Leadership Emergence through Social Class Participation

Rizwanullah, Mussawar Shah, RehanUllah Department of Rural Sociology, Faculty of Rural Social Sciences They University of Agriculture, Peshawar -Pakistan

International Journal of Advanced Research in Social Sciences & Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, January-June, 2015, pp. 18-26 ISSN Online: 2395-5228 Print: 2395-521X, DOA : 25052015 © IASTER 2015, www.iaster.com

ABSTRACT

The present study “leadership emergence through social class participation”. The study done in district , Pakistan was conducted with objectives to determine the social class participation level in the process of leadership emergence. A sample size of 366 respondents out of 7250 was selected through random sampling procedure. The study concluded that a highly significant association was found between the leadership emergence and class participation in politics was necessary for a stable democracy (p=0.000), everyone had to play a role in politics (p=0.000), leadership was determined by occupational class (p=0.000), similarity between classes and political parties (p=0.000) and class verbs towards learning a greater congeniality in the political era (p=0.000). This study concluded that voting behavior and leadership determination was clan/caste based along with in factor of regionalism and linguistic had high impact on leadership determining process. National level parties in extending themselves in the study, displaying in negative effects of regionalism and religion based misinterpreted affiliation through media were extended some policy recommendations in light of the study.

Keywords: Leadership, Social Class, Political Participation, Emergence.

I. INTRODUCTION

All the political activities circle around a government or their political parties and the involvement of their elements and there tactics are indulged while managing a state and government or state and polities. (American Heritage, 2009). Class is important for managing a society that is divided into classes and feels its economic position which define a specific category for them (Rummel, 1977). That social class is a well assigned social class of the concepts in social sciences in the entire through which people are classified in deferent groups like upper middle and lower (Grant and Andrew, 2001). In common debates its congruent with socio economical class that defines as the people have the position in all aspects e.g. socio-economic and educational status (Rubin et al., 2014). Every advanced and stable democratic culture comes through mass democratic culture. The researcher have admitted that permanent and stable democracies need democratic and mass political culture (Sergeant, 2008). Public involvement means the work of public to effect the frame of government and the selection of government workers or the strategies of government to help political powers (Flores, 2005). This add traditional and untraditional involvement traditional refers to the day to day activates peaceful way of conveying concerned using infrastructure of the government adoptable in the democratic culture. Education is the main power to be used those toward better education who are traditionally involved and protest against the government polices (Oxford and Browning, 2002). The socio economical mode of participation and this status is strongly belongs to political involvement these who are well educated and

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have a tendency lower good income they have much participation because they have much awareness of impact of politics and aware of friendly ways of influencing the government road maps (Jenlink, 2009). It’s to be seem that media motivate public to openly express their views and active part in the political proves and those who are educated by news they are much interested in political debates and they are informed to convey their to view point openly on the basis of education (Hebermass, 1992).

Now a day’s education is also directly linked to income. According to United States census. Bureau report, average Americans have not a higher degree but have jointed college, for some time. Instead they are graduated from schools. So education serves as an essential component of social class and their education directly affects their earnings. Education is directly as well as indirectly linked to income (UN Census Bureau report, 2003). According to Domhoff and William (1967) getting education refers to the level of schools a person gets from school, college or university. People of higher social class can afford to get educated quality and reputed institutes than those of lower social class which cannot afford expenses of prestigious schools. According to Benschop and Albert (1993) parents who have higher incomes are able to send their children to exclusive private schools but also to public funded schools to get higher quality education than those were people are poor relatively from wealthy areas government tax bodies collect a handsome amount of taxes, which are spend on education so wealthy areas provide more tax and then that amount is spent on education is a proof that people of higher social class will get quality education.

Land also has its importance in determining the class and status especially in rural areas. Poverty of rural masses is correlated with lack of access to land (Agarwal, 1994). History shows that in some cultures upper class members did not worked for living because of the inherited property of land and real estate. Moreover, in many societies political power stayed in the hands of those who had land ownership despite of no legal barriers to the ownership of land to other social classes (William and Tahira, 2010). Those who have controlled land tend to exert a disproportionate influence over other institutions especially in rural areas. Study determining educational variance in turnout has found out greater decayed amongst less and well educated groups. However, Leighley and Nagler (1992) debated that income is the best solitary factor of the class skewness of the voting public and there has been no variation in the relative participation rates of different groups.

The basic procedures of participation, by way of voting, may well present some people with intimidating queries about their aptitude to comprehend and upset exterior establishments that assault them as mystifying or distant. A person’s wisdom of his own private capability inclines to shade his decision of his political efficiency, which in turn reinforces his incentive to contribute. Opposed with the challenge of demanding to change political and social settings, lower-status groups and the expressively handicapped remain disposed to sense puzzled and washed up; they are, in all-purpose, more vulnerable to feelings of disaffection and negativity both personal and political (McClosky et al.,1965). In their opinion, the social-political arrangement is antagonistic and unapproachable. They catch limited of the personal recompenses received by the politically vigorous. Consequently, they not only vote less often but correspondingly are less involved and personally convoluted in politics, have rarer and fewer. Clear sentiments, and are less apprehensive with subjects and with the consequences of elections (Michigan, 1960).

Social stratification is a major issue in Pakistani society like other societies of the globe. Classes of the society have divided the citizens in terms of wealth and other supplies of society and life. The upper class which has the power tend to hold the politics of the country and they are able to rule those who do not have these assets (Zaidi, 2014). Middle and upper class members of the society are proactive in politics and can bring any change in the future of the country. Political institution plays a critical role in

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ruling relations in between the groups, locally, nationally and internationally. Domestically, politicians can work, serve, oppress or neglect people while internationally they can provide a tool of cooperation and development. The reviews depicts a visible variation in the structural and functional phenomena of politics in Pakistani society. Different classes, with the distinctive alitites i.e. economic possession, highly ranked qualifies in different profession, and repressing with high number in family members had a candid effects on the political outcomes with situational interpretations. Awareness regarding the right to vote, predicting into future regarding the nature of governance and social elites, with notable assignments while securing berths in the legislative bodies have been emerging but with no any anticipate vision. This study was focusing on the class system layers of society to dig out the directional mode of behavior, while ascertaining the emergence of leadership.

II. MATERIALS AND METHOD

The nature of the research is descriptive to explore the class participation level in leadership emergence. The study was done in district Charsadda Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The data was collected from sample population of three union council namely Mandani, and .

Table-1 Independent and Dependent Variables of the Study Variables of the study Independent variable Leadership Emergence Dependent variable Social class participation

2.1: Sampling Design

A simple random sampling methodology was used to select respondents for the purpose of data collection. The formula of proportion allocation was used for the sample size to be drawn out from the total number of population. As the total number of population was 7250, the total sample size of respondents 366 and were randomly drawn out on the basis of criteria mentioned by Sekaran (2003).

Table-2 Total Population and Sample Distribution in Study Area No Union Council Population Sample size 1 Mandani 2497 126 2 Harichand 2391 121 3 Shodag 2362 119 Total 7250 366

2.2: Data Analysis

The collected data was analyzed by using a computer program i.e. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, 20 version). Through the Chi square test it is possible for all researchers to test the significance of association between dependent and independent variables. Therefore, chi square test (x2) statistics were used for qualitative data finding association between variables (independent and Dependent variables) respectively. McCall (1975) used the following technique to find out the value of X2. r c 2 2 ()Oij e ij    i1 j  1 eij th Where, “ojk” was the observed frequency in the cell corresponding to the intersection of the J- row and K-thcolumn, “r” the number of rows and “c” the number of columns. Whenever the frequencies in the cells were less than 5 Fisher Exact Test was used instead of simple Chi-square, by taking the procedures of Baily (1982).

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In addition, it is requisite that the sample size must be objectively huge such that no expected frequency is less than 5, for r and c >2, or <10 if r=c=2. However, this hypothesis was violated several times in the data and therefore, Fisher Exact Test (also known as Exact Chi-square Test) was used instead of simple chi- square. The relationship developed by Fisher is given in equation-II (Baily, 1982); (a  b)! (c  d)! (a  c)! (b  d)! FisherExact Test Probability  (II) N! a! b! c! d!

Where a, b, c and d were the observed numbers in four cells of contingency table and “n” the total number of observations. SPSS 20, computer software was used for all data analysis, including frequencies, percentage proportion, and chi-square.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Leadership Emergence

Table 3 illustrated in leadership emergence where in 71% respondents thought that political leadership is best because they work on compromises and agility while 21% disagreed and 7.9% respondents were uncertain about the statement. It could be the outcome of a general philosophy, where the politics is deemed as feasible with no room for rigidity. The findings of Aziz (2000) also suggested the same that political leadership works through compromises, give and take consolation on the other hand dictator does not work for accountability system and considers leaders of other parties as rivals.Similarly, 73% of the respondents believed that dictatorship is best for a country’s security and development 24.3% however negated the statement and 2.7% of the respondents had no idea about it.Thus dictatorships had effective role in maintaining law and order than democracies and deprived ofsteadiness, the lack of confidence may transform in muffled developments they are closely associated.In addition, 74.6% respondents agreed that the motives of a leader is to share power than the reinforcement of democracy, 23.8% of the respondents disagreed and 1.6% were uncertain about the statement.Although leadership is indeed a practice of power, it is not demarcated by authority over peoplesomewhat, it is a power with people that subsists as a mutualaffiliationamid a leader and followers.Likewise,84.7% respondents believed that the growth of ethnic parties makes leaders play according to their own wishes and rules. In response to the same statement 9.6% respondents were disagree and 5.7% were uncertain. Results are in line with the findings of Memon et al. (n.d) that the mushroom growth of religious and ethnic parties within the parties have made the political scenario as a messy play ground where everyone plays according to their own wishes and interests. In addition, 91% respondents reported that leaders use religion as a motivational mean, while 1.4% respondents negated the statement and 7.7% had no idea about it. Due to the strong and undeniable role of religion, where in it is often exploited to gain support from the masses. These findings were in support to Bollandand Nigel (1998) that it is a way of politics for some to use religion and motivate people and achieve their own purposes, as the findings of that study also matched current result which showed that 90.7% of the respondents believed that leaders use religion, sect or ethnicity to emotionally exploit people for their own purposes, 6.6% respondents however negated the statement and 2.7% were uncertain.Furthermore, 76.5% respondents considered lack of education as the main problem that this was the reason that people could not use their political rights in proper direction, 18% respondents however disagreed and 5.5% were uncertain. Lack of education is a cause, which is often exploited by the leadership for getting their motives achieved as disclosed by Momen et al. (n.d) also found the same fact that because of lack of education people cannot use their political rights and make a party of their own rather than depending on old parties and conventional politics.

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In addition, 83.9% respondents thought that the emotion provoking acts of the leaders push people assuring for their rights, while 7.9% respondents were against the statement and 8.2% remained uncertain. Politics is essential oriented phenomena where masses support is gathered while pressing in the emotional characteristics of the local. The unfounded deeds and emotion aggravating acts of the leaders made people interrogative about their individuality, rights and justice. Likewise, 92.9% respondents were of the view that good leaders accommodate pluralities, 4.4% respondents disagreed and 2.7% had no idea about the statement. The progression of nation-building works concerning identity realization of a people which fallouts in assimilation of society, and visibly a cohesive society shows an imperative share into state-building that comprises the development of governmental substructure of the state. Likewise, 85.5% respondents agreed the statement that a strong mechanism for accountability helps societies in identifying new leaders, 13.75 respondents were against that idea while 0.8% were uncertain. It is a process through replacements are made and chosen for the purpose of attaining uprightness. Chait, et al. (2005) also argued that application of accountability mechanisms play a procreative role in leadership emergence and predominantly in the development and preservation of set- up. Accountability is not just about obedience with laws or leadership principles, but is more profoundly associated to governmental determination and public trust. Similarly, 88% respondents reported that leadership in action always replaced passive leadership while 11.5% respondents disagreed the statement and 0.5% respondents remained uncertain. Likewise, 96.4% respondents were of the idea that continuity in political process ensures the emergence and flourishing new leadership while 2.7% respondents remained disagree and 0.8% were uncertain about the statement. Theory of social movement by Westd and David (2004) also assumed that social movements bring change. Being the type of social movement, political movement also does the same as change or flourish the leadership.

Table-3: Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Respondents Regarding Leadership Emergence

S.No Leadership Emergence Agree Disagree Uncertain Political leadership is best because they work 260 (71.0%) 77 (21.0%) 29 (7.9%) 1 on compromises and agility. Dictatorship is best for a country’s security 267 (73.0%) 89 (24.3%) 10 (2.7%) 2 and development. Leaders’ motive is to share power rather than 273 (74.6%) 87 (23.8%) 6 (1.6%) 3 revival of democracy. The growth of ethnic parties makes leaders 310 (84.7%) 35 (9.6%) 21 (5.7%) 4 play according to their own wishes and rules. 5 Leaders use religion as a motivational mean. 333 (91.0%) 5 (1.4%) 28 (7.7%) Leaders use religion, sect or ethnicity to 332 (90.7%) 24 (6.6%) 10 (2.7%) 6 emotionally exploit people for their own purposes. Because of lack of education people cannot 280 (76.5%) 66 (18.0%) 20 (5.5%) 7 use their political rights. The emotion provoking acts of the leaders 307 (83.9%) 29 (7.9%) 30 (8.2%) 8 push people assuring for their rights. 9 A good leader must accommodate pluralities. 340 (92.9%) 16 (4.4%) 10 (2.7%) 10 A strong mechanism for accountability helps 313 (85.5%) 50 (13.7%) 3 (0.8%) societies in identifying new leaders. 11 Leadership in action always replaces passive 322 (88.0%) 42 (11.5%) 2 (0.5%) leadership. 12 Continuity in political process ensures the 353 (96.4%) 10 (2.7%) 3 (0.8%) emergence and flourishing new leadership. *value in the table present frequency while values in the parenthesis represent percentages proportion of the respondents.

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3.2 Association between Leadership Emergence and Class Participation

Change in leadership emergence is the outcome due to participation of social classes of society in politics. Masses participate in politics in order to change the leadership or to maintain the existing one. Collective action of the citizens of a society leads towards change. To measure that how much people’s political behavior is determined by their class participation and what is the association between class participation and leadership emergence, a few statements were carefully developed for the purpose given in table 4. Results showed that leadership emergence and class is a factor of political stability had a non-significant relationship (p=0.249). Similarly, a non-significant relationship (p=0.135) was found between leadership emergence and the distribution of political affiliation and voting behavior is related to class. Social class plays an important role in voting behavior. However, other factors are showing an ever increasing importance today such as, social class, party policies, and ethnicity and region issues.

However, a highly significant relationship (p=0.000) existed between leadership emergence and that class participation in politics was necessary for a stable democracy. It could be attributed to maximum participation for the purpose owning the leadership or otherwise on the basis of the commitment and character. These were inconformity to Acemoglu et al. (2006) that the existence of a considerable body of citizens who are belonging to various classes on the basis of wealth, can apply a stabilizing influence, allowing democracy to flourish. This is usually clarified by saying that while the upper classes may want political power to preserve their position, and the lower classes may want it to lift themselves up, the middle class balances these extreme positions.

Conversely, a non-significant association (p=0.140) was found in leadership and classes society had major social and political consequences upon election outcomes.It was found during this study that leadership emergence had a highly significant association (p=0.000) with everyone had to play a role in politics. As more participation more solid outcomes, while assessing the prevalent leadership. It showed that in democratic societies, voters have a role in determining how their country is run, by voting in free elections for a political party.Young and Iris (2000) also found that everyone whose interest was affected by political decision was included in political decision making process. Likewise, a highly significant relationship (p=0.000) was found between leadership emergence and that the vote of respondents was determined by occupational class. It could be attributed to the existence of tribal clan based social structure which often being the represented by their relative professional standings as well. The findings of Acemolgu et al. (2006) are in line with the results that the occupational class have profound role towards flourishing democracy.Furthermore, a high significant association (p=0.000) was found between leadership emergence and the similarity between classes and political parties, change in one leads to change in the other due to the professional attachments. These findings were in line with class conflict theories where Marx, Weber and Darhendorp gave the idea that class conflict leads to change, that is that power differences led to the formation of political parties which is the base for change in leadership (Ritzer, 2010).

However, a non-significant association (p=0.642) was found between leadership emergence and class participation allows to combine a variety of discrete relationships and conflicts into a larger whole. It is perhaps the prevalence of a rigid social structure does not allow any change due to the rigid structural and functional dynamics on occupational basis. In addition, leadership emergence had a highly significant association (p=0.000) with class leads towards learning a greater congeniality in the political era. It was found in the study that classes of a society tends toward pluralism, perspectivalism, skepticism, political equality and freedom. Class interests were supposed to be determined by the structure of relations between classes and political parties were valued because they are the representatives of the current political era (Butler and Stokes, 1974).

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Table 4. Association between Leadership Emergence and Class Participation

Statements Attitude Emergence of leadership Total Chi square Agree Disagree Uncertain value X2 and P values Class is a social factor Agree 3 (0.8%) 27 (7.4%) 249 (68.0%) 279 (76.2%) X2= 5.396 of political stability. Disagree 1 (0.3%) 2 (0.5%) 79 (21.6%) 82 (22.4%) P= 0.249 Uncertain 00 1 (0.3%) 4 (1.1%) 5 (1.4%) The distribution of Agree 4 (1.1%) 28 (7.7%) 327 (89.3%) 359 (98.1%) X2= 7.025 political affiliation and Disagree 00 2 (0.5%) 3 (0.8%) 5 (1.4%) P= 0.135 voting behavior is Uncertain 00 00 2 (0.5%) 2 (0.5%) related to class. Class participation is Agree 3 (0.8%) 30 (8.2%) 288 (78.7%) 321 (87.7%) X2= 21.550 politics is necessary P= 0.000 Disagree 00 00 40 (10.9%) 40 (10.9%) for a stable democracy. Uncertain 1 (0.3%) 00 4 (1.1%) 5 (1.4%) Classes of a society Agree 4 (1.1%) 30 (8.2%) 275 (75.1%) 309 (84.4%) X2= 6.914 have major social and Disagree 00 00 55 (15%) 55 (15%) P= 0.140 political consequences Uncertain 00 00 2 (0.5%) 2 (0.5%) upon election outcomes. Everyone has a role to Agree 4 (1.1%) 12 (3.3%) 259 (70.8%) 275 (75.1%) X2= 23.145 play in the politics. Disagree 00 18 (4.9%) 72 (19.7%) 90 (24.6%) P= 0.000 Uncertain 00 00 1 (0.3%) 1 (0.3%)

Your vote was Agree 2 (0.5%) 2 (0.5%) 221 (60.4%) 225 (61.5%) X2= 42.692 determined by your P= 0.000 Disagree 2 (0.5%) 27 (7.4%) 109 (29.8%) 138 (37.7%) occupational class. Uncertain 00 1 (0.3%) 2 (0.5%) 3 (0.8%) There is natural Agree 2 (0.5%) 4 (1.1%) 177 (48.4%) 183 (50.0%) X2= 26.646 similarity between P= 0.000 Disagree 1 (0.3%) 26 (7.1%) 135 (36.9%) 162 (44.3%) classes and political parties, change in Uncertain 1 (0.3%) 00 20 (5.5%) 21 (5.7%) one’s size leads to change in the other. Class participation Agree 2 (0.5%) 19 (5.2%) 181 (49.5%) 202 (55.2%) X2= 2.215 allow you to combine Disagree 1 (0.3%) 8 (2.2%) 122 (33.3%) 131 (35.8%) P= 0.642 a variety of discrete Uncertain 1 (0.3%) 3 (0.8%) 29 (7.9%) 33 (9.0%) relationships and conflicts into a larger whole. Class verbs indicated Agree 3 (0.8%) 11(3.0%) 194 (53.0%) 208 (56.0%) X2= 25.158 towards a greater Disagree 1 (0.3%) 00 59 (16.1%) 60 (16.4%) P= 0.000 congeniality in the political era. Uncertain 00 19 (5.2%) 79 (21.6%) 98 (26.8%) *Number in table represent frequencies and number in parenthesis represent percentage proportion of respondents and in the last columns number in the parenthesis represent P-Value

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IV. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, it is found that leadership emergence was strongly associated with class participation. Data showed that the higher their social class, higher would be the level of political participation and political influence. As much as the classes of a society is participating in the political processes the more the democratic system will be stable, because these are the classes which can change the leadership and assure the accountability.

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