Negotiating the Sacred Space A Comparative Study of the Impact of the Dynamics of Culture and Christian Theology on Women in the South Sea Evangelical Church, and in the Anglican Church of Melanesia, Small Malaita, Solomon Islands Ben Joseph Wate A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Otago, Dunedin New Zealand November 2018 Dedication This doctoral thesis is dedicated to my beloved parents Mama’a Joseph Christian Wate, and teitee Clarah Houtoro Wate, whose love, care, and hard work have made this pathway possible for me. You have now departed this life, but your legacy of perseverance and hard work live on to shine out. The dedication of this thesis is also extended to their grandchildren; Charles Vincent, Charisma, Lisa, Rose, Clarah, and JC Sandra, and beloved wife Ethel Wate ii Abstract The discourses on women’s empowerment, leadership and development in the contemporary Pacific, and Melanesia suggest that local women in these regions are discriminated against and denied gender equality with men. The experience of disempowerment, and the unequal relationship between men and women is evident in all levels of societies, including local communities, government agencies, civil society and even church organisations. Contemporaneously, women continue to seek, advance and aspire to forms of leadership empowerment, and embrace their own visions of development for themselves and their communities in specific areas, such as the main Christian churches and the fellowships, unions, groups and committees that constitute them. This thesis is a comparative study of the dynamics of gender relations and women’s empowerment, and development in the South Sea Evangelical Church (SSEC), and the Anglican Church of Melanesia (ACOM), in the Solomon Islands with particular attention to Small Malaita. The study draws on local church women’s experience, particularly the SSEC Women’s Fellowship, and the ACOM Mothers’ Union. The study suggests that major differences exist between the two churches, regarding doctrines and faith traditions, missionary philosophies, the treatment of the Bible, and approaches to local culture. Nevertheless, despite the differences, local women in both churches have continued to experience unequal treatment in the relationship between men and women in formal leadership in the two churches. Men assume formal and public leadership, while women take on a leadership role in fellowship groups, youth and children’s ministry and at the same time oversee the general care of local church buildings. This present scenario is historically constituted and shaped by missionaries’ philosophies, and reinforced by local cultural beliefs. However, I argue that while these experiences have become widespread, the local church women are not passive but actively deal with local situations in an appropriate manner relevant to their respective socio-cultural contexts. This has provided a framework for personal and collective development, self-fulfilment and varying forms of leadership in specific gendered domains. iii Acknowledgements The production of this thesis would not have been achieved without the support of many people; academics, organisations, friends, family and relatives. I owe them much, and I wish to extend my deepest gratitude and heartfelt appreciation to them. With profound respect, I wish to sincerely thank Dr Greg Rawlings, Associate Professor Jacqueline Leckie, and Dr Ian Frazer, the team of supervisors who rendered outstanding and invaluable supervision and guidance. Their patience, motivation, encouragement, academic expertise, and their guidance have greatly enriched my study and writing. I have learned a lot and treasure their invaluable supervision and academic merit. This will be long remembered. A special thanks goes to the academic and professional staff of the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology of the University of Otago in which I conducted this study. Here I wish to acknowledge those who have been directly involved in my study program. I wish to acknowledge the support of Professor Richard Walter, the Head of the Department of Anthropology & Archaeology, for administrative support, leadership and guidance in ensuring that I received all the necessary support I needed to complete this thesis. Special thanks go to Catherine Waite, and Marj Blair who rendered administrative support, ensuring I had a study space at the Department whenever I made a trip to Dunedin for consultation with my supervisors. Thanks to Sue Lang, who took over from them with much support as well. Sincere gratitude goes to Heather Sadler, for her kindness and expert assistance in providing technical support in computer service, and assisting in the formatting of the final draft of the thesis. In the same manner, I wish to sincerely thank Les O’Neill for wonderful support in the graphic work and design, for producing the suitable maps, graphs, and tables needed for this thesis. I sincerely wish to thank the chairperson and the executive committee members of the St John’s College Trust for offering me and my family a residential scholarship to study towards a doctoral degree. Thank you so much. The John’s College financial support, and pastoral care were exceptionally generous and my family and I gratefully acknowledge that. I wish to pay special tribute to the Rev’d. Tony Gerritsen, Principal/Manukura of St John’s College, for his outstanding leadership, spiritual guidance, pastoral care and wisdom in guiding us through the course of our doctoral journey in the last four years. Standing alongside him were the three Tikanga Deans; the Rev’d. Karen Kemp (Dean of Tikanga Pakeha), the Rev’d. Dr Frank Smith (Dean of Tikanga Polynesia), and the Rev’d. Katene Eruera (Dean of Tikanga Māori). Heartfelt gratitude and acknowledgement goes to the Rev’d. Katene, for enormous support, pastoral care and for standing firmly alongside us during difficult circumstances that confronted us during the course of our study. We have enjoyed the aroha, care and hospitality of Tikanga Māori and its whanau. Likewise, I sincerely wish to thank the Rev’d. Dr Allan Davidson for his assistance proofreading my initial drafts and ensuring I had the correct historical ideologies and framework of the Melanesian Mission history in my thesis. His knowledge of the history of Melanesian Mission is profoundly inspiring and enriching. Thank you so much. The support of other academic and administrative staff must be acknowledged. Thanks to Dr Don Moffat, Coordinator of Postgraduate studies, for his encouragement and overwhelming support to my study. For the Rev’d. Dr Eseta Mateiviti-Tulavu, the iv Rev’d. Dr Mark Harris, the Rev’d. Mark Barnard, Richard Cook, and Victor Mokaraka, thank you so much for all your support. A special tribute and acknowledgment to the administration staff of St John’s College. I wish to sincerely thank Richard Swain, the College Manager, for effective administration to facilitate financial support to enhance the progress of my study. For Louisa Welsh, and Helen Edwards, thank you so much for your direct administrative support and prompt actions in facilitating domestic and academic requirements when needed. For Savita Vegil, and Margaret Stonehouse, thanks for providing the administrative support when called in to seek assistance. For Tom Ihaka, thanks for his technical support especially in providing electrical and household items that we needed. And finally but not the least, I thank Barbara Tunbridge and her colleagues for providing the best and delicious meals at lunch time in the last four years. I am truly grateful for their hard work. Academic study cannot be progressed without a library and the work of librarians. I am greatly indebted for the support of the John Kinder Library staff, for their expertise and guidance, and for ensuring that I have access to the most up-to-dated and relevant materials I needed for my research. With this, I thank Judith Bright, head of the John Kinder library, and Anne Bartley, Helen Greenwood, and Jenny Harper. Their support has been immensely helpful. Similar acknowledgement and gratitude is extended to the University of Otago Library staff for support in sending books to Auckland where I resided. Thank you so much. A number of organisations have financially supported my study, field research and participation in national and international conferences. I wish to thank St John’s College for continual financial support, and for funding my participation in national and international conferences. Special thanks go to Australian National University (ANU) State, Society and Governance (SSGM) program of the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies (RSPAS) for funding my participation in the social science research methodology training workshop in Canberra in 2015. For co-funding field research in Solomon Islands, and my participation in an International Conference on Gender and Women studies in Cambridge, UK in December 2017, I sincerely wish to thank the University of Otago, St John’s College, and the Anglican Church of Melanesia. Thank you so much. Support through academic, social and relational networking is a vital component in higher research learning. My thanks go to overseas friends who have supported me from a distance. To Professor Margaret Jolly, at the Australia National University (ANU), thanks for her encouragement to pursue this study and all the Vanuatu Bislama conversation and dinner stories. Dr Ben Burt and Annette must be thanked and acknowledged for support in providing academic advice on literature about Malaita and the wonderful friendship and offerings of hospitality since 2007 when I began postgraduate study at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE) UK. Personal gratitude goes to Chris Luxtone, and the Rev’d. Canon Brian MacDonald for the inspiring stories and hospitality during my trips to the University of Cambridge to attend international conferences since 2013. Living and studying in New Zealand without support can be difficult. I wish to sincerely thank Catherine Dickey, the ACOM Student Liaison Officer in Auckland for her v administrative and logistic support, and for providing the best to my family.