religious Geography of the United States: Patterns of Church Membership in 1952, ''' Annals, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 51 , No. 2, (June,
1961), p. 139.
5pau1 Fickeler, "Fundamental Que stions in th e Geography of Religions," Reading s in Cultural Geography , P. Wagner and M. Mike sell, eds. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957), p. 94.
6 J. 0. M. Broek and J. Webb, A Geography of Mankind, (Boston: McGraw Hill, 1968), pp. 44-48.
7Erich Isaac, "The Act and the Covenant, 11 La ndscape , Vol.
11, No. 2, (Winter, 196 1-62), pp. 12-17.
8Ib id.
9 Donald W. Meinig , "The Mormon Culture Re gion: Strategies and Patterns in the Geography of th e American West, 1847-1 964, " Annal s, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 55, No. 2, (June , 1965), pp. 191-220.
10Norman Dlin, "Some Cultural Aspects of the Christian Lebanese in Metropolita n Los Angeles" (unpublished Ma ster's Thesis, The University of California at Los Angeles, June, 1961). CHAPTER II
THE JA PANESE AND SAWTELLE
An observe r of the Japanese community in Sawtell e today might well wonder why the fi rst arrivals cho se this area. These Issei were farmers, and nowhere in the area are th ere fa rms to be seen
(photog raph s 1, 2). In place of agricultural acreage, th ere are clust
ers of apartment houses, blocks of single-family residences, a school, a playground, rnunicipal office building s, an industrial-comme-rcial manufacturing district, and a retail shopping section. In addition, there are nearly a dozen churches. of various faiths and denominations.
But, be it noted: the Sawtelle area was not always thi s way.
The original Japanese to arrive in th e United States were hired to work as fa rm laborers in the truck gardening agricultural region near the San Francisco Bay. Excellent skills learned from th e necessity of eking out an existence in their overcrowd ed homeland served th em well in America. So well, in fact, that they soon began to seek their own farrnland. When thi s was obtained, they out-produ ced their white comp etitors. This was due partly to th eir knowledge of successful truck farming , but more importantly to their willingne ss to work long hours. Using members of th e immediate family as labor
ers, th e Japanese fa rmer wa s in a good position to comp ete with the
8 9
PHO TOGRAPH 1
AERIAL PHO TOGRAPH OF SAWTELLE, NOR THERN
PORTION
The view is looking we st. The Freeway at the bottom of the picture is the San Diego Freeway. Santa Monica Boulevard is at the extreme right. It is a heavily traveled thoroughfare , lined on both i sides with retail stores , banks , a movie theatre, state and city ad- i ministrative center s, cafe s, and gas stations. This norther portion • has a high de nsity of apartment houses. The We st Los Angele s :Municipal Office s (branch of Los Angeles ) are located in this section
· on Santa Monica Boulevard, three blocks we st of the Freeway. Re di • dential area is on the left , southern third of the photograph, and ; many landscape nurserie s can be observed, (Photograph courte sy of the California Division of Highways, Department of Public Works, Los Angeles, )
11
PHO TOGRAPH 2
AERIA L PHOTOGRAPH OF SAW TELLE, SOUTHER..l'"\f
PORTION
The view 1s looking west. The San Diego Freeway, which runs northw est- southeast at this point, is at the bottom of the photo graph. The th rough bouleva rd at th e left, southern portion of th e picture is Olympic Boulevard. It is a heavy indu strial, commercial, and manufacturing zone. The residential section of Sawtelle is on the right (north). The We st Lo s Angeles Buddhist Church , focal point fo r the Japanese Buddhists in Sawtelle, is situated th ree blocks west of the Freeway, two blocks north of Olympic Boulevard. The West Los Angeles Community Methodist Church (which is also exclu sively Japanese in membership) is one block further west and one block north. Many landscape nu rserie s can be observed. The commercial man�facturing zone can be seen at the upper left. (Photograph courtesy of the California Division of Highways , Department of Public Works, Los Angeles. ) ·. 13
n1.orc nun1.crous white fanners.
second clccacle of By the beginning o[ Lllc Lhis ccnluTy, iTTiia- tion at this 11unfa ir cornpctition11 brought outTag ed cries of Lhe 1 1Yellow
Peril11 from th e white s. The exclusion of Japanese, who had now be- gun to bring 11picture bride s11 from Japan in order to ra ise families, wa s demanded in the hall s of the United States Congressl , and new restTictions were imposed on th e movement and the operations of resident Japane se. Many of th em moved away from the Bay Region and migrated to the Central Valley, to Sacra:rpento and Fresno, and to points along the coast further south.
In all of Southern California there were only 58 Japane se in
1880, but after 1900 the number steadily increased because of agita tion against them in the north. By 1910 there were 1 3, 068. The num ber grew to 44, 45 4 by 19402. In 19 60 , the Japanese population in Lo s
3 Angeles County alone wa s 77, 314 . In the beginning the tendency was fo r them to congregate in Lo s Angeles County, and the center of th eir commercial and social life wa s in the downtown Los Angeles section known as 11Little Tokyo. 11 In time, except for the mercha nt s and pro fessional elsewhere em m.en, the majority of the Japane se looked fo r
truck ployrn ent opportunity. As farmers produc ing melons , vege table s, a:� - ·Jit, th ey looked for land that would be mild and relative ly moist and would not require heavy irrigation such as would be need ed in the dry inland valleys. 4 They eventually selected th e western 14
portion of the Lo s Angeles lowland (map 1), twelve miles from down
town Los Angeles, and only a few miles from th e Pacific Ocean. The
land was both vacant and cheap, and the soils were excellent fo r the
preferred type of fa rming: horticulture and truck fa rming. 5
The site proved to be a good one fo r th e Japanese. Not only
were th e physical conditions nea rly ideal , but the nearby metropolitan
Los Angeles market area made them fairly prosperou s. It was not
long befo re the y began to hire Mexicans to labor on the fa rms, and by
the 19301 s there was the beginning of a colonia in Sawtelle.
Construction of the Veterans 1 Administration Hospital in
Sawtelle bro ught about encroachment from the north by residential
tr�cts, and new subdivisions began to move in from the east. By 1941 ,
the greater area surrounding Sawtelle (known as West Lo s Angeles)
was primarily res idential in character. Many of the Japanese fa rm
ers were forced to commute or to move further south to fa rming areas
around the cities of Gardena , Torrance, El Segundo , Dominguez, and
Long Beach. Some of them, however, joined the sma:i.l force of pro
fessional home gardeners and nur serymen who catered to the wealth
ier residential areas to the east and north such as Beverly Hills, Bel
Air, and We stwood.
The Japanese had begun to develop an ethno-religious en
clave in Sawtelle, a development signalized by the establishment in
19 26 of a branch of the Nishi Hongwanji Buddhist Church of Lo s Ange- 15
MAP 1
LOS ANGELE S AND VI CINITY
I The reasons for th e choice by the Japanese of th e Sawtelle area can be partially di scovered by noting the location of the area in its strategic locati on at the western portion of the Los Angeles low land. Here it is situated near th e Pacific Ocean wh ere th e climate is milder and more moist than the inland valleys (such as the San Fer nando Valley and other valleys further east). It is closer to th e Los Angeles marke t area than other agricultural areas surther south , towards Santa Ana. It is also to be noted that Sawtelle is convenient to the wealth!i;er neighborhood to the east and north (Beverly Hills, Bel Air, and Westwood Village. ) This is one reason for the heavy preponder ance of profes sional gardener s and landscape nurseries in Sawtelle. LOS ANGELES AND
VICINITY • San Fernando Hills
eNorthridge
Son Fernando Valley
Van Nuys • Pasadena •
Bel Air LOS ewestwood Vi II age ANGELES eSAWTELLE ePalms Culver City . ..· < BALDWIN · --' .. HILLS -0 SAWTELLE elnglewood the and - (1 LOS ANGE LES Gardena DOMINGU ARE A 0 • Z (1 HILLS Torrance
• • 1968 •Domtnguez
SCALE 0 5 10 ...... I miles 17
les. Meeting s were held in a frame residential dwelling , with ab out
fifty families as members. Some of th e Japanese, however, left the
Buddhist religion in 193 6 and formed th e West Lo s Angeles Commun-
ity Methodist Church with missionary aid from the Westwood Metho-
dist Church. This division, plus the advent of World War II, brought
a temporary halt to the development of the Japanese Buddhist culture
in Sawtelle.
The Japanese, aliens and citizens alike, were fo rcibly evacua-
>:< ted from Califo rnia during 1942 , and wh en th ey returned to th e area
in 1946 they fo und the farms gone, replaced by new housing subdivis-
ions. Even their gardening job s and nurseries were taken over by th e
Mexicans that had been left behind. Still, the majority of th em did
not move on. They stayed, bought home s, re-purchased th e nurser-
ies they had previously sold to the Mexicans , and resumed competit-
ion fo r the gardening jobs. By 1950 th e centripetal fo rce created by
the presence of the Buddhist Church and the need fo r more gardeners brought an increased Japanese population in Sawtelle. Each time a house is put up for sale by a Caucasian, it is immediately "snapped up '' by Japanese de sirous of living in the area.
It would appear that these Japanese are not concerned over th e lo ss of the farmlands. They have come to Sawtelle partly becaus e
>: such a n1.overnent is a general trend of th e time s, the shift from rural r a to urban a e s , and pa1·tly because of th eir gardening interests. The que stion wa s put to a group of men at a meeting of th e West Los A ng e les Buddhist Men1 s Club. The consensus was that 11this wa s the best place to live11 in Lo s Angeles. Some had lived in Sawtelle prior to ·wo rld War II and they returned because it was 11home 11 to th em; othe rs, primarily because of their vocation as gardeners, came because of the potential. Some, especially th e Nisei, chose Sawtelle because they felt 11safe11 th ere, and still others because it wa s clo se to th e Bu- ddhist Church. Sawtelle today is a nearly self-contained community (map 2), as a land-use map discloses, but it is not a 1 1ghetto11 as the term is commonly used. Despite the general opinion prevailing in Lo s Ange les, it is not 11mo stly Japane se. 11 Indeed, the Japanese account for less that thirty percent of the total population. While this percentag e is considerably higher�than the ratio of Japanese to other races in th e state as a whole--where it forms about one percent--it scarcely suf 6 fices to make Sawtelle a 1 1ghetto11 area. The population of the·studied 2) is cstin1.atecl about 10,000, area ( as clclirnitecl on rnap to be of which the Japane se account fo r about l, 950, or ab out 20 perc ent. It is al so estimated that the Mexican- A mericans amount to ab out 25 perc ent of the total. The balance of th e population is Caucasian, fairly evenly divided among vario us races and religio ns. It wa s noted that no Ne- MAP 2 LAND- USE MAP OF SA WTZLLE It is evident from this rnap that Sawtelle cannot be considered a 11bedroom11 suburb. It is not merely a place of homes, but a nearly self- contained community. Here there are police and fire stations, lTiunicipal offices, retail shopping sections, churches, elementary school, playground and park, and an industrial-manufacturing zone. 21 gn)es were seen in the area, either as workers or residents, and it is presmned that th e exclusion follows the pattern of other similar, ':� l· elatively middle-class neighborhoods in suburban Los Angeles . There is , howevel·, a friendly, co-operative relationship between the Japanese and the Mexicans in Sawtelle. It was also discovered that the Japanese have now taken the larger share of th e nursery and pro- fessional gardening businesses, and, as more Japanese move into the area, it is expected that the Mexicans will be "squeezed out'' more and more. A survey of Sawtelle discloses the marks of both "Japanese" and "Buddhist" patterns to the initiated. The exclusively Japanese- owned and operated shopping area along Sawtelle Boulevard displays typical American "shopping cente r" retail business and service activ- ities: optometrist, druggist, markets , and so fo rth, as well as mo re exotic typ es such as irnport stores , art and flower arrangement schools, and "Oriental" cafes with appropriate Japanese markings and ':� The population count of 10, 000 was arrived at by multiplying the numb er of dwelling units in the study area by a family factor of 4. 3 persons per dwelling. As there are ab out 2, 185 dwelling units , the estimated total population would be about 9, 340. The figure fo r the Japanese was found by totalling the number of families on th e member ship rolls of th e major Japanese churches in the area, plus an addit ional "uncommitted" factor of 100 families. No authentic population statistics could be obtained because the Census Tracts and Social Pro files fo r West Los Angeles encompass too large a territory. The ra tio of percentages for th e three largest racial groups (Anglos, Mexi cans, and Japanes e) was taken from info rmation supplied by th e Los Angeles City Schools Public Info rmation Service, and by th e Japanese American Chamber of Commerce in Los Ang eles. 22 sym.bolisn'ls, The houses, with a few notable exceptions, display little in th e way of ethnic or religious overtone s. The people dress as th e "average11 Ame rican dresses, complete to teen-age girl s wear- ing "mini skirts"--there are no kir�1.� in evidence. The most distinctive evidence of the Japanese Buddhist irn- print upon th e cultural landscape of Sawtelle will be found firstly in the West Lo s Angeles Buddhist Church on Corinth Avenue, and second- ly in the great numb er of Buddhist gardens displayed in the front ya rd landscaping of th e homes. These two factors will be covered in grea- ter detail in later chapters. Sawtelle is unique in it s outwa rd mani- festation of it s religious feelings. It is unique in that th e evidence of a Japanese Buddhist imprint is easily recognizable. Evidence of a Chri stian influence, on the othe r hand , is difficult to recogniz e ex- cept during special religiously-o riented fe stivals such as Easter or Christma s. 23 FOOTNOTES 1 California State Board of Control, Califo rnia and th e Ori ental (Sacramento: Califo rnia State Board of Control, 19 22) , p. ll. 2 carey McWilliams, South ern California Country (New York: 3 Duell , Sloane & Pearce, 1946), p. 21. 3 Fair Employment Practices Divi sion, Californians of JaE.:_ anese, Chinese, and Filipino Ancestry (Sacramento and San Fran cisco: Califo rnia Department of Industrial Relations, 1965), p. 22. 4opinion of A. E. Grimley, Director of th e Los Angeles County Farm Bureau, April ll, 19 68. 5 Clifford M. Zierer, California and the Southwest (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1956), pp. 25-54. 6 Fair Employment Practices Division., op. cit. , p. 11 CHAPTER III THE HERITAGE OF BUDDHISM Probably the single mo st important concept within th e Bud- dhist religion is that of the "Middle Way. 11 From this simple idea Gautama th e Buddha developed a series of steps, both mystical and practical, that one must follow in order to attain Ni rvana, or ''union with God. " If th e average Japanese one meets in his daily routine seems an even-tempered person not given to either extremes of joy or anger, it is partly because of the principle of th e Middle Way. The Buddha believed that life involved too much suffering and that the only way to avoi d needless suffering was to avo id extremes, to follow the _,_ Middle Path or Way, and to understand the Four Noble Truth s:·· Gautama Buddha believed that man should attempt to reach an understanding of his purpose in life. This meant a continual striv- ::'The Four Noble Truths: l. All existence involves suffering (emotional o·r physi cal); :�. 1\Jl �;nUcring js can�c 24 25 1ng to reach a 11onenes s with God, 1 1 at which time man would attain a spiritual state wh erein suffering would cease. To accomplish th is task, Buddha set fort..� a series of rules which he called the Noble Eightfold Path , so that a man could purposefully pursue his goal. Al though all of th e eight steps are important, two of them are especi ally appropriate for consideration at this time: right thought and right contemplation. Whether one is looking at the quiet beauty of the Buddhist re ligious garden, th e delicate tracery of an authentic floral arrang e ment (called ikebana), or Buddhist art, it become s obvious that more than beauty is being presented, To the Buddhist, th ese items allow him the opportunity for 11right th ought11and 11right contemplation, 1 1 Each is a tool to be used as an aid in following th e Middle Way, a step along th e Noble Eightfold Path. Because everyone has problems and conflicts and tensions almo st every day of his life, th e religious ly..:inspired garden or othe r art form is there to 11soft en the blows, 11 to provide the sufferer the chance to renew hirnself. The Japanese fo rms of Buddhism added new dimensions to Indian Buddhism. With the admixture gained from th e religions of China as Buddhism passed th rough on its way to Japan, Japanese Bu ddhism became lighter, freer, less somber, and, in actuality, easi er for the average man to understand, The largest of the Japane se Buddhist sects, the Jodo Shin Shu, added anoth er Buddha from the 26 ancient By calling upon Amida. Buddha, through past, _Amida. Buddha. the ritual of repeating the Nem.butsu, one could gain additional "mer it11 and thus move a little closer to the attainment of Ni rvana and peace of mind. And always there was the hope that one could reach "oneness" with the universe. All l· eligions have some concept of "God, 11 but the Buddhi st thinks of God as the "cosmos, 11 the entire unive rse, not as a "person- al, anthropomorphic Being. 11 Consequently, the Japane se Buddhist attempts to have this cosmos, this universe, close to him so that he can truly feel that he is a part o£ it. A painting of flowers, trees, or a landscape recreates a small portion of nature, and thus the ob ser ver can participate in nature by contemplating the art form. The same applies to sculpture, to flower arrang ements, to religious gar- dens, and even to architecture. An Anglo-American might look at a painting or a towering building and think only of the outer aspects of beauty and design, as well as utilitarian and materialistic elements. The Japanese, on the other hand, thinks of the inner essence, the soul, or inner being , of the art form or structure. 1 The Japanese in Sawtelle have not had the time to develop any great monument s to th eir religion comparable to those in Na ra or Kyoto, Japan, but the imprint of th e religion is mo st easily di scerni ble in the Buddhist garden. The Buddhist garden is a complex work o£ art, yet its beauty, as mentioned above, is derived from it s inner 27 meaning , its symbolism, its seeming simplicity. The garden is a universe in rniniature: natu1·e comp1·es scd and idealized into a sy-m- bolic fo rm that is nearer perfection than nature in it s original, un touched state. 2 The garden is for contemplation, primarily. It is for communion with nature and one 1 s own soul. Most of th e Buddhi st gardens in existence today stem from the original de signs created by the master landscape gardener, Soami, during th e 16th century. His gardens (sketches 1 and 2) were des igred for Buddhist temples in Japan and expressed ,the 11one infallible and inexorable rule that everything must be to scale, and that one part must never violate the laws of classic proportion by overweighing any othe r part. 11 3 Whereas pre-Buddhist gardens reflected th e native pantheistic religio n of the Japanese people with large ponds, bridges connecting islands, and perhap s a large stone repres enting the abode of the gods, Soami strove for simplicity. While th e Japane se gar- dens in Na ra or Kyoto are more elaborate than tho se in Sawtelle, th e true Buddhi st garden, whether large or small , always contains mo st of the same, basic features. There is always the one large stone that stands out ab ove all the others: th e Guardian Stone. To the pre-Buddhist it wa s Mount Sumeru, home of the Immortals. To the Buddhist, it is the symbolic representation of the Universe It s elf. There are other stone s, given fanciful names by Buddhist priests long ago, which symbolize certain 28 SKETCH 1 SHIN-STYLE OF BUDDHIST HILL GA RDEN This sketch was adapted from a drawing taken from a book 1 by Julia S. Berral, The Garden (New York: Viking Press, 1966), I Chap. XIII, pp. 360-362. The original drawing wa s made by the great Japanese temple I landscapist, Soami, in the 16th century, and was reproduced during the 19th century in Japan by Jiro Hirada. : It is a design for a religious garden for one of the Buddhist , temples and contains almost all of the element s that should be used I in an authentic Buddhist garden. I LEGEND: I: 1 Guardian Stone 2 Stone Lanterns 3 Waterfall 4 Main Hill 5 Companion Hill 6 Bridge 7 Waiting Stone 8 Tree of Upright Spirit 9 Idling Stone 10 Seat of Honor Stone 11 Koru Matsu (Japanese black pine, pinus thunbergii) llwo- 1 v ·sHIN-STYLE BUDDH.IST HILL GARDEN 30 SKETCH 2 SO-STYLE OF BUDDHIST HILL GA RDEN The source for this sketch is the same as for Sketch 1, and is an adaptation of an original drawing by the great Japanese temple landscapist, Soami. This is another, less elaborate version of a Buddhist temple garden. LEGEND: 1 Guardian Stone 2 Waiting Stone 3 Hill Stone 4 Worshipping Stone 5 Stone Lantern .· 6 Fence behind garden 7 Protecting Screen 8 Main Hill 9 Pathway 10 Bridge 11 Koru Matsu (Japanese black pine , pinus th un.,.Pergii) �···· SO-STYLE BUDDHIST HILL GARDEN .. 32 attributes that one should attempt to attain. 4 Special groupings of rocks become a realistic duplication of nature 1 s beauty. There is usually present a stone lantern (toro), wh ich was used in the temple gardens to supply light for nighttime strolls. These are rare in Sawtelle in front-ya rd gardens due to losses by th eft. The ones remaining are usually cemented to the ground. Some gardens also have a small stone pagoda, which is a symbolic repres entation of the stupa s --the marke rs de s ignating the burial place of a Buddha-- in India. 5 Most prevalent of th e trees found in th e Buddhist garden is the Japane se black pine (pinus thunbergii; called matsu by th e Japanese, bonsai by rnany Americans ) which syrnbolizes long life. When two are placed together, they signify a husband and wife growing old to- 6 gether. Shrub s are often pruned in special ways in this continuing 5 attempt to relate the dwelling to its natural �urroundings. Some of th e tree-shrubs are pruned into ''ball- shaped'' mounds that are to symbolize rounded hills receding into th e dist&nce. The amount of space available for the garden determines how many of the symb olic elements will appear, and the better gardens will always have th e mo st important one s present : th e Guardian Stone, the black pines, the companio n rocks, and the stone lantern. It might ·, be noted, however, that the concept of th e religious garden comes from Japan wh ere the predecessors of the Ame rican Issei lived on s1nall house lots, whel·e space wa s at a premium and could not be used in frivolous mannel·. Because th e gal·den wa s a serious matter to then1., the Japanese built the house in such a way as to leave space fo r th e meditation garden. A small hill, usually di rt left over from the excavation for the house1 s foundation, wa s made on th e side o£ the house overlooked by the living room. Trees and shrubs grown on the slopes were placed in such a way as to conceal the small size of the hill. A narrow, winding path wa s usually placed in a sunny space, bounded by tiny pagodas and stone lanterns. The Japanese of Saw- telle have considerably more room , yet they too tend to compress th e religious ga rden into one corner of the front or back ya rd, leaving the balance of the ya rd in lawn. (sketch 3) A drive through almost any suburban community in America will disclose th e obvious fact that we stern- style American ga rdens are stylized, too, but in a more or less geometric de sign. The Ame rican garden will have straight line s, rectangles, and square s. A front yard has a lawn, with shrub s placed across th e front of th e dwelling. But th e Japanese Buddhist garden, displaying the features described ab ove, will stand out as something unique. The Buddhi st ga rden is all curve s and is seldon1. level, with the exception of the Zen Ga rden which is made to symbolize the sea or a lake , wi th carefully smoothed sand raked to simulate gentle waves 11lapping gently11 about the foot of a predominant large stone. The true Buddhist ga rden never has 34 SKE TCH 3 TYPICAL BUDDHIST GA RDEN IN SAWTELLE I I I Here one may observe the most common features to be I found in the average Buddhist garden in Sawtelle. Most of the gar dens are "dry, " that is, there are no stream s or waterfalls. Some, 1 however, are quite elaborate, comparing favorably (if on a smaller scale) to the gardens shown in Sketches 1 and 2. Almost all of them have a lawn separating the religious garden from the sidewalk. Some I of them have additional plants and shrubs that are not a part of the Buddhist symbolisJII,but are u·sed to fill in large bare areas. j 'I LEGEND: 1. Guardian Stone 2. Stone Lantern 3, Japanese black pine (pinus thunbergii) 4. 1.. Companion Stones 5, Pathway 6. Hill 7. Lawn 35 w-A• vAl-. TYPI CAL BU DDHIST GARDEN IN SAWTELLE -· ------36 bright flov:e rs, fo r colorful flowers would disturb , if not de stroy al- together, the i1np1·e s sion of a landscape seenfrom afar. 7 The concept of th e religious garden is carried into th e hymns sung by many Ame rican Buddhists during their worship services, especially th e one entitled 11In Lumbini1 s Garden. 11 This beautiful hymn was written to commemorate the ancient legend wh ich told of the birthday of th e baby Gautama. When th e child was born to his mother, Queen Maya, in the Lumbini Garden near th e palace of his father, th e raj ah, the Immortals came to wor ship him. A miraculous spring burst forth be side the child, carried to the spot by a bamboo flume, and the Immortals bowed in awe. Kneeling on a large, flat stone , th e gods bathed the baby Buddha in th e pure spring water. Every year in the spring , followers of the Jodo Shin Shu celebrate th e birthday of the Buddha with a Flower Festival (Hana Matsuri). During the worship seTvice, the celebrants approach a flower-bedecked shrine on the altar which contains a tiny statuette of th e Buddha. They bow and pour a small amount of tea over the figure of Buddha--an act symbolizing the baptism by th e gods. The membership then sing s this hymn: In Lumbini 1 s Garden Softly blew th e breezes On that summer morn, In Lumbini 1 s Garden, Where the Lo rd wa s born. 37 sprang :::;' ::.· on'"l :_h e earth flowers, Birds in warbles sang , vVhilc th rough earth and heaven Strains of 1n us ic l' ang. n1 cn Gods of and a nge ls, All :fo r wo r ship came , Glo ry to Lo rd Buddha, a . 8 Glo ry to I-I is N m e Thus, in a way, each individual gard en be longing to a Japan- ese Buddhist is a re-creation of th at legendary Lumbini Garden. 38 FOOTNO TES 1 clay Lancaster, Japane se Influence in America (New York: Ra wls, 196 3), pp. 2 64 ff. .. 2yuki Yamamoto, Approach to Japane se Culture (Tokyo : The Japan Times, for the Society fo r International Cultural Relations, l 9 6 1 ) ' p. 44. 3Harriett Osgood Taylor, Japanese Gardens (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1929), p. 22. 4Ib id. , pp. ll-12. 5rsamu Kashikie, The AB C of Ja ane se Gardening (Tokyo : 6 Japan Publications Trading Company, 19 4) , p. 9. 6 Taylo r, op. cit. , pp. 141-142. . 7 Frede rick de Garis, Japanese Landscape Gardens, (Tokyo : Japanese Government Railways , 1 926), p. 2; for additional inf()rma tion, see: Lorraine Kuck, The Art of Japanese Ga rdens (New York: John Day Company, 1940), p 28 1; Mircea Eliade, Th e Sacred and The 7 6 Profane (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Company, 195 ), pp. 25-2 , p. 28 1. 8 From Hana Matsuri Orde r of Service, West Los Angeles Buddhist Church. CHAPTER IV MODIFICA TION OF JAPANESE BUDDHISM IN THE AMERlCAN SETTING Buddhism was successful in Japan primarily because it offe red peacefulne ss and serenity to a troubled people bound to the earth. With the passage of time and because of its acceptance of other religions and faiths, Buddhism continued to chang e. The Bud dhi st believed that enlightenment and good works were all that really counted and any way that led to this goal was good. Thus, the Japan ese Buddhism that arrived in the United States in th e latter stages of the 19th century continued to change, just as Indian Buddhism had changed during its passage through China and Korea (lst through 6th centuries after th e beginning of the Christian era). The first Bud dhistte mple to be established in th e United States was founded by priests of the Jodo Shin Shu in 1898 and the first modification to be made wa s in th e name : the Buddhist Church of San Francisco. Oth er modifications followed rapidly. In Japan th e temple wa s used mainly fo r important religious holidays and fo r fe stival s, wedding s, and fune rals. The home wa s the place fo r individual wor ship. In the United State s this custom began to change. The temple b -:: ca.me a "church" as well as a social center, "a fo cal point th rough 39 40 wh ich tic s with th e homeland could be preserved, ... and served to effect group unification. " 1 As Japane se Buddhism moved out from San Francisco, the reformation continued, ob servable in the processes of acculturation and assimilation of the people, the wide- ranging changes in church organization and m.ethods of wo rship and ritual, the beliefs of the in- dividuals, and attitudes towards the old customs and traditions. Acculturation and Assimilation Although the Japanese res idents of Sawtelle were involved in this process of change, the change did not proceed fast enough for them to move into American society unnoticed or unhindered. From the days of the "anti-Japanese riots" in th e Bay area in th e early 1900's to th e sad day in 1924 when further Japanese immig ration was ':' forbidden, movement into new areas did not alter th e attitude s of distrust, fear, and of distress over the ill-disguised conde scension on the part of their Caucasian neighbors. Although they tried to overcome the se feeling s, they were never quite able to shake off th e stigma of ':'The Irnmigration Act of 1924, puaed into enactment by anti Japane se fo rces, was repealed in 1952 by the Imr.oigration and Natur alization Act, which, in turn, has been criticis·ed by many as inequi table and made the "quota system'' mo re rig id than before. 2 It did, however, aid the Japane se immigrant by eliminating the racial or color bar to naturalization, and no one is excluded from entry becaus e he is not eligible for naturalization. 3 Today, Japane se can own prop erty in the state of Califo rnia, and do not have to re sort to the subter fuge of having the property listed in their children's names. 41 being considered 11aliens. 1 1 They were better treated in th e Lo s Ange- les a1·ea than elsewhere on the Pacific Coast, but th e 1 1good thing s11 that seemed available to mo st Americans remained unavailable to them. The prejudice against their race, their appearance, their lack of facility with the English language, and th eir 1 1fo reign11 religion, were difficult ob stacles fo r them to overcome. The Issei worked diligently in their fields and endured th e in- toleranc e with a stolid impassiveness and di d little to protest. They were successful enough in time to purchase the property fo r the Los Angeles Flower Market (a 11clearing house11 for flowers from all over ·Los Angeles County) in downtown Los Angeles and to nourish th eir one great hope that their children, the Nisei, would be able to reach ,;, the goal of final acceptanc e as full-fledged Ame ricans. The Issei made many different attempts to bridge th e gap: some of them left their Buddhist sects to join a local Ch ristian church where membership offered distinct social advantages, and they saw to it that their children attended the Christian Sunday Schools. 4 The Buddhist churches sought to counter this trend, but it wa s a losing cause. As the Nisei grew older, th ey developed a derisive attitude towards th e traditions of th eir ancestral homeland and were embar- >:'Although there are many excellent works on the problems of th e Japane se in th e United State s, two of i�nportanc e are: Daisuke Kitagawa, Is sei and Nisei: The Internrn ent Years (New York: Seabury 1s Press, 1967 ); and, Allan R. Bosworth , America Concentration Camps (�ew York: W. W. Norton Company, 1967). 42 assed by the quaint garb, customs, and language of their parents. So great was the age dif:Ee rence between the Is sei (who , in the period be fore Wo1·ld War II, were in their fifties and sixties) and the Ni sei (who were still in their 'teens) that the communication or ''g eneration gap" was almost impossible to breach. The Nisei push ed ahead, stri ving fo r education, believing that the attainment of college and gradu ate degrees would bring acceptance in American society. The white community, however, was not ready to accept the Nisei. A master's degree or docto rate was no guarantee that th e Ni sei could find work befitting his accomplishment. Many of them were fo rced to return to the farms or the gardening businesses of their parents. Then, before disillusion had time to set in, a new crisis arose: the attack by the Japanese on Pearl Harbor. By 1941 the majority of the Japanese in California, and in Sawtelle , were A1nerican citizens. They were shocked by th e out break of the war with Japan, but their sympathies were with Ame rica. It was a double blow to them, when anti-Japanese-American forces ·in California, aided by years of propaganda put out by the Hearst 5 succeeded in convincing military authorities that it was dan Press, gerous fo r the Japanese-Americans to remain on th e West Coast. In 1942, the order was given for the forced evacuation of all Japane se- citizens and aliens alike--from the coast. There was no one to defend the Ni sei, to protect hi s constitu- 43 rights , and he went to inter:n.rrlent centers with his parents. t ional the lvi any of the Nisei were allowed to enroll in colleges to the east, and many enlisted in the _t umed Forces whe re they gained fame in all war zones, especially in Italy wh ere the famous 442nd Battalion gained the somber hono r of sustaining the highest casualty rate of any Ame rican fighting unit. World War U wa s a turning point fo r many Japanese in America. To the Iss ei, it meant the end of the faintest hopes that acceptance would ever be theirs, and to some of them it seemed as if the Nisei were somehow being traitorous to the ancestral homeland. To some of the Nisei, it meant leaving Buddhism fo r Christianity. Many of them were so de sperate to prove th eir loyalty to th e United States that they wanted to cut any tie which might create prejudice against them. At the end of the war, the Japanese were allowed to return to the West Coast and to California. Once again many of th em re turned to the Sawtelle area and resumed the life they had led before the war. Perhap s it was the new freedom 11to be themselves, 11 pos sibly the result of guilt feeling s on th e part of the whites who had once turned against them, but many of the Japanese returned to th e Buddhist religion they had left because of the war. They were able to do so without fear of censure on the part of th eir non-Buddhi st friends. It might also be said that the Nisei had finally become an "American" 44 . in th e n· uest sense of th e word He could decide fo r him s elf. The Reverend Kitagawa , an Episcopal priest and an Issei, put it this way: Being an American, as against being a Japanese, does not reside in th e fact that one can:-:<�-� speak th e Japanese language or that he cannot appreciate the J __ _ .::..nese arts. If th ere is anyth ing which characterizes the �1\ me rican, it is his freedom from every form of communalism- -tribal, ethnic , cultural , and religious. To be sure, he lives in groups and communities; he is not an individualist who denie s social solidarity of any kind, but he is a person to whom his and everybody else1 s individual personal ity is mo re important than every group. 6 Although rD any of the Nisei young men and women became active in Christian churches, a large numb er cho se Buddhism, but the Buddhismth ey wanted to return to was itself forced to change to receive them. They were no longer to be considered as ''uneducated peasants'' or ''mere'' farmers. They were an educated group, more highly educated than mo st of th e other racial groups in California, as a consideration of educational attainm.ent will attest (Table 1 ) . They took their education se.riously (as anyone who has had to comp ete against them in the academic field well knows) and it is po s sible that thi s de sire for educational achievement stems from th e Buddhist in- sistence upon learning as a worthwhile goal. Although mo st Orien- tal s of other religions hold similar views towards education, th eir views were stl·ongly influenc ed by centuries of Buddhist control of temples and institutions of higher learning prior to th e arrival of Christianity and other mode1·n religions. A noted Buddhist authority, .A.S. Geden, wrote that fo r cen- 45 Table 1 SCHOOL LEVEL COMPLETED BY PERSONS 14 YEA RS OLD AND OLDER, BY SEX White, Japanese, Chinese, Filipino, and other Non white persons. California, 1960. Percentage Distri bution. There were striking differences in the educational attain ment of the Japanese as compared to other racial groups in California in 1960. Both Japanese men and women were ahead of the white pop ulation in the level of education attained. Eighty percent of both Jap anese men an d women had completed one or mo re years of high school, compared with seventy-three percent of white men an d seven ty- six perc ent of white women. The same relation ship held at the college level. 7 1 TABLE SCHOOL LEVEL COMPLETED BY PERSONS 14 YEARS OLD AND OLDE R, -- BY SEX: Vlh i te, Ja.p an cse, Ch:inese, Fi li pino , and other Nonwhite Pcrson. s.8 Cal i fo rnia, 1960, (Percentage Distributi on) School Level Wh it e Japanese Chinese Filipi no Other No mvhitc Cornplet ed Male Male Femal Mal e --- Female Male Female Mal e Female I -, -;- I Fen1al e Total Population, I I 14 Years Old and 100, 0 100, 0 1 0 100. 0 100. 0 100, 0 100. 0 100, 0 100, 0 100. 0 Ol der oo. None 1. 6 1. 3 2. 6 2. 9 15, 8 18. 7 7. 8 2. 3 2. 0 5 1. Elementary Grade s 1-4 3. 4 2. 6 2. 1 2. 2 6, 9 5. 8 16. 8 7. 0 7. 6 5. 7 Grades 5-6 4. 0 . 3. 6 2. 5 3, 2 6. 6 5. 4 10. 5 6. 6 8. 6 7. 3 Grade 7 4, 5 3, 6 1. 8 1. 4 3. 3 2. 0 7. 8 5. 0 9 6. 6 G. Grade 8 13. 7 13. 3 10. 5 10. 4 8. 2 6. 8 10. 2 9. 7 13. 13. 0 o. High. School 9- 11 24. 3 24. 5 4 16. 0 13. 9 13. 2 18. 1 23. 2 28. 29. 0 Grades 17. 7 Grade 12 24. 4 31. 5 34. 3 43. 3 16. 1 24. 9 15. 4 21. 9 20. 6 23. 1 Coll ege 1 - 3 Years 13. 4 13. 0 16, 9 14. 9 15. 9 14. 3 9. 5 15. 1 9. 4 10. 1 4 or mor e Years 10. 7 6. 6 11. 9 5. 7 13. 3 8. 9 3. 9 9. 2 3. 5 3. 4 1960, 25 Source: U. S. Bureau of th e Census, Based on a percent sam.p1 e of th e popul ati on. >� 0' 47 turie s all education in Japan was in Buddhist hands. According to him, Buddhism introduce d"a rt',' medicine , molded th e folklore of the country, created its dramatic poetry, deeply influenc ed politic s and every sphere of social and intellectual activity. 9 A new generation arrived after th e end of World War II, the children of the Nisei, the Sansei. The Sansei have moved beyond the Ni sei in many ways and have become more fully assimilated into American society. Yet, it is interesting to note that th e Ni sei and th e Sansei share a common attitude toward th eir Japane se heritage. Unlike the descendents of other races, they tend to display an air of corn or ignorance about their ethnic past. s In answer to th e question 11Are you Japane se ? 11 they will usually reply, "I'm an American.. 11 In contrast, th e son of Irish-born parents will say, "I' m Irish. 11 The same holds true fo r many other nationalities such as the Italians, English , Dutch , etc. While few can speak the language of th eir ances tors with any degree of fluency, mo st wish they could. The Nisei and th e Sansei, howeve2·, seem bored with the subject, and reply, "I can't speak a word of Japane se. 11 This attitude, of course, does not apply to all children and g2·andchildren of the Is sei, and even some oi the mo st stubborn are now beginning to reconsider. Youth group s at the West Lo s Angeles Buddhist Church are engag ed in mo st of th e sarr�e activities as similar groups in Christian churches, but th ey seriously study the Buddhist religion and most of th em attend classes 48 at the nearby Japanese Institute of Sawtelle. T.l.1e Institute wa s fo und- ed by a Nisei 1n inister of the West Lo s Angeles Community Methodist Church with the aid of the Buddhist Church in order to teach Japanese culture and traditions, as well as the language. It is in the area of employment that one can best ob serve the rapidity of assimilation of the Sawtelle Japane se. Income within the inve stigated area is estimated to be much higher than for Japanese els ewhere in California. According to Bureau of Census figures, the median annual income for Japanese in th e state in 1959 wa s $ 4, 388.10 Two reputable sources within the Sawtelle area estimated that th e current median annual income of Japanese males in Sawtelle is about ':' $ 7, 200. Even allowing fo r increa ses due to inflation, there is strong evidence that the Japane se in Sawtelle rank higher than Japanese else- wh ere in the state. The reason for this higher income rate is probably related to the type of employment held by th e Japanese. Here there are a great number of skilled professional gardeners and nurserymen in addition to well-educated rrien in other profe ssions: teachers, lawyers, air- craft structural engineers, sale smcn, auto mechanic s, etc. A final note conce rning the assimilation of the Sansei wa s su- pplied by a Nisei father who spoke rather despairingly of his teen-age '' : Information furnished by th e Reverend Arthur Takemoto of the West Lo s Angeles Buddhist Church and Fred Miyata, car dealer. 49 san wh o wa re "his hair extrernely long , listened to loudly played rock and roll m.u sic all day, and affected the mannerisms of the hippies. " The Buddhist Chul·ch in an American Setting The Japanese community in Sawtelle is a typical Ame rican sub-community in many respects, yet the presence of the well- sup- ported and well-endowed West Lo s Angeles Buddhist Church offers ev- idence of "some thing alien11 or "mysterious. 11 Surprisingly, however, th is church , although founded by and for Japanese Buddhi sts, 1.s ap - parently mare Ame rican than it is Japane se, and it s mode of worship and type of organization has been strongly influenced by Protestant Christianity, American- style. The West Lo s Angeles Buddhist Church is a branch of the Jodo Shin Shu, th e largest Buddhist sect in the United State s, and the ·'·. ,. largest in Japan. World-wide Buddhism is divided into two main sections: Theravada, which claims to be the closest in concept and practice to th e ancient Buddhism as taught by Gautama Buddha, and is followed in India, Ceylon, and Southeast Asia_, and Mahayana, which is followed in China, Korea, and Japan. Mahayana claims to be the "greatel· vehicle" of learning becaus e it offers "salvation" to all ':'Jado Shin Shu rn eans , literally, "The Pure Land School of Buddhism as taught by Shinran Shonin. 11 Jodo is the "pure realm of consciousness, 11 a state of mind, of being , as evidenced by th e life of one of th e greate st of the Buddhas, Arnida Buddha. Shin refers to Shi1uan Sh.onin wh o reorganized the older ·Jodo school of Buddhism. Shu means 1 1 sect11 or "denomination. 1 1 50 who ·would fo lo Am.ida Buddha and ca1·nestly seek the truth in every l w Mahayana Buddhi sm, and consequently th e Jodo Shin Shu, day life. considers meditation and contemplation important, but not to the ex clusion of participation in society. Jodo Shin Shu is controlled by the 11mother church11 in Japan, the Hompa Hongwanji in Kyoto. Priests have little to do with th e in dividual 1 s manner of worship , but handle rituals concerning marri age and death and relationships with the ancestors. In America, how ever, th e Jodo Shin Shu follows the pattern of Protestant Christian denominations. The United States headquarters is in San Francisco in th e offices of the Buddhist Churches of America, but control and operation of the individual churches is in the hands of th e local con - gregations. The National Headquarters, under the guidance of a pre- sidin.g bish op (who is elected by the member churches), provide s guidance and teaching , and supplies ministers to churche s who need them. There is wide variation in operation and methods of wor ship in the local churches, fo r th ere is no direct influence from ab ove. They do, however, tend to celebrate the largest fe stival s such as Hana Matsuri, Obon, and New Year1 s at about the same time. The West Los Angeles Buddhist Church is typical of Califor- nia 1 s Buddhist churches in its history, membership , and operation. 1 It began as a 11b ranch 1 of the Nishi Hongwanji Buddhist Chur ch in 1926 with a member ship of from 40 to 50 families. By 1928, ministered 51 to by prie sts from Nishi Hongwanji, it had begun 1.· egular Sunday ser vices which included a well-attended Sunday School. It s growth wa s slow but steady until 1942, wh en the evacuation of th e Japane se bro ught a temporary interruption in it s existence. At the end of the war, the church wa s reactivated and membership increased sharply, as was the case for th e Jodo Shin Shu in general in Los Angeles County (rr�aps 3 and 4) wh en the number of churches increased from five in 1940 to elev.en in 1968. The pres ent church structure for the West Los Angeles Bu ddhist Church (photograph 3) wa s constructed in 19 50 for a member ship of 175 to 200 families. A second story wa s added for classrooms in 1955, and in 1965 an apartment building wa s built across the street from the church to serve as a residence for th e priest and a dorrnito ry io r student s from out of th e state, or from Japan. Pres ent day membership includes 317 families, of whom the great majority are Nisei and Sansei. There are a few Issei remaining , most of them acting as "pillars of the church, " but control and operation is in the hands of the Nisei. After a numb er of interviews in the Sawtelle area, this writer came to the view that the Japanese Buddhists have a greate r sense of �'religious solidarity" than do tho se of other faith s. A comparison, for example, of th e nJ. embership rosters of th e two largest Jap ane se ethnic ch urches, the West Los Angeles Buddhist Church and th e West 52 MA P 3 DISTRlBUTION OF JODO SHIN SHU CHURCHES LOS ANGELES, 1940 LOS ANGELES AND VICINITY et-Jorthridge San Fernando Va l ley Pasadena ·® ANGELES eSAWTELLE Los® Santa Monica Culver City ® • � BALD WIN HILLS elnglewood DISTRIBUTION � OF THE 0 JODO SHIN SHU Garden a o ··· ·.. · ·. N E DOMI G U Z . ,· I L - H L S Chu rche s or ·® >� .- . Torrance Te mples • Dominguez ® t�=:�;, 1940 SCALE 0 5 r...... miles MA P 4 DISTRIBUTION OF JODO SHIN SEU CHURCHES LOS ANGELES, 1968 LOS ANGELES AND VICINITY Hills eNorthridge Vo lley San Fernando Pasadena ·� eBeverly Hills ,g_ , e SAWTELLE LOS 'S @ANGELES Culver c· @ 1ty @ · ·. BALDWIN . . • HI LLS eJnglewood DIS TRI BUTION � OF THE JODO SHIN SHU Gardena 0 0 DOMINGUEZ (1'. HILLS Churches or •Towrrance , .Do. : minguez � Te mples .® 1968 SCALE 0 5 10 I !...M .. -miles PHOTOGRAPH 3 THE WEST LOS ANGELES BUDDHIST CHU RCH PHOTOGRAPH 4 THE WEST LOS ANGELES COMMUNITY ME THODIST CH U RCH I I 58 Lo s Co unity Methodist Church (photograph 4) disclo sed Angele s n:nn that seventy-four pe2·cent of the Japane se Buddhists have managed to find residence within two miles of their church (Table 2 ). Of the Japanese Methodists, however, it wa s found that only fifty-two per cent of the membership lived within two miles of th eir church. Both chuTches have a number of mer.n.bers who live at varying distances fl·om Sawtelle. In addition, although some of them have joined other churches in the new locations, loyalty causes th em to maintain their association with the Sawtell e churches. The clustering of the Japan ese near their churches is vividly seen in the map portraying their distribution (map 5 ). An interesting facet of th e membership roster of the West Los Angeles Buddhist Church is that not all of its members were or iginally mernb ers of th e Jodo Shin Shu. They may have belonged to such sects as Nichiren, Jodo, Rinzai Zen, or Soto Zen, but, as th e Jodo Shin Shu is the only Buddhist church nearby, this is th e church they attend. There are nine churches representing other denominations d are in Sawl <:lle, an , surprisingly , n1 ost of th ern of the conservative fundarnentalist faith s Four of th em cater to th e Japanese, or (rnap 6). particularly the Oriental Missionary Society Holiness Church and th e Sawtelle Southern Baptist Church. One is a decl ining Shinto temple, the Tenrikyo Church. The othe rs are primarily fo r whites. / 'J 59 TABLE 2 JAPANESE IN SAWTELLE It is evident that more of the Japanese Buddhists wish to live near their church. It is probable that the reason lies in the fact that Buddhism remains 11alien11 to most whites, consequently followers of Buddhism tend to congregate together out of feeling s of sec urity in numbers. Another reason might be th at mo st of th e Japanese who are Methodist are Nisei and Sansei and thus have le ss hesitancy in mov ing away from the ethnic community to associate intimately with non Japanese. Away from Sawtell e, th e Japanese who are Methodist do not hesitate to join a Methodist church which may be almo st exclu siv ely white. JAPANESE IN SAWTELLE 300 200 • 100 \ Q·�� 50 \ �,\\ en LI.J - � /�D ...J r\ -- - 25 �\, .. .,._,...x. ::!: \ / --•------• BUDDHISTS o------� M E T HODISTS TABLE 2. ol MA P 5 DISTRIB UTION OF JAPANESE BUDDHISTS AND JAPANESE METHODIS TS IN SAWTELLE 1968 ·63 MAP 6 DISTRIBUTION OF CHURCHES IN SAWTELLE West Los Angeles Buddhist Church @ West Los Angeles Community Methodist Church @ Tenrikyo Church (Shinto) Q) Faith Tabernacle ® Sawtelle Southern Baptist Church ® First Baptist Church of Sawtelle ..,. (D Oriental Missionary Society (j) Holiness Church VacaJ?.t Church Buildin� ® (2) First Methodist Church Christian Science Church @ Community Church @ Church of Christ @ il_ en LJ..J w __J I __J u LJ..J 1-- � C:::::C I sC/) ::> u e 65 The Ro le of Vi ornenin th e West Los Angeles Buddhi st Church \V ornen in Japan held a secondary role in Buddhism. The temple cont rolled ritual wo r ship , th e father in the home conducted the family religious services, and. ��:. c mot...'J.e r was kept in the back- gJ:cund. In the United State s, however, the woman' s role began to chang e. Sus sman, in his book on Community Structure and Analysis, suggested that the success of the urban church depended upon the amount of effort and energy expended by wornen. The greater the pro- po1·tion of women in the population, as well as in th e congregation, the • . . 11 greater would b e t h e re1. 1g 1ous. part 1c1patlon. This is an obvious fact: which can be den�onstrated by the ob servation of church fe stivals of any faith in Lo s Angeles, and wa s dramatically illustrated at th e May celeb ration of I-Iana Matsuri at the West Lo s Angeles Buddhist Chu1·ch. Not only did women participate in th e religious wo r ship ser- vices (by approaching the altar and symbolically baptising the baby Buddha ) but they were actively working in the fe stival booths in an area behind th e church. They also serve as Sunday School teachers, and one wornan plays a continuing role in the weekly Sunday services as o1·ganist. In addition, the church has an active Ladies 1 Guild, wh ich supports other church activitie s, and a Japane se-name organ- ization fo r women called the Fujin-kai. Modifications in Worship Services 66 As suggested above , th e entl·anc e of women into active church participation brought additional changes. During some of th e interviews conducted, this writel· gathe red the impres sion that had th e men retained complete control over th e ope,ration of the church and its activitie s there might have been fewer changes or modifica- tions. The church structure it s elf does not 11look11 Japanese or 11Bu- ddhist11 (cOinpare photograph s 3 and 4). It is typically American in design and structure. It is only the large Wheel of Life (sketch 4) in place of a Christian Cross on the northern side of the exterior that definitely marks the church as not being Chl·istian. During certain ..., c[S?6���LJJ � Sketch �. The Buddhist Wheel of Life. ,:, fe stivals banners displaying Buddhist symbols or Japanese language characters will be obs erved, During other tin�es it is the religious garden fronting Corinth Avenue wh ich stands out (to the informed as In side the church, there is a large kitchen and recreation -_,_,- The Buddhist Wheel of Life refers to th e con stant cycle of birth, death, and reb irth, as one seeks Nirvana. The prime differ ence between Hinduism and Buddhism is that the Buddhist believes he can attain Nirvana during this life. 67 hall, Sunday School classroon1s, and a large, airy, well-lighted sanctua1·y cornplete with rows of chair s, an organ, a pulpit, and an altar. On first examination, one can discover no res emblance to th e Buddhist ternples of Kyoto or Na ra. I-:: is strictly "Ame rican- style" and Protestant in its approach to religious wo :e ship. When the ser- vice begins the organ plays , and the congregation sings hy·mns (such as "Lord Buddha Knows the Truth' '). There are responsive reading s, a sermon touching on everyday life and its problems and the Buddhist approach to their solution, and an offering. A Roman Catholic would find th e gassho beads reassuring, as the Buddhists clasp the beads and murn'lur their Nembutsu. But it is in the altar that few changes or modifications can be seen. The altar of the Buddhist church is nearly identical wh ere ever one finds a branch of the Jodo Shin Shu. Spread across a wide "stage" and no rmally sheltered by closed curtains are the most re vel·ed syrnbols of Shin Buddhism: golden statuettes of Gautam a and Amida Buddha and th eir 11 saint" Shinran Shonin. When the curtains are opened, the altar is ablaze with light, reflected on gold-leaf scrollwo rk and calligraphy; red and black lacquered chairs and table s; the ligures of the cl·anc and turtle; and books containing th e sacl·ed wo2·ds inscribed in the sutras of ancient Buddhism, and the wo rks of Shonin. The Buddhist priest stands at the pulpit, and though he speaks 68 of th e Ncrnbutsu, the Lotus Sutra, and th e Middle Way, he preaches. leave s ul it with the members of his congre \Vh cn he the p p and nJ. ects gation, he is referred to as sensei (teacher) or, simply, as 11rever- 11 The larger Buddhist churche s have from two to six priests, encl. but th e West Los Angele s Buddhist Church has two. One is a Nisei, who speaks English and ministers primarily to th e Ni sei, Sansei, and Chisei; the othe r carne s from Japan and speaks only Japane se, and ministers to the older Is sei and th e new Issei who have recently im mig rated to the United States. Wh ile son"l e may find the Buddhist church to be sorne sort o:f a paradox- -reaching out to a new way of life and worship , while at the same time clinging to the old customs, traditions, and rituals--it is not actually any diffe rent in this respect than Lutheran, Catholic , or Jewish churche s. The Nisei minister suggested that before one could cornpletely do away with the old, sorn ething of great value must first replace it. In essenc e, th e Japanese Buddhism th at came to America some seventy years ago has chang ed to a new form which might properly be called American BudcU"lism. In the monthly magazine of th e Nz;.tional Churchc s of America, A 1n c ric Bud Org<1ni£;ai.:ion, th e Buddhist The a n dhist , each issue has some article commenting on the future and 1 2 growth of 11American1 1 Buddhism. It is probable that Ame1·ican Bu- ddhisrn will in tinJ.e g1·ow even clo ser to the fo rm of American Pro- tc ::;t;J.ntisrn. Mo dification in Buddhist Sym.bolism The importance of the religious ga1·den to Buddhists in Jap an was stressed in Chapter III. It is understandable that the Japan ese might wish for some place where the individual could escape from the overcrowded conditions and pursue his hope of becoming one with the cosmos. In such crowded quarters, the small garden, rich in synl.bolism, would refresh the weary man or woman. In a sense, the Buddhist garden is a man's own private temple, his own place of wor ship. It is important to the Buddhist that his garden be authentic , that it not be designed in a "hit-or-miss" fashion. It mu st have all the essential elements required to be a faithful , though perhap s smal lel· copy of the nearest temple garden. Transfe rence of the conc ept of the religious garden to the United States and to Sawtelle, however, wa s not accomplished without modification, despite th e sincere ef fo rts of the new immigrant. The Japanese, assuming he attempted to be faithful in his re creation of the Buddhist garden, might find difficulty composing his stones that had been used in Japan. The trees and shrub s he wa s ac customed to might not survive in an area witll. less precipitation and higher temperatu1·es. Cornp romises were made, and the gar den in Sawtelle is different fro�n the one in Japan. Probably the mo st strik- 70 ing difference is the presenc e of a lawn. There 1s no room for such h: ...-...;: \.u ics on the s1nall lots of Japan. With the pas sage of time and because of continued movement of people from one area to another, some of the authenticity has been lost. As the old Issei passed from th e scene , th e Nisei tried to car- Usually th ey worked from photographs or drawings from Jap 1· y on. an, but their art fo1·m wa s not th e same. Of the religious gardens found in Sawtelle, many are quite authentic , but some are pale copieE. When asked if th e people who owned the gardens realized th e symbol- isrn represented, a group of gardeners replied in near una1:imity that such would be doubtful. One man said that mo st of th em probably understood that th e1·e was some religious meaning, but he doubted whether th ey knew just what it was. Another replied that many of his customers did not care about the religious heritage or meaning and merely wanted sornething "Japanese11 near them. To th is type of person, the garden is ethnic--it is Japanese, not Buddhist. Another gardener replied that he designed many of th e gardens, but wa s gen erally given a 11free hand11 to do as he wished. He knew of the sym bolism involved and he tried to use as many of th e elements of th e ga1·den as he could. But th e de signs were his own. Another garden er, one who specialized in the growing of bonsai (dwa rfed trees and shrubs), said that he never designed a religious garden unle ss the customer wanted one. He thought most of th em had at least some un- 71 de1·standing of the religious significance. One m.ight wonder why th e gardens have persisted in this countl·y after such a long period of time. Because of th e de sire of the Japanese irnn:tigrants to be accepted as American and to be assim- ilated into American society, why have they hung on to th e religious garden which is ce1·tainly not typically American? It is likely that the following th ree reasons are involved: l. Most of the Buddhistpriest s are either Japane se-born, or completed their ministerial training at a Buddhist temple in Japan. Educated in the homeland where traditions are still strong , th ey tend to keep Buddhism 11pure11 by stres sing the an cient symbolism. 2. Many of the fine st gardeners in Sawtelle have been Kyoto- trained: th e authentic religious garden in th e front of the West Los Angeles Buddhist Church was de signed by Miyako, an Is sei who had been trained at a Buddhist monastery in Japan. 3. Some of the older Issei still active in the church and in the Sawtelle community try to keep alive the old traditions, particu- · larly with the Buddhist gardens. Thus, although modified by new conditions, the symbolism remains. Extraneous shrubs and trees may intrude upon the back- ground of the religious garden; beds of bright flowers may appear around the borders; and a broad lawn r.naybe pres ent, but the Bud� dl1ist garden is there: cornpact and rncaningful. 72 FOOTNOTES 1 R F. Spencer, 11Social Structure of a Contempora ry Japan ese American Buddhist Church, 11 Social Forces, Vol. 26, No. 3 (March, 1948), p. 28 1. 2John F. Kennedy, A Nation of Immigrants (New York: Har per & Row, 1964), p. 94. 3 M. R. Konvitz, Civil Rights in Immig ration (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1953), p. 7. 4spencer, loc. cit. 5 christopher Rand, Lo s Angeles: The Ultimate City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. · 118. 6Daisuke Kitagawa, Is sei and Nisei: The Internment Years (New York: Seabury Press, 1967), p. 28. 7 Fair Employ-ment Practices Division, Califo rnians of Jap anese, Chinese, and Filipino Ancestry (Sacramento and San Fran cisco: California Department of Industrial Relations, 1965), p. 11. 8 Ibid. , p. 25. 9 A. S.' Geden, 11Education (Buddhist) in Japan, 11 Encycloped ia of Religion and Ethics (New York: Scribner1 s Sons, 1955), V, 181-18 2. lOFair Employment Practices Division, op. cit. , p. 14. llMarvin B. Sussman (ed. ), Community Structure and Anal ysis (New York: Thomas Y. , Crowell , 1959), p. 265. 12 L. S. Sasaki, rrwhither American Buddhism? 11 The Am.er ican Buddhi st, Vol. ll, No. 4, (April, 1967), p. 1; see also, Yoshi fumi Ueda, 1 1Impressions of American Buddhism, 1 1 The American Bu ddhist, Vol. 12, No. 1, (January, 1968), pp. l-2. CHAPTER V INTE RNA L ASPECTS OF THE JAPANESE BUDDHIST COMMUNIT Y In Chapter I, th e que stion was asked: Have th e Japane se Bu ddhists, acting with varying intensity on the land and culture of Saw telle, comb ined to produce a cultural landscape that can be identified as a religious one ? In order to answer this question it was first nee- essary to understand why the Japanese chose this locale. Then th e heritage of their Buddhist religion was considered, so that th eir rea sons for creating a religio - cultural landscape could be known. Final ly, the modifications that have occurred during th e time that has pas sed since Buddhism came to this country were examined. Now the actual religious manifestations that exist in Sawtelle will be analyzed. Architectural De sign The ob server entering Sawtelle hoping to discover a large numb er of homes with th e traditional "temple-style" de sign would be disappointed. The area is typically American. There is no specific style represented, for the area is com.po sed of houses of varying ages. Some were built during the early 19201 and these horr1e s, wooden frame dwelling s with sagging roofline s, are now surrounded by the relatively newer California "rancho-style11 bungalows constructed in 73 74 the late 193 0's as farming activity was gradually being displacE:dby the pressure of population mover{l ent towa rd the west. With th e mu sh rooming freeway construction throughout the citi of Lo s Angeles du r- ing the 1940's and 1950's, many of the houses elsewh ere displaced by the road-building constl·uction found their way to Sawtelle. During the 1960's, a few new homes were built (photograph 5), and some of them show distinctive ethnic touches. The greatest change in th e area, however, has been the emphasis on apartment houses (photo graph 6) in the northeast portion of Sawtelle. When que stioned about the lack of definite ethnic or religi ously-inspired "touches" to their homes, the Japanese Buddhists who were interviewed agreed that the prirne reason was lack of money. One said: "When we came back to Sawtelle after the war, few of us had enough money to build our own home s or to do much in the way of remodeling. We took the houses as they were and added nothing. 11 Another said: "We took an emotional beating during the war. Although we were American citizens, we were often treated as if we were th e enemy. When we came home , we just wanted to fit into th e back ground. We didn't want to stand out as anything but just plain Ameri- cans. 11 One young Nisei engineer explained that many of th e Ni sei were afraid to put too much money into their home s fo r fear they _might lo se them, as they did during the war. The story might have 7 5 PHOTOGRAPH 5 Single-family residenc e of recent construction, with many Japanese and Buddhist religio-cultural features. The architectural' design might be called "Hawaiian Modern, 11 but even if true it would ignore th e antecedent Japane se Buddhist forms which have been modi fied in Hawaii. The house is fronted by an authentic religious gar den. PHOTOGRAPH 6 Apartment house complete.d in July, 196 8. It has distinct ive Japane se ethnic touches as well as some Buddhist symbolism (which is not apparent in this photograph}. It is possible that more of the new houses and multiple units will follow this lead and in time Sawtelle may have more in th e way of th e Japanese "flavor" in house and apartment design. 77 been diffe rent had the Japanese not been fo rced to leave th eir homes fo r the pe.r iod of fo ur years. It take s time to establish a truly religio cultural landscape. Perhaps if th ey are left alone they may yet find the time to develop one, The Religious Ga rden Des pite the paucity of religious manife stations in the Saw telle area, such as monument s and structures, the Buddhist garden is prevalent enough to be considered a definite manife station of th e imp rint of religion upon th e cultural landscape. The re are over one hundred of these gardens in Sawtelle (map 7) and 80 perc ent of them are owned by Buddhists. Comparison of the location of th e gardens with the membership rosters of both the West Lo s Angeles Buddhist Church and the West Lo s Angeles Community Methodist Church dis closed the fact that 26 of th e gardens were owned by Japanese Metho dists (map 8 }. The oddity of this fact wa s explained by one of th e Bu ddhist gardeners who admitted that he had free rein and made his gardens the way he wanted them. The Japane se Methodi st owners probably th ought the uniquene ss of the garden wa s strictly 11ethnic 11 not religious. The most elaborate and authentic of th e religious gardens 1s, appropriately enough, the garden of the Buddhist Church. In this garden (photograph s 7 and 8) are most of th e, impo rtant features of a true temple-style Buddhist garden. It wa s de signed by a landscape 78 MAP 7 DIS TRIBUTION OF JAPANESE BUDDHIST GA RDENS IN SAWTELLE All of the Buddhist gardens shown in the map have at least three of the major elements of an authentic religious garden. Almo st all of them ha;ve the larg e Guardian Stone and the "companion" stone s. The Japane se black pine {pinus thunbergii) is another con stant feature .. Some have stone lanterns , pagodas, and pathways. Most are "dry gardens'' with white rock or sand simulating water if such is desired. The great majority of the Buddhist gardens are concentrated near the West Lo s Angeles Buddhist Church which is located at the corner of Corinth Avenue and La Grange Street. SAWTELLE 80 MAP 8 DISTRIBUTION OF JAPANESE BUDDHIST GA RDENS IN SAWTELLE Of th e mo re than one hundred Buddhist gardens in Sawtelle, 80 perc ent are owned by Buddhists who are members of the West Lo s ·Angeles Buddhist Church. An interesting fact is the 20 percent that _ are owned by members of the West Lo s Angeles Community Metho ;dist Church which is exclu (:l ively Japanese in membership. It is probable that non-Buddhists wh o have religious gardens consider them :to be "Japanese" not "Buddhist" and do not, perhaps, have any under ;standing as to the religious symbolism represented. SCALE 1000 2000 _ _ _ _ ONE INCH . :l 00 FEET 82 PHOTOGRAPH 7 RELIGIOUS GA RDEN Northe rn portion of the religious garden of the West Lo s : Angeles Buddhist Church. Alth ough a trifle heavier in shrubbery than one might expect, th e placement of th e proper element s is cor rect. Here one can see th e winding pathway, the stone lantern, the Guardian Stone, the black pines, and a large stone which serve s as the 11companion11 stone. On top of this latter stone is a bronze statue of Jodo Shin Shu's revered 11saint11 Shinran Shonin, . I PHOTOGRA PH 8 RELIGIOUS GA RDEN Southern portion of the religious garden of the West Lo s Angeles Buddhist Church. This section features the 11tea garden11 · po rtion of th e garden. Here one can see the bamboo flume wh ich is symbolically to carry the water to th e bathing basin for th e ritual baptism of the baby Buddha. Because of the Buddhist Sunday School children's habit of playing in the water and the mud, th e basin ha s now been removed. The flume no longer carrie s real water. 84 gardener named Miyako who had studied religious gardening under Jodo Shin prie sts in Kyoto. Also included is a bronze statue of th e revered ''saint'' Shinran Shonin. Because mo st of the gardens in Japan do not have running wate r, the majo rity of th e Sawtelle gardens also eliminate actual streams. In th e manner of a dry garden (photograph 9), th e water is simulated by white sand; th e waterfall by white rocks; thus evoking the idea of water bubbling over a small cliff and winding its way through the garden, In some of the gardens tree ferns have been add ed, and the shrubs have been trimmed to represent hills receding in- to th e distance (photograph l 0). A close second to th e beautiful garden of the Buddhist church is the one belonging to Mr. Shohei Iwamoto , one of th e founders of the church. On the front of his apa.�:tment house is a traditional and authentic religious garden designed by. a gardener who, like the one who designed the church 1 s garden, had studied in Kyoto. Here (photo graph ll) one sees many of the ancient touches: th e living waterfall and flowing stream, a small bridge, stone lantern, th e Gua rdian Stone, and the proper accompaniment of trees and shrubs. On th e side of th e building is another garden, a Japanese "Tea Ga rden " (photograph 12). This garden is not as common as th e other type (which is adapted from th e �- style garden) , but the relig ious mean ing is mo re apparent. The Tea Garden is often used as a setting fo r 85 PH OTOGRAPH 9 BUDDHIST DRY GA RDEN This authentic Buddhist Garden is placed in th e front of a recently- constructed apartment house. The Guardian Stone is dom inant and stands to one side of a replica of a waterfall. Both the ;wate rfall and the 11stream11 are composed of white rock and gravel. PHOTOGRAPH 10 ELABORATE RE LIGIOUS GA RDEN• This elaborate Buddhist garden fronts a typical single-family ' dwelling in Sawtelle. The 11rounded11 shrubs symbolize hill s receding ;into th e distance. Also present are such features as: th e Gua rdian ;Stone, Japanese black pine s, and a stone lantern. .. 87 PHO TOGRAPH 11 SHIN-STYLE RE LIGIOUS GA RDEN This garden front s an apartment house belong ing to one of th e founders of the West Lo s Angeles Buddhist Church, Mr. Shohei Iwamoto. It is perhaps the mo st authentic of all the Sawtelle Bud dhist gardens, with the possible exception of the garden at the church. It wa s de signed by a skilled gardener who was trained at a Buddhist temple in Kyoto ; Japan. All of th e major symbolic features 1 1 are pres ent. One of the mo st interesting is the stone slab which serve s as a bridge across a stream. PHOTOGRAPH 12 TEA GA RDEN A Japanese 11tea garden11 at the side of Mr. Iwamoto 1 s apartment house. Although not as prevalent as the standard or tra ditional religious garden, it has more of a deep meaning to th e reverent Buddhist. The Tea Garden, with the flume, th e Guardian Stone, the bathing basin, and the kneeling stone, is symbolic of Lumbini Garden, India, wh ere tradition says Gautama the Buddha :was born. While th. e tl·aditional ; lcl.l'ger g 89 th e traditional Japane se ''tea ceremony1 1 and is emblematic of the birthplace of Gautama Buddha. Another garden, more elaborate than th e average, is the one fronting the priest's residence across the street from th e Buddhist ·Church (photograph 13), Three blocks north on the same street one can ob serve a Zen garden (photograph 14). · Other Internal Aspects It is possible in some religious enclaves to observe items of religious apparel being worn by th e residents, such as one might find along Fairfax Avenue in Lo s Angeles. In such an area of orth odox Jewry, one often sees the men with prayer shawl s and cap s. But in ; Sawtelle, wh ere a majority of the Japanese residents are Buddhi st, I :such is not th e case. The Japanese Buddhists dress as do th e othe r residents of th e area. Except for certain festival days, such as during Boy' s Day when a large paper fish (carp) is flown from a flag staff, there are no outwa rd SYJUbols of th e Buddhist religion. In side each home, however, belong ing to a Japane se Budd- hist, the re is a butsudan (Buddha-shelf}. It is befo re this but sudan that th e individual conducts his daily praye rs and meditation, and the family gathers to conduct a joint worship. But it is not visible from the street, 90 PHOTOGRAPH 13 GA RDEN OF PRlEST'S RESIDENCE, SAWTELLE Authentic religious garden is located at the front of the com bination priest's residence and students' dormitory, across the street from the West Lo s Angeles Buddhist Church. PHOTOGRAPH 14 ZEN GA RDEN IN SAWTELLE With the exception of th e succulent plant behind the large Guardian Stone, the presence of the wide expanse of white sand and gravel, with the strategic placement of additional rocks, symbolizes thebr oad universe. The sand in a well-kept Zen Garden is carefully raked to repres ent waves lapping about the stones, CHAPTER VI EXTERNA L ASPECTS OF THE JAPANESE BUDDHIST COMMUNITY Examination of the Sawtelle area di s closed no evidenc e of the culture established by th e original Japane se settle rs, othe r than the commercial landscape nur serie s that are found th roughout the I area. The passage of time, which include s the four-year period of t evacuation and relocation, and the encroachment of res idential sub- l i ,, divisions, has quite effectively erased any religious or ethnic cultur- i al features produced by the first Iss ei. Sawtelle has changed consid- erably since the 19 20 1 s, a fact wh ich is not unique. It is a unive rsal :process constantly at work in all communities, Sawtelle has changed : from a primary ag ricultural region to a residential one bounded by :comme rcial , industrial, manufacturing , and retail zones. Present day patterns of land-use reflect this change (refer to map 2, p. 20). There is pre sent, however, an aspect that is unique fo r th e average suburb: th e ethnic shopping center on Sawtelle Boulevard. This wa s not present prio r to the late 19401 s, at least not as a Japan- • ese retail area. Japanese people had owned shops th ere before World War II, but lost th em to Caucasians and to Mexican-Ame ricans during the wa r. When they returned in 1946 , th ey began again to make the area an ethnic one. Today (map 9) this compact shopping zone is loc- 92 9 3 MAP 9 JAPANESE BUSINESS DLSTRICT SAWTELLE 94 JAPANESE BUSINESS DISTRICT SAWTELLE LA GRANGE STREET Residence Gas Station Sporting Goods Dress Sho p Residence Credit Union Residence Plumbe r Rea ltor R e s i d e n c e Barber Shop u rse r y Medical Bldg. N Restaur ant 0 Flower A r r a n g i ng 0:: <( Schoo l Beauty Salon > R e a lto r w ..J Market Cafe ::> 0 Imports CD .Ii Glass C o mpany Dry Cleaner ·w ..J I ' Barber Shop · ..J lI w Art School .,_ 3"; ®! Nursery Gorden Supply <( (/) Imports Insurance Optometri st I Photographer · Optomet rist Den tist I · Men•s Cl othing r ts I m p o Drug Store MISS ISSIPPI STREET Not o c a T S le 95 ated in th e southeastern section of Sawtelle and is exclusively owned . and operated by Japanese. H ere, in what appears to be the typical neighborhood shopping center, there are the usual businesses and I services: drug store, market, plumber, optometrists, beauty and 1 I barber shop s, realty offic es, etc. For th e Japane se, however, th ere are specialized stores and cafes, such as the cafe featuring tempura 1 (shrimp cooked in batter), and a marke t which sells squid, octopus, 1 and shrimp. There is an art school fo r Japanese painting and a flow- • ' er-arranging (ikebana) school. These schoo).s, as well as the three I ; large import stores, appear to do the better part of their business with non-Japane se. One of th e import stores (photograph 13) has a !I ; small religious-style garden in a front planter. Although the owner admits to a certain amount of religious symbolism, the small garden . wa s put there to supply the "Japanese touch" to the store. I One of the most striking aspects of Sawtelle is the high den- ! iI sity of landscape nurseries (map 10). They were once spread th roughout the area studied, . but the encroachment of apartment houses I · I 1 has reduced the ir numbers, leaving them in a heavy cluster in the I southeast quadrant. This may be readily observed by consulting I aerial photograph s of Sawtelle (photograph s 1 and 2). Most of th e nur serie s are of a commercial nature (photograp 14), but there are a great number of "backyard nurseries" scattered theroughout the area. While the large commercial nurseries do a 96 PH OTOGRAPH 15 JAPA NESE IM PORT STORE One of the th ree Japane se import store s on Sawtelle Boule vard. The name of the store in both English and Japane se, th e "Jap anese" or "oriental " design and decoration along, the front of th e . store, and th e small religious garden in th e planter on the right, pro- : I r vide proof of owner ship. In the small planter to th e left are statuettes, i of Gautama Buddha. The cafe on the right is well-known to Caucas ! ians, prima rily because of the authentic Japanese food served (inclu- , ' ding the specialty: tempura , shrimp fried in batter. ) I PHOTOGRAPH 16 JAPANESE LANDS CAPE NURSERY This nursery is typical of the few very large commercial ·I nur series that cater to transient trade. Although the Japanese resi i dents of Sawtelle do patronize this nursery, it wa s ob served that the greater part of th e customers were Caucasians, at least during the spring and summer. This nursery also has fo r sale items fo r use in the traditional Japanese Buddhist religious garden: larg e rocks, stone lanterns , and the black pine, It is also noted th roughout th e west for lits large collection of bonsai (dwa rf trees and shrubs). I 'I I I 98 MAP 10 DIST RIBUTION OF LANDSCAPE NURSDRIES IN SAWTELLE ·! Prior to the beginning of the 1960's, the landscape nurser ies were spread over more of the Sawtelle area. Since that time, 1 encroachment on the area of multiple units, primarily in the north east quadrant, has forced the "clustering" of the nurseries into the southeastern portion, The area to the west of Barrington Avenue is almost exclusively residential. The only "nurseries" to be found in this section would be gardener's own "home-grown'' plants and ajlrubs which can be seen in rows alongside the home, ' I· -�- ·- · --- ·- . ------ 100 ;gI reat perc entage of their busine ss with Caucasians from nearby resi- : I ,dI ential areas, many of the smaller ones cater almo st exclusively to the Japanese gardeners who make up over 30 percent of the labor (or I •employed) force in Sawtelle. It is in this sense that Sawtelle serves as a kind of gardener 1 1pool11 for the surrounding Caucasian neighbor- hoods. One cannot miss the evidence of th e great number of garden- . ers. Their pick-up trucks, complete with power lawn mowers, seem I i to be parked in every othe r driveway in Sawtelle on a Sunday. Many i I iof the se gardeners are able to supplement their income by raising their own shrubs and plants in small cans. Many of the homes have j I rows of these potted plants lined along side the house. The Japanese of Sawtelle have a good relationship with their 1 iI 1 Caucasian neighbors, and not only in th e business sense. Whenever I lI the Buddhist Church holds a festival, Caucasians come out in large I numbers to participate. Similar to the long time tradition of Ameri - can churches, the Buddhists hold their festivals to accomplish three lI ! thmg. s. The first is to celebrate some worthy religious event with a I ,I solemn worship service, The other two objectives, to have a lot of I fun and to raise money, are done well. The Hana Matsuri festival, I ! held in April of each year, celebrates th e birth of Buddha. In con I !junction with this serious event, they used to hold a two day festival, Ir with food and game booths, and authentic Japanese entertainment such as judo , karate, Kabuki dancers, etc. But so popular did this 101 ; festival become that the members of the church were unable to attend.!I I I Thus, the church now holds -two Hana Matsuri festivals: one for the I ! 1 Buddhists, and one for th eir Caucasian friends. The festival held in ' 1968 was well attended on both weekends, andth e report given at the I meeting of the Buddhist Men's Club claimed a gross income for the lI estival of $ 13, 000. I � I I I iI Il lI. CHAPTER VTI I Il SUMMA RY I I I The objective of this thesis was to determine wh ether the I I Japanese Buddhists, acting with varying intensity on the land and cul l ture of the suburban Los Angeles community of Sawtelle, have been able to produce a cultural landscape that can be identified as a relig- ious one. The problem was admittedly a difficult one, due to the lack' of a long enough "time factor" for th e Japanese Buddhists to produce I any lasting monument to their religion, and because the enclave is not exclusively a Japanese area. Buddhism is not the only religion represented in Sawtelle, nor the only one catering exclusively to Jap- I , � I anese. Still, the Japanese Buddhists, amounting to about twenty per-� cent of the total population, have produced a religious imprint upon the cultural landscape of the area that is greater than their numbers j might warrant. The Japanese who settled Sawtelle in the early 1920's were I iI mostly farmers and gardeners, and th ey chose th is land because of I climatic conditions and soils wh�ch were ideal for their type of ag ri- I cultural efforts. Also important was the fact that the land wa s rela l ·- i tively inexpensive at that time and was near to the metropolitan Los I I l Angeles marke:� �fter :uild:�g their :g�icultural e�t--�prises to a - j 102 103 pro sperous level, they lost them all during World Wa r II wh en the Japanese were fo rced to leave the state. At the end of the war, they I returned to resume their former pursuits. Except for gardening , iI I powever, it wa s not th e same. The farmland was gone , replaced by res1d entla1 su bd"lV lS. lo. ns. Th e J apanese rema1n 1n awte 11 e rath er I! . . . . s I than search for new locations, because most of the men are profes- lsional gardeners--and Sawtelle is ideally located near the wealthy ;communities of Bel Air, Beverly Hills, and Westwood Village. Fur l 'ther_, many of the younger men have left all agricultural pursuits and have entered th e professions as engineers, teachers, architects, and I f lso forth. They tend to stay close together, rather than 11risk11 conflict! 'with non-Japanese (or even non-Buddhists ) elsewhere. The area can- ' 1not be considered a "ghetto " in the normal sense of th e word, despite 1 ! ;the tendency of outside Japanese to move into the area at every oppor- 1 ' • !1tumty. A minority today, the Japanese Buddhists may well be the i !majority in the near future. i i On examining the religious manifestations in Sawtelle and J I :noting the more than one hundred Japanese Buddhistgard ens, it is i 1obvious that Buddhism exerts quite a hold upon its adherents. The 'particular form of Buddhism followed in Sawtelle is the Jodo Shin Shu, ; i!and th is sect stresses the search for peace of mind and the attainment : :of the highest goal, union with Old, or Nirvana. Jodo Shin Shu holds a I special reverence for two of the Buddhas: Gautama, founder of Indian - ..-- - ..-- - �-----·--�·------104 Buddhism, and Arnida , "patron saint" of the Shin movement. Because ! ! 1 contemplation and meditation are considered worthy efforts, the ad- herents of Jodo Shin Shu have a high regard for anything that makes jI I such efforts successful. The Japanese Buddhists of Sawtelle have I empha sized the Buddhist garden-- emblematic of the birthplace of the Buddha, the Lurnbini Garden. Jodo Shin Shu Buddhism did not arrive unchanged during its journey from Japan. The first contacts with the Arne rican way of life and the Protestant forms of Christianity in San Francisco made immediate alterations in its concept. The meeting places were now "churches" rather than "temples. " The church wa s no longer re- stricted to ceremonial activities, but began to emulate the mode s of worship and methods of operation of the Christian churches nearby. I In the attempt to hold on to th eir members, Jodo Shin Shu became I ji almo st a Buddhist version of a Christian church. The father might l still conduct private worship services for his family in front of the I . household shrine, the butsudan , but the family began to ''go to 1 church " on Sundays and their children attended Sunday schools, just I· as did their Christian friends, The Japanese themselves began to l change with their association with American society. The oldsters , 1 the Issei, did not find acculturation easy and were not assimilated into the new society. But their children, the Nisei and the Sansei, I ' have made great progre ss towards full assimilation and now hold I l_ ____ --- -·--- 105 many jobs that were once denied them. As to que stions such as where to live, where to work, and which religion to follow, they now have freedom of choice in such matters. 1 From the end of World War the Jodo Shin Shu has experi- I II, I enced rapid growth. The number of churches in Los Angeles County has grown from five in 1940 to eleven in 1968. The members of the West Los Angeles Buddhist Church are extremely loyal and there is a tremendous desire to live near the church. More than 70 percent I live within two miles of the church. One of the reasons for this spurt ! in activity and membership is the increased role given to wo men who i I had previously been denied active participation. Another reason for I the increased enthusiasm of the young er Japanese or th e church is I probably due to its increasing resemblance to the faverage Protest- ant Christian Church--with classrooms, social hall, kitchen, pulpit j and sanctuary, organ and hymns, youth groups, and ladies and men's clubs. The priest is now called a "reverend. " While there are few home s that have any architectural feat ures which might be considered either ethnic or religious, the pres ! ! ence of the religious gardens offers evidence of the sense of deep ! : j religious feeling by the Japanese Buddhists, It may be true that many of the owners of these gardens do not understand the deep symbolism, 1 yet they know that they are "somehow" religious, and that they are "Buddhist'' in origin. This parallels, somewhat, the use of Christnas ' I _I 106 symbolism by many Christians who do not understand the true mean- I ing behind it. Basically, the true , authentic, traditional Buddhist garden will have certain elements present: a large, light-colored stone that j is called the Guardian Stone; the Japanese black pine; companion I rocks; and a mound of earth repres enting a mountain. There will often be trimmed shrubs pruned into "rounded, ball- shaped" forms to represent hills receding into the distance. The Buddhist garden not only represents Lumbini Ga rden, but is an attempt to re-create the universe in miniature. It is a place for a man or a woman to contemplate the mysteries of the cosmos and to try to discover a way to attain Nirvana. I --- . ------· --- - -·_) CHAPTER VIII CONCLUSIONS As to the future course of events in Sawtelle, there appear to be two possible directions from whi<:=h Buddhism will have to choose. It may be that the newer generation will drift away from th e religion of their parents, in much the same manner as the Nisei once did, Whether they return to Buddhism or remain attached to the Christian faith of their c oice is problematical. The Sansei and the isei may I � find that Buddhism is more secure for them, with fewer prthoblems than those involved in trying to fit in with a "white man's religion. 11 Or, with their almost complete "Americanization, '' they may feel no fear or distrust, a d thus move away from the "safety" of Sawtelle I � I , and th e security of an ethnic locale, to enjoy the challenge of meeting 1 I the Caucasian in "his own backyard. 1 1 Ij It is also possible that the children may find that the new freedom they are experiencing will allow them to be Buddhist if they so desire, without fear of censure or ridicule from their Caucasian I I friends, neighbors, or co-workers. If so, then Buddhism will re- ! ceive an influx of "young blood" that almost every religious organiza-1 i I tion hopes for today. The future of the Buddhistcom munity in Sawtelle depends on I ------· - ·- 107 1 08 1the Sansei and the Chisei, and on their parents, the Ni sei. The Eng- j l I Hsh-speaking minister, a Nisei, of the West Los Angeles Buddhist I! Church recognizes this problem, and in the Church Bulletin , he !wrote: •••.We must remember that what was once good for th e Issei, is not necessarily good for the others. Time since, has moved some 50-60 years and so, we have a lot of catching up to do. What the Issei have done was great and their urging us on to continue is to perpetuate our faith s. To merely carry on per se or on a status quo basis is not perpetuation. Let's look at the statistics of our churches. How many of the people between the ages of 28-39 years of age are actively sharing the load of our churches? Why the vacuum ? Nationwide, statistics show these are the men that hold key positions in our society, in business enterprises and in administrative positions. Where are our men 1 in our churches? Perhaps we need an evaluation. This is the year for us to innovate new ideals. And, I am often made to feel that innovation may well be to go back to the fundamentals I of Buddhism where men dealt with men on the grass-root level, 1 wh ere men communicate with men. I I In issue after issue the same sort of muted plea is heard, not1I I only in the West Los Angeles Buddhist Church Bulletin, but in th e !Buddhist Churches of America national magazine, the Ame rican Bud- !j dhist. 2 The need is not theirs alone, however, for it would seem that Il ! the Buddhist faith in Ame rica is experiencing the same trauma, the j same frustrations, as those shared by most of the Christian denomin- I! ations. However, unless disaster strikes again- -such as the forced evacuation and relocation of World War II- -the Buddhist movement in �!the Sawtelle area appears to be well-founded and staunchly-defended. I I I t ------· ___j ------109 1 At a meeting of the Buddhist Men's Club, th ere was no wringing of I hands, ·no crying despair. In stead, th ere was optimism fo r th e future.! As more and more Japanese seek to move into the area, more apart- Il ment houses will have to be built to receive them, and the Church I will be forced to expand again and again to contain its share of the I new residents. The numb er of individual single-family dwellings will decrease, and the number of religious gardens will automatically decrease in corresponding degrees. And yet, many of the recent apartment buildings have the most authentic Buddhistgardens to be found in the area (photograph s 9, 11, 12). Perhaps there will be othermanife stations of Buddhism de- veloped within thear ea, but it is doubtful whether any will have the emotional impact of the contemplative beauty of the true religious garden. It would be interesting to make additional studies of similar Buddhist enclaves in other parts of Los Angeles, or elsewhere in California or the PacificCoast . Perhaps similar religious manifest J tations may be found in London, Brazil, or wherever there may be a I large concentration of Japanese Buddhists. If a Buddhist church or I temple is present in their midst, would the prime manife station of religiosity be the religious garden? It would be interesting to make a future investigation and re-analyze· the Sawtelle area in ten years time--to learn if the gar- ------______L --- : _j 110 dens have increased or decreased in importance, or wh ether some l I new pattern will have emerged. With an increase in freedom, will the Buddhists disperse throughout the greater Los Angeles area with a subsequent reduction in the intensity of their religious feeling ? Or will they inc rease in density in the Sawtelle area, and with increased wealth build new homes and multiple-units with Buddhist touches more clearly defined? Or, will the Buddhist, perhaps even more acculturated as Americans, confine their religion to the inside of their homes, to the butsudan in the corner of their living room, next to the color tele- vision set? I i1 I ------·------··------·-- -'I 111 FOOTNOTES l The Reverend Arthur Takemoto , "Ramb ling Pen of a Mini ster , 11 West Lo s Angeles Buddhist Church Bulletin, Vol. ll, No. 4, Ma 1 9 68), 2. ( y, p. 2Jame s M. Iwata, 11Will Jodo Shinshu Prosper in Ame rica ? 11 The American Buddhist, Vol. 10, No. 10 (November, 1966) , pp. 3-4. / BIBLIOGRAPHY Ames, Van Meter. Zen and American Thought. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1962. Anonymous. Invitation to Japanese Gardens. Kyoto: Mitsumura Suiko Shoin Company, 1960. Berral, Julia S. The Garden. New York: Viking Press, 1966. Chap. XIII. pp. 359-364. Bosworth, Allan R. America 's Concentration Cat:nps. New York: W. W. Norton Company, 1967. Brigg s, D. L. 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Zelinsky, Wilbur, "A n Approach to the Religious Geography of the United States: Patterns of Church Membership in 1952, " Annals, Association of American Geo graphers, Vol. 51, No. 2 (June, 1961), pp. 139-1 67. Zierer, Clifford M. California and the Southwest. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1956. Zurcher, E. Buddhism: It s Origin and Spread in Words, Maps, and Pictures. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1962. ·. GLOSSARY jAmida The Buddha of "measureless light. " One of the five most important Buddhas i.n Mahayana Bud dhism, and now one of the great gods of Asia. I Originally, Amida was a Buddhist monk who had such a store of merit that his followers could draw upon it by repeating his name. (See Nem butsu. ) I Buddha Generally refers to Gautama (Gota� to the Japan ese) Buddha. He is not the only Buddha, but the most important one. Buddhism Grew out of Hinduism, but attempted to avoid the dogma and ritual of the parent religion. It is the Middle Way- -the avoidance of extremes. Japanese for "Buddha. 11 I ,But s udan The "Buddha- shelf; " family altar which contains a small representation of Amida Buddha. I '(eFH Clrfsei The "fourth" generation of Japanese in Ame rica and the third generation to be born �n this country. Hompa "The original" or "the orthodox. 1 1 Hongwan "The Vow of Amida Buddha. 11 Hompa Hongwanji The "Mother Temple" in Kyoto , Japan. World Headquarters of the Jodo Shin Shu. Issei Born in Japan; emigrated to the United States. Jodo The "pure land, 11 or the "pure realm" of conscious ness. A paradise where the faithful go .after death. J odo Shin Shu The Pure Land Sect founded by Shinran Shonin as an improvement over the original Jodo Sect. Kibei American-born Japanese who were educated in .Japan and returned to this country to live. 118 119 I ;Mahayana Considered by its followers as the "Greater Vehicle" or "Basket" of learning. It offers great er freedom than its competitor, Theravada. It is the form followed in China, Korea, Japan, and parts of Viet Nam. Nembutsu "Namu Amida Butsu. 11 A ritual recitation which ! allows the speaker to gain some of the merit or virtue acquired long ago by Amida Buddha. It means, literally, "I place my faith in Amida Buddha. 11 Nichiren An ancient and large Buddhist sect which �alls for the worship of Gautama Buddha. It means ' 11 ' "The Sun Lotus. I 'Nisei The "second'' generation of Japanese in America, and the first American-born generation. Sansei The llthird1 1 generation of Japanese in Ame rica, and the second ge,neration to be born in this country. Sensei "Teacher. " Shinran Shonin A monk of the ancient Tendai Sect in the 13th century. He taught that absolute reliance on Amida wa s everything. ' I [Shu "Sect" or "Denomination. 11 -- 'i Sutra Authoritative scripture of Buddhism. A discourse or parable with a teaching les son. 1I Theravada The "Way of the Elders. 11 Claims to be nearly I unchanged since the days of Gautama Buddha. I Followed primarily in Ceylon and Burma. l I1 Toro Stone lanterns often found in Japanese Buddhist gardens. Once were lighted with candles. 'Zen Meditation school of Buddhism, I Source: Vergilius Ferin, Encyclopedia of Religion. Patterson: Little- field, · Adams & Company, 1959. Section on "Buddhist Terminolo 11 II gy, pp. 91-110, I ___, ___ _j