Priyanka Virajini Medagedara Karunaratne(1) Dress for Dance; Costumes during Kotte Period

(1) Fashion Design & Product Development, Department of Textile & Clothing Technology, Faculty of Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Moratuwa, . (email : [email protected])

Abstract: Dress has always been a distinctive mark of a historical period. The aim of this article is to present a comprehensive study of dance costumes in use during the Kotte period. Two ivory caskets at present in the Munich Treasury reveal an interesting representation of period dance costume. This attire was inspired by South Indian culture. A profusion of jewelry and an abundance of drapery signified that Front side Rear side these dresses were definitely utilized by the court Fig. 1: casket no 1 (Schroeder 1990, 468) performers of the period. Front slanting lid panel on the left - two Sinhalese Keywords: Dance costume, Cultural aspects, Ivory dancers with a baby and a leaf caskets, Kotte period, South Indian inspiration Middle and right panel - two dancers Rear side in the middle - dancers and Introduction musicians Rear side sloping lid surfaces on the - bearded sword dancers right and the middle panel The dress in historical times reveals curious, tantalizing cultural phenomena which signify their complex origins. Two Ivory caskets of the Kotte period at present in the Residenz Munich, Schatzkammer, Germany(Amin & Melanie 1999) (casket no 1- Inventory no 1241, 18x 30x 16cm and casket no 2, Inventory No 1242, 15x 25x14cm) provides an interesting representation of period attire inspired both by Portuguese and South Indian culture. These two caskets are said to have been produced under the Front side patronage of King Buwanekabahu VIIi (1521-1551AD) the eldest son of Vijayabahu VI (1513- 1521 AD) who sent a delegation to Lisbon carrying an image of prince Dharmapala(1551-1597 AD) with the intention of having it crowned to ensure the succession of Dharmapala to the Kotte throne.

Rear side Fig. 2: casket no2 (Schroeder 1990, 469) [1] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka

Front slanting lid panel on the middle - two Silva (1981, 93) has noted that ‘Although South Indian Sinhalese dancers influence was very prominent in the Polonnaruwa Rear side sloping lid surfaces on the middle panel - two period onwards it was deeper rooted in every aspect of dancers the Kotte kingdom than ever before. The upper crust of the Sinhalese society was fast becoming Hindu in There are eleven female dancers shown with outlook’. Similarly Schroeder (1990, 146) has stated seven types of costumes. The scenes depicted in both that the ‘Kotte caskets do not represent an indigenous caskets show that it happened inside the king’s court. tradition and were certainly influenced by South Therefore it is possible to think that these dancers were Indian works.’ These two statements go to show that in the dancers who were attached to the dance platoon in the Kotte period South Indian influence was strong in the court. Most probably they would have been court the upper strata of society. It is important to note how dancers. These collections of dresses include exclusive South Indian influence penetrated into this period. patterned lower garments and highly developed and well structured head dresses. The unique forms and the The former kingdom of Gampola was the source shapes of the dresses portray a range of forms and of Kotte culture. Bhuvanekabahu V (1371 -1408 AD) styles. The study of dance costumes can be discussed king of Gampola ruled Kotte as well in the early part under four heads. Which are, of his reign. The Gampola period shows superiority in both art and architecture during the 70 years of its 1. Interesting picto-graphic representation existence under four kings. South Indian influence 2. Some cultural aspects in the Kotte period. comes to a zenith during this period. The best 3. Exclusive lower costume styles. examples of South Indian inspired temples were iii 4. South Indian Influences Gadaladeniya and Lankathilaka. Gadaladeniya was built by South Indian chief architect Ganeshwaracharya under the patronage of king Discussion Bhuwanekabahu IV (1341-1351 AD) and Lankathilaka was built by the architect Sthapathi Rayar on the Importance of Kotte period directions of the chief minister Senadhilankaraiv. Senadhilankara was descended from the South Indian Kotte was one of the kingdoms to which the Mehenawarav clan and, the sculptors who were lowlands were divided and lasted for 197 years (1400– employed at Gadaladeniya and Lankathilaka were 1597 AD). It received many foreign influences from brought from India (Mudiyanse n.d 81). The South South India, Portugal, and Chinaii. Parakramabahu VI Indian Vijayanagar Empire was at the peak of its ruled 55 years (1411 - 1466 AD) and the country was development during the Gampola period. Dance and prosperous and united signifying the last glorious music developed in Hindu temples of the time and are period of Sinhalese history with notable achievements depicted as graceful rhythmic figures in architectural in peace such as trade, commerce, art, architecture, and friezes. This style was merged with Sinhala tradition literature. The Portuguese arrived in Kotte in the 16th (Ragavan 1967, 25). Gadaladeniya and Niyamgampaya century and became an influential factor in its political dancing friezes are similar examples. TheDevadasi history. The 197 year reign of the 8 kings of Kotte dancing style had emerged during the Vijayanagar ended with Dharmapala, grandson of Bhuvanekabahu period as a ritual function in honor of the Hindu gods. VI, who survived for 46 years as a puppet king in the Similar to this function a ‘Digge Dancevi’ began at some hands of the Portuguese. of the Gampola temples (Mudiyanse n.d 81) with Costumes and their cultural impact: distinct elements. Coomaraswamy (1956, 26) said that these Digge dancers were supposed to be of Tamil The costumes of the Kotte period were well origin. Practitioners of the art would have migrated developed artistically. Some of them stand out as from the Gampola kingdom for the service of the court period costumes found in history. Their external of Kotte. Craftsmen of the Gampola period would appearance is an indication of their cultural origin. De definitely have brought their artistic tradition to the

[2] Priyanka Virajini Medagedara Karunaratne Dress for Dance; Costumes during Kotte Period

Kotte period because, the kingdom had been shifted The Kotte period, dance costumes have been already to Kotte while Gampola still existed as a identified as a well-known form of period attire. There regional kingdom. Therefore we can assume that the were two categories of female dancers which can be Gampola period was the origin of the artistic tradition identified by the descriptions of the Sandesha poetry. of Kotte (De Silva 1998, 38). There were dancers who performed at the king’s court and dancers who performed at Hindu shrines. The Significance of the dance costumes: Gira (Parrot), Hamsa (Swan), Kouvl (Cuckoo), Paravi A costume worn in dance has in it the quality of (Pigeon), and Selalihini Sandesha poems of the Kotte Rhythm. Even each type of attire has its own rhythm. period have fascinating descriptions of the dresses and However these rhythmic characteristics arise from the adornments of both categories. Among these the culture from which they originate. That rhythm is not Kokila (Kovul) and Hamsa Sandeshas give an a haphazard incident but evolved from the body interesting account of dance performers at court and movements. These are described in Shilpasastras the Paravi and Selalihini Sandesha give an idea about (Shilpa texts). Every costume comes alive when it is the dresses and adornments of temple dancers. These worn on the human body. Skillfully choreographed poems have interesting glimpses of jewelry and the movements of the human body can be enhanced by dresses worn. The frills, folds, materials used in dance the delicate wraps and draperies of transparent textiles. costumes can be identified in these poems. However textiles that are two dimensional when worn Evidence of some cultural aspects in the on the bodies as costumes become three dimensional. Kotte period: Rhythm is the essence of dance costumes and is The dance costumes represented in the ivory also enhanced by accessories. Form, style, texture, caskets of the time also shed some light on dance proportion, shape, gravity, length, have been utilized forms in Kotte. As shown above the literature of the successfully in these attires to emphasize rhythmic time shows that dance was a strong cultural movements. Rhythm has also been facilitated by the phenomenon. It has been a part of cultural ceremonies sound of the accessories attached to the dance attire. in two different contexts, secular and religious. Secular Anklets and armlets are important accessories in this dance can be identified as the dance for aristocratic sense. Extended frills, long chords, layers of pleats, circles, and dance for the public. Religious dance was wads of pleats, detailed fringes, and decorated hem in honor of the gods. The former dance forms were lines are also incorporated in the attire. Therefore the meant for the amusement of royalty and the court. style of the dance costumes is not to be thought of as Every king had a dance company. Dancers performed something independent of movement. Movement and with a considerable professional skill in front of garments are conceived as a single whole. appreciative audiences at the king’s court. Dr P.H.D.H. vii Interesting picto-graphic representation: De Siva has commented on the presentation of dancers in the ivory caskets. He assumes that the six People of groups and organizations of a particular figures of dancers with impressive head dresses period share a common culture. The dress of these represented a ritual which was held at the court after groups is indicative of the common culture. However the birth of the infant Prince Dharmapala. The figure these period dresses tend to conform to established carrying the infant Prince is identified as the queen rules and traditions linked to formal standards and a mother, the royal consort of Bhuwanekabahu VII, with hierarchical structure. (Performance dresses could be leaves of Neam (Kohomba) in the pose of avadanava regarded as a special case of organizational culture. or wishing the child long life. Other dancers are These attires reveal objects of clothing as public and performing ceremonial dances before the infant personal. It is very clear that these dance costumes Prince. However these are unsubstantiated signify a desired public image along with an assumptions. But they cannot be completely understanding of appearance.) disregarded since it is a dancer who carries the infant. There is no valid evidence to establish that the female

[3] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka

figure carrying the infant is the consort of King Buwanekabahu VII. It is also possible that what the casket shows is a kind of ritualistic performance inside the court. As for religious dance, temple dancers have always been honored and rewarded by royalty in Fig. 9 Style no 7 appreciation of their skillviii in dancing in honor of a god as it was considered as an act of worship and Upper garments: Breast ornaments several religious dance performances were held at The ivory carvings show four types of impressive many Hindu temples in the Kotte kingdom. Dancing breast cups identifying different styles. Flowery design in public was always connected with processions and cups flatter the breast and emphasize the feminine carnivals which were held in the capital of the beauty of the nautch girls. Under the breast cups there kingdom. All this goes to show that the art of dance are beaded pattern linings visible. This can be had been very popular in the king’s court of the Kotte identified as the Sthana Bhushanamau in Natya Sastra. period. (Nirmala 1995) A range of exclusive lower costume styles:

The dress of the period can be distinguished between the upper garment and the lower garment. The word style means “a distinctive characteristic or way of expression”. Style in clothing describes the lines that distinguish one form or shape from another (Kaiser 1998, 4). Accordingly style must have certain features. Thus in this period breast cups were used as an upper garment of all these dresses and skirts for the lower garments. There are two ivory caskets in which Fig. 10 Breast bands eleven female dancers are represented. Casket no 1 shows five lower garment styles and casket no 2 shows Elsewhere the dancers expose their breasts which two types of lower garments and altogether seven are encircled with pearl necklaces. Besides these the distinctive styles each with unique features. The lower exclusive lower garments, folds and head dresses can garments in both caskets can be classified as follows: be considered as significant fashion devices in dance costumes. Style no 1 Layered garment Style no 2 Scalloped patterned, Style no3 Drapery wraps Fashion devices: Head dresses Style no 4 Folded tights like garment, Style no 5 Folded Wrap, Style no 6 folded drapery , Style no7 A crown or high makuta was a common head Folded layered garment. ornament of the kings and the gods from the earliest times. A god is considered a replication of the king, because the kings’ image was very familiar and the most influential live visual of that period. The artist portrayed an elaborate head ornament for the dancers in the ivory casket emphasizing the significance of Fig. 3 Style no 1 Fig. 4 style no 2 Fig. 5 Style no 3 court performers in comparison with the dancers that can be found for instance on the stone door jamb at Benthara Galapatha (fig.11) temple and the Ambulugala temple( fig. 12)which also belong to the Kotte period. Fig. 6 Style no 4 Fig. 7 Style no 5 Fig 8. Style no 6

[4] Priyanka Virajini Medagedara Karunaratne Dress for Dance; Costumes during Kotte Period

Fig. 14 Type 1 Fig. 15 Type 2 Fig. 11 Fig. 12 Fig. 13 Benthara Galapatha Ambulugalaa Ivory casket temple temple figure

Kotte is the only period in which impressive and imaginative head dresses are found. The shape of the head gear was in keeping with the dance costumes. Fig. 16 Type 3 Fig .17 Type 4 Fig. 18 Type 5 Dancing damsels adorn their tresses in various ways to complement their beauty. The dancers enhance their images with beautiful head dresses and hair styles. The head gear was shaped in such a way as to be in rhythmic balance with the proportions of the face and the beauty of the countenance. There are six types of Fig. 19 Type 6 head dresses and, three types of women’s hair styles, depicted in the two caskets. The secular poetry of the Dance costumes and South Indian influences: Salalihini( Wijesooriya 2004) gives an interesting glimpse of the aesthetics of head dresses. Verse 73 Kotte was the period when the South Indian describes the dancers of Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte element was manifested in every aspect of the society. decking their heads with flowers. Furthermore it From the king to the royal court officials such as described flowers as being braided into the hair. chaplains, court recorders, chief Brahmins, Prime Compared to the Galapatha and Ambulugala head Minister, were mostly Tamil in origin. Therefore one ornaments the ivory carver exhibited clever forms and can assume that Kotte was greatly influenced by Tamil a range of structures. These structures function also as culture. Anthropologist Bruce Kapferer( 1983,19) has space fillers. said “that people do not proselytize their culture, but they do proselytize ideology’. There were some There are six types of head dresses and three elements inspired by South Indian culture which can types of hair styles depicted in both caskets. be identified in the lower garments. The impressive use Type 1- A crown of madalam flowers with hanging of surface texture is very remarkable in skirt no 2 (fig. decorated strings 9). The skirt in figure 21 below is represented in a wooden figure (fig. 21) from the Hoisala period Type 2- A crown of madalam flowers with looping (12thcen). The Kotte period skirt was better developed pearl strings stage of the style and shows more refined Type 3- A crown of layered flower buds craftsmanship of skirt. Type 4 A crown of conical structure with strings to control it Type 5 - A crown of conical structure without strings to control it Type 6 - A three layered crown.

Their forms suggest many ideas. These forms Fig. 20 Kotte dress Fig. 21 South Indian blended with the attire. The Aesthetics of these head dress, Hoisala (Huntington 1985, 325) dresses can be discussed under four heads, dimension, design, structure, and shape. [5] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka

flowers. This is called Dancing Devi (Postel 1989, 67). When analyzing all these representations it is very clear that the artist employed in the Kotte period was able assimilate elements from abroad.

Fig. 22 Kotte headdress Fig 23. Virisidai Methodology

The qualitative method was adopted for the research .Sequence of observational studies with temple paintings, wood carvings, sculptures and ivory carvings at the Munich Treasury in Germany along Fig. 24 Virisidai Fig. 25 Jatamandalam (Sthapathi 2002, 132) (Sthapathi 2002, 130) with the continuous literature review with the use of documented manuscripts, records, published research and inscriptions were used to gather and sort data. Validation was confirmed with cross checking with literary sources and random interviews. Gadermar’s interpretation theory applied for synthesis of data.

Fig. 26 South Indian headdress (Michel 1995, 61) Results

The circular arrangement of a head dress is very The literary evidence shows that dress similar to the head dress depicted in fig 25 known as arrangements of court dancers and temple dancers are Dakshinamurthi (Tamil God). Strings of pearls and very similar. The costumes, the alluring jewelry and ornamental ribbons also are shown here at the corner other accessories, the pleasing movements of the of the ears. This circular head gear is called dancers and the stages of the dances performed also Jatamandalam (Sthapathi 2002, 130). The swaying show similarities. The dance costumes are very tresses shown here are more similar to those shown in important because the carver of the casket has figures 23, 24 Virisadai (Sthapathi 2002, 138) styles attempted to show that the dress has been prepared for which are normally shown in the Nataraja dancing this performance. Furthermore, the magnificent form. There are some textured ornamental garlands creative head dress of the dancer is not described in the suspended from both shoulders. A bunch of pearl five Sandesa poems of the Kotte period. Perhaps the strands freely sway suggesting rhythmic movement. representation of a multitude of flowers in the head Figure 16 from Virabhadra temple in South India also dress is intended to suggest their perfume. The artist shows some similarities in arranging the semi circular (ivory carver) no doubt took the familiar dancers of his head gear. day for his creations. However dancers could have been the people who performed both in the court as well as in the shrines. These dancers may have worn a special head dress for performance at the king’s court. This head dress may have been very similar to that of South Indian temple dancers. It was most likely that the dance scenes shown in the ivory carvings were performances at the king’s court and not at the shrine. Fig. 27 Kotte headdress Fig. 28 South Indian The results show that the Sri Lankan dance dress was headdress (Postel 1989, 67) made up of a rich set of possible combinations (South Indian and Sri Lankan) which entails authentic Figure 28 from South India shows similarities in individuation of an outfit. the arrangement where the crown is adorned with

[6] Priyanka Virajini Medagedara Karunaratne Dress for Dance; Costumes during Kotte Period

End notes Chinese chronicles for this period for 1459, king of Ceylon sent envoys with tribute. Ibid, p 665 i Jaffer Amin,& Schwabe Anne Melanie, A group of 16th iii De Silva, K.M , 1981, The History of Sri Lanka, Madras, century ivory caskets from Ceylon, Appllo, March 1999, p p 94 7 The two caskets in the Residenz in Munich are carved with iv Mudiyanse, Nadasena, The Art and architecture of images which allow us to date them more accurately. The Gampola period, Colombo, p 25 first which depicts scenes relating to the embassy to Lisbon Gadaladeniya inscription noted, Ganeshwaracharya, who must have been made after the envoy from Kotte returned as the name itself suggests was a south Indian. home in 1543, while the second illustrates political events of 1547 – 48 and is likely to have been made soon after. v Kulasooriya S, Anada, 1976, JRAS of Great Britain The earlier of the two caskets in Munich is carved on the Ireland, No 2, p 141 . front with scenes of the coronation of the effigy of Senadhilankara is a title and not a personal name. In the Dharmapala and has rich gold mounts inset with Saddharma ratnakaraya cited before, he is described cabochon rubies and sapphires. The front right and left further as Senevirat Mantriyana, that is a minister who is panels depict respectively, the crowning by Dom Joao iii of also commander of the armed forces. Ibid p 142 the effigy of Dharmapala and the swearing of an oath of vi Deraniyagala,P.E.P ,Spolia Zelanica, 27,Part iii, p 305, loyalty to the Portuguese crown by the young prince. Digge dance was performed by the Alaththi Amma women ii Paranavithana .S, 1960, UCHC, vol 1, Gampola and as feudal service either before the King or at the temple Raigama, p 652, where they danced at the preaching hall known as Dig – The Chinese emperor treated the captives with Ge. Digge or the Pillared porch was a main feature of the consideration , set Alagakkonara and his family free, and religious buildings in the Gampola period. ordered those from Ceylon to select ‘the most worthy vii .De Silva, P.H.D.H., 1975, A catalogue of Antiquities and member of the tribe ‘ to be placed on the throne. The choice other cultural objects from Sri Lanka abroad, National fell on a personage whose name appears as Yeh- pa- nai- museum of Sri Lanka, p 72 na- in the Chinese account. Accordingly he was sent back to Ceylon, bearing the seals of office and proclaimed king viii Ariyawathi, Ajantha ,Narthana Vikashaya, Maharagama, under Chinese suzerainty. The Chine chronicle Woo- heo- p74 peen has recorded that the king of Ceylon, obviously During the period of king Parakramabahu VI gifted many Parakramabahu VI, personally visited the Chinese Court, land grants to the Alaththi Ammas dancers who performed bearing tribute, in 1416, and 1421. In 1433 Digge dance at the god shrine.there were 24 female Parakramabahu Raja sent envoys to China bearing tribute. members in the group. Manikka Mahage of In 1436 the Sinhalese envoys who had been to China were Sabaragamuwa, manikka Mahage of Egoda Kuttama, sent back on board the tribute – junks from Java, an Hunuwila manikka mahage , Kandeniya Mahage are still Imperial mandate having been issued to that effect. In performimg the rituals dance to the god Saman at the 1445, the Sinhalese envoys to China went in company with Saman Devale Rathnapura. those from Malacca. The last reference to Ceylon in

References Jayasuriya M.H.F.2001. Vijayantatantra. Colombo: Godage Book Emporium. Bruce,Kapferer,1983,Exorism & the Aesthetics of Jayasuriya, Edmund. 2005. Hamsa sandeshaya. trans. healing in Sri Lanka, Bloomington,p19 Colombo: Central Cultural Fund Publication. Coomaraswamy, A. 1956. Medieval Sinhalese Art. 2nd Keiser, B. Susan.1998. The social psychology of clothing. ed. New York: Pantheon books New York: Fairchild publication. Ferguson, Donald.1907. The discovery of Ceylon by Kulasuriya, S.Anada. 1976. Regional independence and the Portuguese in 1905: Journal of Royal Asiatic elite change in the politics of 14th century Sri Society Ceylon Branch, vol xix, no.59: 284-400. Lanka: Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain Ireland, no.2:136-154. Huntington, Susan.L.1985. The art of ancient India. New York: Weather hill. Kumari, Nirmala. Y.1995. Social life as reflected in sculptures and paintings of the late Vijayanagar Jaffer, Amin . & Schwabe, and Anne. Melanie. 1999. A period. Madras: T.R publications Pvt Ltd. group of 16TH century ivory caskets from Ceylon,: Appllo Art the international magazine of the Michell, George.1995. The new cambridge history of oriental art,1-14. India: architecture & art of South India, Cambridge : Cambridge University press. [7] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka

Mudiyanse, Nadasena, n.d, The art and architecture of 1953. Sinhala sandesha vicharaya. Colombo: Gampola period. Colombo: M.D Gunasena. Malcom book shop. Pathmanathan, S. 1986/87. Buddhism and Hinduism Silva, K.M. De. 1981. A history of Sri Lanka. Delhi: in Sri Lanka AD 1300- 1600: Kalyani, University Oxford University Press. of Kelaniya, vol V/VI, 78-112 . Silva, Nimal. De. 1998. Art and crafts of Kotte, Pieris, P.E.1992. 2nd edition, Ceylon the Portuguese era, Battaramulla: Cultural Department. Vol 1, Dehiwala: Thisara Publishers. Silva, P.H.D.H. De. 1975. A catalogue of antiquities and Postel, Michel. 1989. Ear ornaments of ancient India. other cultural objects from Sri Lanka abroad. Bombay: Vakil & sons Ltd. Colombo: National museum of Sri Lanka. Ragawan, M.D. 1958. Spolia zelanica: Traditions and Stahapathi, Ganapathi.V. 2002. Indian sculpture and chronicles of the dance in Ceylon. Vol 28, 205-216. iconography forms and measurements, Ahmendabad: Sri Aurovindo Society. Raghavan, M. D. 1967. Sinhala natum. Colombo: M.D Gunasena & co ltd. Stella, Kranrisch. 1960, Indian sculpture. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania press. Schroeder, U, Von. 1990. Buddhist Sculptures of Sri Lanka. Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications. Wijesooriya, S.2004. Sinhahala sandesha kavya, Kotte: Shabageethwa Sanwardana parshadaya Senevirathna, John. M. 1915. The Mekhaladhama: Ceylon Antiquary and Literary Register, Vol 1, p II: 129-132. Silva, K.H. De and Abhayasinghe Wijayasriwardhane.

[8] Gayathri Ranathunga(1) Historical View of Foreign Influences on Queens’ and Elite Females’ Dress in the Kandyan Kingdom of Sri Lanka

(1) Fashion Design and Product Development, Department of Textile and Clothing Technology, Faculty of Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Katubedda, Sri Lanka. (email: [email protected])

Abstract: Foreign influences played a pivotal role in because they were the first ladies of the country. Royal changing ancient fashion trends of Sri Lanka from time females including the Queen, princesses and their to time .The influences made huge differences in relatives of the early 16th Century were converted to women’s fashions. As a result of foreign influences a Christianity. Most of the early royalties of the Kandyan new hybrid formation of fashions emerged in women’s Kingdom from their childhood grew up under dress. This research attempts to find out how different Portuguese protection. When Karalliyadde Bandara foreign influences caused exquisites fashions in queens’ (1552-82) (Father of Queen Dona Catherine), was and elite female dresses in the Kandyan Kingdom of expelled to Mannar by King Mayadunne of Sri Lanka. Sitawaka(1521-81), Karalliyadde Bandara and his two children accepted the Catholic faith expecting political Keywords: Foreign influences, Hybrid fashions, protection from the Portuguese (Lankananda 1996, Queens, Elite females, Kandyan Kingdom verses 73,76), they acquired considerable Portuguese cultural influences. The first Dutch admiral Jori Van Introduction Spilbergen who visited Kandy in 1602 AD reported that the Queen and her children all were dressed in the Kandy was the last Kingdom of Sri Lankan Christian manner (Paranavithana 1997:32). During the th administration which extended from the 14 century colonial occupation Queen Dona Catherine was a AD to 1815.The Kandyan era is the last and the first direct victim of Portuguese political pressures. The era of the early Sri Lankan administration during Portuguese kept her under their command as she was which both western and eastern foreign influences the rightful heir to the Kandyan throne. Queyros spread over the Kingdom within a short period of (Perera 1930, 483) expresses how she was cared for and time, namely South Indian, western (Portuguese, isolated purposely from her own people. It is said that Dutch, British) and Siamese. These influences caused “the general places Portuguese to guard the princess a huge impact on Kandyan costumes in every aspect and not allowing the Chingalaz to speak to her” like novel dress items and patterns, silhouette, (Perera 1930, 483). Nevertheless, Francisco de Silva, accessories, headdresses, dress materials, colours and who had brought the princess to the hill noticing her even the methodology of wearing. The importance of loneliness supplied a Portuguese lady (Catherina de this historical era is that for the first time Sri Lankan Abreu) and four religious at the order of St. Francis people were exposed to varied foreign clothing and one from the Society of Jesus for her company influences. (Perera 1930,482). The education imparted to princes Queens and Elite females bore the highest status and princesses’ knowledge of the manners and customs in civil society. Plenty of foreign influences were of royalty in the West was given to her. When she reflected in the costume of the queens and elite females married King Vimala Dharma Suriya I and became Queen of the Kandy she had enormous power, wealth [9] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka and connections and much awareness of following for all maritime lands around Sri Lanka. The political Western dress etiquettes. expansion of 1665 AD and the increase in the lands and subjects of the Dutch in Ceylon influenced deeply During the 16th Century the existing Sinhalese their trade policy (Arsarathnam 1956, 159). They could Buddhist tradition blended thoroughly with South now supply all these people with their clothing Indian Culture. The elementary reason was, King (Arsarathnam 1956,158).Then they strictly restricted Narendra Simha, the last Sinhalese king by blood had other private trading activities carried out by Hindus several matrimonial alliances with South Indian and Muslims and increased discriminatory duties. princesses ( Dewaraja 1988.38-45). The Nayakkar Therefore Sri Lankans had to be satisfied with the Kings’ era marks an important historical phase in textiles that were brought by the Dutch. The Dutch South Indian dress inspirations. As a result of King identified the interests of natives and largely supplied Narendrasingha’s marriage the Nayakkar supremacy those textiles (Arsarathnam 1956, 161). Brocade was started. King Narenrdasinhga’s wife was a princess of widely used in making the Kandyan Queens’ and elite ‘Madura’, he subsequently married two other sisters, females’ jackets. died without children and nominated the brother of the queens to succeed him. This began the Malabar Native consorts who belonged to elite families of dynasty(Dewaraja 1988) the Kandyan Kingdom belonged to high cast families () and they were the next fashion conscious The series of royal marriages with South Indian group of the Kandyan society. The elites consisted of families had created quite a colony in Kandy of high ranking officers in the King’s service. Higher Nayakkar relatives of the king, towards the middle of administrative officers were drawn from a few families the eighteenth century (Dewaraja 1988,43). Hence of radala rank. They were descendants of the Gampola Raghavan M D expresses that from 1739 to 1815 Kingdom. They were a powerful civil group from its Kandy had had its own impact on the socio-cultural origin and commonly known as ‘Bandaravaliya’. Th e y landscape of the political alliances with South India. had constant contests between each other for the This situation opened the door to Tamil social and throne (Lankananda 1996, Verse 428). Dewaraja (1988, cultural influences. They brought their own cultural 55) suggests that the title of Bandara was borrowed habits during the same reign. Language, their customs from the Tamil pandaram, priest of the vellala cast who and manners, beliefs and practices as dress and the way officiated in Siva Temples in South India and of life closely resembled those of South Indian families immigrated to Sri Lanka and then they were absorbed (Sastri 1955:302,303,304) . into the high cast called govikula. Dewaraja (1988, 60) Siamese textiles gradually became popular among suggests that the radala preserved its status by frequent Kandyans. During the Dutch occupational era, the intermarriages within its own ranks. Robert Knox Dutch especially brought Siamese textiles. Brocade (Knox 1966, 106) says that thus by each rank marrying could be seen only in the elite and royal family. This constantly within itself, the descent and dignity thereof was also an imported textile material from Batavia was preserved forever. Dewaraja (1988, 66) suggests (Indonesea).This textile type was widely known as that birth, office, wealth and military authority ‘Sangket’ in Indonesia. Somana, brocade (gold combined with a specific style of living and threaded fabric), silk and muslin were luxurious conspicuous status symbols made the radala a socially textiles used only by royalty and high nobles. privileged group. They were stuck in the group and Indonesian textiles like somana, silk, and brocade were hardly escaped from it. broadly imported by the Dutch East India Company Mante (collar) jacket and lower garment, Shawl during the 17th Century. Therefore during that time a (Lansoluwa) with long lower garment, canopy or common sartorial sense appeared among Sri Lankans. kerchief (mottakkiliya) and ohoriya (a dress) were the The Dutch maintained well a textile monopoly within main components of the queens’ and noble womens’ the country. They strategically made the environment attire. These clothing styles resembled Portuguese and so as to make the population depend only on their South Indian dress features. The full attire of a woman textiles. First of all they achieved the autocratic power

[10] Gayathri Ranathunga Historical View of Foreign Influences on Queens’ and Elite Females’ Dress in the Kandyan Kingdom of Sri Lanka

was completed with the lower garment, upper garment, necklace, earrings, armlets, anklets, belts, and headgear.

Materials and Method

The present analysis is explored through an observational study of actual descriptions made by observational - participants, historical records, murals of the period and reviewing ancient literature and research papers relevant to the subject. Memoing, coding and concept mapping helped to discover patterns of the Kandyan tradition. Reliability of the Figure 1 data incorporated for the research has been ensured. Queen Dona Catherine – (R.K. de. Silva. Beumer W.G.M, Illustrations and views of , Serendip The pictorial data were cross checked from different Publications, London, p.16) literary sources such as temple murals, cross checked with particular literature and interviews. Many original sources were used. Temple murals were compared with mante jacket (jacket with a collar contemporary sketches which were produced by part) with long lower garment. foreigners (true observations). Interviews with mante jacket (jacket with a collar part) with a academic scholars, artists, inheritances of Kandyan long lower garment is the most depicted dress in wall aristocrats enabled to build a strong logical analysis. paintings. Ananda Coomaraswamy (1956:34)in his ‘Medieval Sinhalese Art’ describes this fashion as, ‘The Western Dress dress of women of high cast consisted of a hette with mante like that of a man, and a cloth (helaya) round Direct Portuguese influences on Queen Dona the lions arranged in various ways’. The dress is Catherine (1602-1613 AD) were manifested in her depicted in many temple paintings as at dress habits. She wore a long robe like a draped dress Hanguranketha, Gangarama, Medawala and which had a front opening. This may be the original Degaldoruwa temple paintings. In the popular scenery shape of Portuguese elite women’s dresses. These kinds of attending the Buddha by a retinue of royal ladies of garments were known as ‘roppilios’ which indicates and on that occasion all noble females wore a short a large loose garment in Portuguese (Ferguson 1927, sleeved mante jacket and a long lower garment. 396). Loose sleeves had been gathered at the elbow. The skirt part was voluminous and ‘hand made lace These dress styles belonged to local queens who bands’ would have been attached all over making a did not follow western dress styles. The queens who horizontal design. Lace works was an exquisite were descended from the Gampola Kingdom and Portuguese influenced item of Sinhalese ladies dress followed the Gampola tradition might not have during the 16th century. Perera S.G (1922:45,60) gives covered the upper part of the body. Therefore, it is clear some Portuguese words in connection with lace that the jacket was introduced in later periods. With making. Biralu (bobbin), Bikkuva( in dress- making the arrival of queen Dona Catherine the rest of the the Sinhalese use Bikkuva for a pattern cut to a point. local queens tended to change them. It is quite visible Lace makers apply it to points in lace. A belt was worn through pictorial evidences that Sinhalese queens did at the waist. The method of wearing would have been not follow the same dress styles as Dona Catherine, but easy and simple. The Queen tied her hair at the top as took some elements like mante, jacket, hair pin and a knot. She might have arranged her hair in Portuguese lace. fashion. Mante jacket was a newly introduced sartorial item for the local queens’ costume as mentioned [11] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka

earlier. It shows the direct influences of Portuguese fashion. Coomaraswamy (1905,20) also states that the female jacket shows either Portuguese or Dutch influences. Loose waist coat typemante jacket, tight, body fitted, highmandarin collar jacket, pleated jacket with a tail were different styles of jackets. Short sleeves or long sleeves would have been added according to the wearer’s desire as depicted in temple paintings.

The lower garment which was meant to be worn with mante jacket was long up, to the ankle. The lower garment consisted of two pieces of cloths; each was arranged into different levels and that arrangement Figure 2 emphasised the body contour. The whole arrangement seemed as a series of fabrics wrapped around the A royal lady (Davy J, 1821, An Account of the Interior of posterior and the calves were made to look like lotus Ceylon and of Its Inhabitants, London: Longman,p.124-125) buds just before opening.

The lower garment style shows positive traces of Canopy or Kerchief South Indian influences. The lower garment Canopy or Kerchief traditionally called th arrangement is similar to 17 century Nayak queens’ mottakkiliya was a newly introduced dress item from and noble women’s costumes. Indian style of lower South Indian dress styles during the Kandyan reign. garment is called the sakaccha style which reaches The whole body was fully covered by mottakkiliya down to the ankles. The goddesses and queens wore according to social laws or religious purposes. their lower garment in the same pattern. In this Mottakkiliya was definitely a queens’ dress code garment the front was arranged in a decorative style because in a wooden panel, where the king and queen with fan- shaped ends (Kumari 1995,34). are painted, the queen wears a mottakkiliya. This might At first the lowest layer might have been worn by have come directly from South Indian Nayak queens’ wrapping it around the waist .Then the second one dress etiquettes. It seems that the dress habits of hangs from the back up to the ankle and in the front Nayaks’ were limited only to themselves. In the the lower end rises upward and is tucked at the hip. Degaldoruwa murals two categories of queens can be The shortest one which goes around the back again is identified by their costumes. Some noble women were also tucked at the hip at the front side. The dress was depicted with mottakkiliya and some with mante jacket tightened round the waist by a belt. Finally two falls and long lower garment. However, in those paintings including deep and short falls were hanging from the it is clearly evident that the women who wore front. These falls would have been worn separately at mottakkiliya were respected and treated honorably by the end of the dressing. In many paintings at a glance the royal family and noble women. Hence it can be it is seen as a pleated fall, obviously the artist must have suggested that mottakkiliya might have been practised depicted it with subtle coloured stripes. Finally, the as a royal queens’ dress for some time. This costume abdominal part of each woman is seen as very bulky as might have been arranged by a long lower cloth, the several wads of fabric are gathered at the hip. hood part being arranged by one edge of the lower garment being draped over the head.

[12] Gayathri Ranathunga Historical View of Foreign Influences on Queens’ and Elite Females’ Dress in the Kandyan Kingdom of Sri Lanka

Figure 3 Figure 4 Elite Females with Mottakkiliya. Murals of Degaldoruwa Queen with Lansoluwa. Murals of Hindagala

Lansoluwa Ohoriya

Another popular dress style was Lansoluwa Ohoriya was introduced, modified and which was often thrown over the shoulder. Lansoluwa completed during the period with the help of foreign was a kind of long shawl worn by Sinhalese women for influences. Ananda Coomaraswamy (1956,34) claims a long period of time. It was normally worn with a that ‘ohoriya is no doubt of Tamil origin’. The evolution simply wrapped cloth (redda) for the lower part. of the ohoriya can be narrated with the support of However during the kandyan reign, lansoluwa had temple paintings. Ananda Coomaraswamy (1956,34) been used to cover the women’s head. It seems as a suggests that ohoriya is derived from the long lower mottakkiliya of South Indian queens. However, the garment. This dress code is shown inHindagala and dress is different from the South Indian queen’s Malaagammana temple murals where the oldest form mottakkiliya. South Indian queens are always depicted of ohoriya is shown. There women were depicted with well covered bodies. Lansoluwa had not been without the jacket .According to these paintings it can used to cover the upper body properly as always it be suggested that the ohori pota (the long fold which hardly covered the upper body. This etiquette is similar flows over one shoulder) had been used to cover the to early Sinhalese women’s dress practice. It would have upper body earlier. Later ohoriya was completed with been worn as a fashionable item as it was always a body fitted jacket. Ohoriya with jacket is an amazing adorned with beautiful traditional designs with blend of Eastern and Western flavor.Ohoriya is multiple colours. These women are always depicted arranged from one end of the lower garment and that with the king. Therefore these women definitely part is thrown over one shoulder. resemble local queens. The style of covering the head with lansoluwa would have been adapted to the local queens’ dress styles during the Kandyan reign. Therefore it is possible to assume that local queens might have made an effort to follow the South Indian queen’s mottakkiliya as foreign queens were considered superior to local queens. Figure 5 The methodology of wearingohoriya ( Ambrose Kay, 1980, Classical Dances and Costumes of India, New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, p.92).

Since the 18th century Ohoriya has continued as the basic garment among elite females. It is the national costume of Sinhalese women. [13] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka

Garlands and large pendants were essentially worn by queens and elite females. Coomaraswamy suggests that in the case of Kandyan chains, they have names of flowers or seeds such aspol-mal-malaya (coconut- flower –necklace),aralu-malaya (aralu-seed- necklace) which are highly characteristic of Indian art. Coomaraswamy remarks that these names are reminiscent of the garlands of real flowers which play such an important part in Indian festivals. Kumari,N.Y (1995.50) remarks that ‘apart from gold, pearl, Figure 6 diamond and gem neck-ornaments, there are necklaces Ladies of Kandy Coomaraswamy A; 1959, Meadival made of seeds, beads, flowers, cotton and other humble Sinhalese Art, National Museum Colombo, II plate. materials like guriginja seeds and garlands of pikili The last queen of the Kandyan kingdom Venkata flowers. It can be suggested that Indian jewellery Rangamal would have worn a more developed version concepts would have influenced Sinhalese jewellery of South Indian dress styles. According to her portrait also. she seems to have worn a body fitted jacket with Western influences are clearly evident in names sleeves flowing to the elbows. She wore a long lower and designs of . Alpentiya (pin), garment and she covered her shoulders with a shawl. Arungole (ear-ring), Avana (Fan),Boralikkama (medal), The shawl seems to be made of brocade or satin fabric. Ganchuva (hook), Gesbara ( waist-belt) Such words A jacket of the queen Venkata Rangamal has been might have entered the native culture with design conserved by the National Museum of Colombo. elements from the Portuguese. Da Silva Cosme Vangeyzel (2008:242) in her careful observation states (1990.499) states that the Portuguese bracelet/ bracal that the jacket was made of an imported fabric. The has left its traces in the Sinhala word barsal and also fabric is of silk material with a floral pattern of red, he states that karabu for ear-ornament is derived from dark blue and golden yellow and it was hand woven. cravo which gives the meaning of small nail and also spice. Coomaraswamy suggests that Jewellery items of combs, brooches and rings show low-country Dutch influences. Coomaraswamy also labels brooches, buttons and ear-rings as Indo-Portuguese jewelleries.

Figure 7 Queen Venkata Rangamal Andreas,N.,1916,Portrait of a Kandyan Queen, Journal of Royal Asiatic Society (C. B)N. &Q.,Vol XXIV,part VI,n.i,xcv-c,p,xcv.

Jewellery Figure 8 Coomaraswamy (1956.211) indicates a range of South Indian design influenced jewellery jewellery worn by Kandyan females like ear-rings, (Coomaraswamy A; 1956, ‘Medieval Sinhalese Art’, National Museum Colombo,plate XXIII.) chains, pendants, girdles, bracelets and finger rings. Kandyan women possessed a range of jewellery.

[14] Gayathri Ranathunga Historical View of Foreign Influences on Queens’ and Elite Females’ Dress in the Kandyan Kingdom of Sri Lanka Conclusion Knox, R. 1966. Historical Relation of Ceylon. Colombo: Tissara Prakasakayo. Different clothing habits would have been popular among queens and noble women as different Kumari, N.Y. 1995.Social life as Reflected in Sculptures foreign influences were exerted over the social and Paintings of late Vijayanagara period (AD organization of the Kandyan Kingdom. The majority 1500-1650)(with special reference to Andra), T.R. of influences came from South India because many of Publications Pvt, Ltd, PMG Complex, II floor, 57. the queens were fetched from South India. Because South Usman Road, T Nagar, Madras. they were honorably treated and considered as rightful Lankananda, L. 1996 .Mandarampurapuwatha. heirs to the queenship, gradually their fashion became Department of Cultural Affairs. popular among Singhalese high noble women. The native queens (yakada doli) and other elite females Paranavitana, K.D. trans. 1997. Journal Of Spilbergen: always tried different fashions to make a unique native the first dutch envoy to ceylon 1602. Published by character by observing the superior queens. the Author.

It is revealed that the noble women’s attires show Perera S. G.1922, Portuguese influence on Sinhala hybrid formation of western and South Indian and Speech, The Ceylon Antiquary and Literature Sinhalese traditional sartorial features. They combined Register, Vol. VIII, part.I, July, p.45-60. different foreign dress items together and made their Perera, S.G. 1930. (trns.) Queyros; Father FernaoDe,The own one like the full costume of ohoriya. The way of Temporal and Spiritual Conquest of Ceylon. New assimilating foreign influences to Sri Lankan elite Delhi: J. Jettey for Asian Educational Services. female dress was special to Sri Lankan culture. All the Volume. II, Book 3-4. foreign influences were filtered and converted in accordance with their own culture. Though they were Raghavan M D; Tamil Culture in Ceylon, A General inspired by the current trends they arranged them Introduction, Kalai Nilayam, 19 Milagiriya according to their own fashion consciousness. Avenue, Colombo 4, p.54 Shasthri, N.K.A. 1955. The History of South India: from References Pre Historic time to the fall of Vijayanagar. Geoffrey Cumberlege. Oxford University Press. Arasaratnam, S. 1958. Dutch Power in Ceylon 1658- 1687. The Netherlands Institute for International Vangeyzel, G.E. 2008.Traditional Textiles, In the Cultural Relations. Colombo National Museum, Published by National Museum Colombo. Coomaraswamy, A. 1959 .Meadival Sinhalese Art. Published by the National Museum. Sri Lanka.

Coomaraswamy, A. 1905. Borrowed Plums, (Some Kandyan crafts, A lecture given in the Town Hall, Kandy, November, 14, 1904), Author: at the Industrial School. da Silva, Cosme. O.M.1990. Fidalgos in the Kingdom of Kotte 1505-1656. Colombo: Harwoods.

Dewaraja, L. S. 1988. (Second edit.), The Kandyan Kingdom of Sri Lanka 1707-1782, Pannipitiya: Stamford Lake (Pvt) Ltd.

Ferguson, D. 1907. The Discovery of Ceylon by the Portuguese in 1506. Journal of Royal Asiatic Society (C. B).vol. XIX. no. 59. [15]