Al –Neelain University Graduate College Comparative Study on The

Al –Neelain University Graduate College

Comparative Study on the Natural Vegetation Status and Floristic Composition through Different Ecosystems in Bura'a Natural Reserve, AL-Hodaidah, Yemen

A thesis Submitted to AL-Neelain University in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the A ward of the Degree of M.Sc. in Biology (Eco- Taxonomy)

BY: Kamal Ahmed Abdullah Mini

Supervisor: Dr. Alawia Abdalla Elawad Co -Supervisor: Dr. Ezzy Ahmed Faqeeh

2018

جمهورٌة السودان جامعة النٌلٌن كلٌة الدراسات العلٌا

دراسة مقارنة عن حالة الغطاء النباتي الطبيعي والتركيب النباتي من خالل أنظمة بيئية مختلفة في محمية ب رع- الحديدة- اليمن

أطروحة مقدمة لتحقٌق متطلبات الحصول على درجة الماجستٌر فً علم األحٌاء

)بٌئة وتصنٌف نبات(

إعداد الطالب/

كمال أحمد عبد هللا مٌنً

المشرف الرئٌسً/

د/علوٌة عبد هللا العوض

المشرف المساعد/

د/عزي أحمد فقٌه

8102

اآليــة

ﭧ ﭨ ﭷ ﭸ ﭹ ﭺ ﭻ ﭽ ﮁ ﮂ ﮃ

ﮄ ﮅ ﮆ ﮇ ﮈ ﮉ ﮊ ﮋ ﮌ ﮍ

ﮎ ﮏ ﮐ ﮑ ﮒ ﮓ ﮔﮕ ﮖ ﮗ ﮘﮙ ﮚ ﮛ

ﮜ ﮝ ﮞ ﭼ النمل: ٥٩ - ٦٠

Dedication

To the person who has drunk the empty cup to hold me a drop of love To the person whose finger have been tired in order to give me a moment of happiness To the person who has harvested the thorns from my spines in order to pave the way for me To the great heart (my dear father)

To the Woman who give me love and kindness To the Sign of love and balm of healing To the pure white heart (my beloved mother)

To my path companion and amiability in this life To the cheeks of the soul and the healing of wounds (my dear wife)

To the pure and kind hearts and the innocent souls To my light of live my nice brothers (A'adel, Abduh, Khalid, Naseem, Ali and my dear sisters) To those who accompanied me and encouraged my footsteps when days had overtaken them, all my wishes and appreciation (my family)

To whom I learned the love of science and sacrifice for it (my friends)

Acknowledgement

First of all, all thanks and gratitude be to the Almighty, Allah for his kindness and helping me in the completion of this study, praise be to Allah.

I am extremely grateful to all those who cooperated with me, especially in the first place my Supervisor Dr. Alawia Abdalla Elawad, who had the great credit for encouraging me to continue my study; gave me much of her time and knowledge.

I render special thanks to Dr. Ezzi Ahmed Ezzi Faqeeh, Hodaidah University, for his preference to Co-Supervisor my study throughout the preparatory period and for doing his best efforts in guiding and monitoring me. I also acknowledge Dr. Abdul- Al-wali Alkulaidi, professor of Botany for providing me with scientific opinions and references.

Also, I render a considerable thanks to the engineer Yasser Abduh Al-ghubair, the member of the General Authority for the Protection of the Environment, Hodaidah governorate; and engineer Faisal Al-thaalabi, the director of the General Authority for the Protection of the Environment, Aden governorate for providing me the basic information about the reserve scientific references.

Last but not least, I extended my thanks to the brothers who had cooperated with me, supported me, and encouraged me to pursue my postgraduate studies especially my dear uncle Ali Ahmed Al- Ghobri, the member of parliament and my dear uncle T. Omar Abdullah Mini and my dear brothers A'adel, Abduh, Khalid, Naseem , Ali. All thanks to all who contributes in the production of this research.

Researcher

Index Page No

I آّخ

Dedication II

Acknowledgement III

List of contents IV

List of map V

List of Tables VI

List of figures VI

List of Plates VI

Abstract (English) IX

Abstract (Arabic) XI

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction and Literature Review 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.1.1 Preamble 1

1.1.2 Justifications for the study 2

1.1.3Objectives of the study 3

1.2 Literature Review 3

1.2.1 Nature reserves 3

1.2.2 Vegetation Cover 5

1.2.3 Flora studies 5

1.2.4 Economic Value of Vegetation 8

CHAPTER TWO

Material and methods 9

2.1 Description of study Area 9

2.1.1 Geographical Location 9

2.1.2 Physical Environment 10

2.1.2.1Geology of study Area 10

2.1.2.2 Soil 10

2.1.2.3 Features Of Climate & Weather 10

2.1.2.3.1 General Characteristics of Climate 10

2.1.2.3.2 Rainfall 10

2.1.2.3.3 Winds 12

2.1.2.3.4 Temperature 12

2.1.2.3.5 Relative Humidity 12

2.1.2.4 Water Resources 12

2.1.3 Social Setting and Production Systems 14

2.1.3.1 Population Composition 14

2.1.3.2 population characteristics 14

2.1.3.3 Pattern of Livelihood 15

2.1.3.3.1 Agricultural System 15

2.1.3.3.2 Non Agricultural 15

2.2 Plant diversity and Vegetation Assessment 16

2.2.1 Qualitative Assessment 16

2.2.2 Quantitative Assessment 17

2.2.2.1 Vegetation Sampling 17

2.2.2.2Vegetation analysis 18

CHAPTER THREE

Results and Discussion 20

3.1 Qualitative Taxonomic Assessments 20

3.1.1 Floristic Composition 20

3.1.1.1Pteridophyta(Non Seeded Plants) 20

3.1.1.2Angiosperms(Seeded and Flowering Plants) 20

3.2 Quantitative assessment 65

3.2.1 Phytosociological analysis 65

3.2.1.1 Upper Zone 65

3.2.1.2 Medium Zone 69

3.2.1.3 Lower Zone 73

3.3 Conclusion 77

3.4 Recommendations 78

References 80

LIST OF MAP

Map (1): Bura'a Nature Reserve 9

Map (2): Studied vegetation sites 65

LIST OF TABLES

Table (1): nature reserves in Yemen officially announced. 4

Table (2): Coordinates of studied sites 18

LIST OF Figures

Figure (2.1): Average monthly and annual precipitation (mm) 11

Figure (2.2): Monthly average of wind intensity (2000-2009) (S/M) 11

Figure (2.3): Monthly average temperature 13

Figure (2.4): Persentage relative humidity recorded (2000 - 2009) 13

Figure (3.1): Percentage of Species in the Families in the Study Area 62

Figure (3.2): Economic uses of the studied plant 62

Figure (3.3): similarity between the studied zones 63

Figure (3.4): Relative abundance, relative density, relative frequency and 67 importance value index for Trees and shrubs in upper

Figure (3.5): Relative abundance, relative density, relative frequency and 68 importance value index for herbs and under shrubs in upper zone

Figure (3.6): ) Relative abundance, relative density, relative frequency 71 and importance value index for trees and shrubs in medium zone

Figure (3.7): Relative abundance, relative density, relative frequency and 72 importance value index for herbs and under shrubs in medium zone

Figure (3.8): Relative abundance, relative density, relative frequency and 74 importance value index for trees and shrubs in lower zone

Figure (3.9): Relative abundance, relative density, relative frequency and 74 importance value index for trees and under shrubs in lower zone

LIST OF Plates

Plates (1&2): Aleuritopteris farinosa (Forssk.) Fée 21

Plates (3&4): Annona squamosa L. 21

Plates (5&6): Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott 21

Plates (7&8): Sadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf 23

Plates (9&10): Aloe officinalis Forssk. 23

Plates (11&12): Sansevieria forskaliana (Schult. &Schult.f.) Hepper & J. 23 R. I. Wood

Plates (13&14): Phoenix dactylifera L. 26

Plates (15&16): Stipagrostis hirtigluma (Steud. ex Trin. & Rupr.) De 26 Winter

Plates (17&18): Themeda triandra Forssk 26

Plates (19&20): Cissus rotundifolia Vahl 29

Plates (21&22): Cissus quadrangularis L. 29

Plates (23&24): Rhoicissus revoilii Planch 29

Plates (25&26): Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile 31

Plates (27&28): Tamarindus indica L 31

Plates (29&30): Acacia asak (Forssk.) Willd 31

Plates (31&32): Acacia ehrenbergiana Hayne 34

Plates (33&34): Albizia lebbeck (l.) benth 34

Plates (35&36): Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. 34

Plates (37&38): Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. 36

Plates (39&40): Barbeya oleoides Schweinf. 36

Plates (41&42): Ziziphus spina-christi (L.)Desf. 36

Plates (43&44): Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl. 39

Plates (45&46): Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. 39

Plates (47&48): Ficus populifolia Vahl 39

Plates (49&50): Ficus sycomoruqs L. 41

Plates (51&52): Ficus vasta Forssk. 41

Plates (53&54): Trichilia emetica Vahl 41

Plates (55&56): Gymnosporia dhofarensis (Sebsebe) Jordaan 43

Plates (57&58): Acalypha fruticosa Forssk 43

Plates (59&60): Jatropha curcas L. 43

Plates (61&62): Terminalia brownii Fresen 46

Plates (63&64): Commiphora quadricincta Schweinf. 46

Plates (65&66): Mangifera indica L. 46

Plates (67&68): Vepris nobilis (Delile) Mziray 48

Plates (69&70): Grewia tembensis Fresen. 48

Plates (71&72): Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. ex Poir. 48

Plates (73&74): Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill 51

Plates (75&76): Breonadia salicina (Vahl) Hepper & J.R.I.Wood 51

Plates (77&78): Adenium obesum (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult 51

Plates (79&80): Cynanchum viminale (L.) L. 53

Plates (81&82): Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. 53

Plates (83&84): Kanahia laniflora (Forssk.) R.Br. 53

Plates (85&86): Leptadenia arborea (Forssk.) Schwein 56

Plates (87&88): Convolvulus arvensis L. 56

Plates (89&90): Olea europaea L 56

Plates (91&92): Mentha× piperita L. 58

Plates (93&94): Ocimum basilicum L. 58

Plates (95&96): Barleria bispinosa (Forssk.) Vahl 58

Plates (97&98): Anisotes trisulcus (Forssk.) Nees 60

Plates (99&100): Psiadia punctulata (DC.) Vatke 60

Appendix 12

Appendix A

Table (2.1): shows the amount of monthly and annual precipitation (mm)

Table (2.2): shows the wind intensity recor-ded from the period 2000- 2009 (S / M) as monthly average. Table (2.3): shows temperature and monthly average

Table (2.4): shows the relative humidity recorded from the period (2000 - 2009) (%) Appendix B

Table (3.1): Species list, Life forms and Economic values

Appendix C

Table (3.2): Distribution of Species in the Vegetation Zones

Table (3.3): Index of similarity

Appendix D

Table (3.4): Percentage Relative abundance (RF), relative density (RA), relative frequency(RF) and importance value index(IVI) for trees and shrubs in upper site

Table (3.5): Percentage Relative abundance (RF), relative density (RA), relative frequency(RF) and importance value index(IVI)for herbs and under shrubs in upper site

Table (3.6): Percentage Relative abundance (RF), relative density (RA), relative frequency(RF) and importance value index(IVI)for trees and shrubs in medium site

Table (3.7):Percentage Relative abundance (RF), relative density (RA), relative frequency(RF) and importance value index(IVI) for herbs and

12 under shrubs in medium site

Table (3.8): Percentage Relative abundance (RF), relative density (RA), relative frequency(RF) and importance value index(IVI)for trees and shrubs in lower site

Table (3.9): Percentage Relative abundance (RF), relative density (RA), relative frequency(RF) and importance value index (IVI)for herbs and under shrubs in lower site

Abstract

The aim of the present study is to document the natural vegetation status and floristic composition in selected ecosystems in Bura’a Natural Reserve -Tehama region- Yemen; and to provide a recent species list. The work-plan was designed to cover two disciplines: taxonomic qualitative assessment and quantitative phytosociology parameters. The study area was divided randomly into three zones: upper, medium and lower, based on the degree of elevation above sea level. The inductive method was used as a basic method and the descriptive approach was used as an assistant method to assess the total number of plant species. For quantitative assessment 6 sites were selected; 2 in each zone, In each site 2 circular 0.1 ha. plots were conducted for studying trees and shrubs; the number of trees and shrubs species and the number of individual of each species per/plot were counted. For assessing herbaceous plants four 2 m x 2 m quadrate were randomly established in each plot; from the counted data phytosociological parameter namely: density, abundance, frequency and importance value index were calculated.

The results of flora survey identified 50 plant species including one non flowering plant/Pteridophyte and 49 flowering plant/Angiosperms. The Angiosperms species belong to 43 genera included within 28 families falling in 21 orders. The floral assessment was presented in a list that includes: updated scientific names, synonym, local names, a brief description of the collected taxa and distribution of the plant in Yemen. Reference is given to the local traditional uses of each species. Photographs are given to illustrate important morphological features of the plant. The floristic composition showed that Fabaceae is represented by the highest number of species (6 species) followed by Apocynaceae and Moraceae (5 species). The life form spectrum exhibited predominant of phanerophytes (trees and shrubs) including 32 species followed by Chamaephytes. The economic uses show that most of taxa are of economic value; 25 species are fodder plants most of them are woody or browsed plant, 24 species utilized for timber, some used for medicinal purposes and others used as human food. Similarity between the studied zones shows that the upper and medium zones are most similar (56 %). The similarity between the upper and medium zones in relation to the lower zone is (36%).

Quantitative assessment reveals that the distribution of the collected taxa varies within the different vegetation zones. The results showed relative differences between the zones. The middle zone scores the highest plant diversity (36 species) followed by the upper zone (31 species); whereas the diversity of the plant species in the lower zone is very low (13 species) with a high increase in the richness of the recorded species. Prosopis juliflora is the most spread species in the reserve; also Cissus rotundifolia, Ficus ingens and Sansevieria forskaliana are in all zones. The study suggested recommendations that might help in eco-taxonomic studies and conservation knowledge that might promote improvement and management of the natural vegetation in Bura’a Natural Reserve.

المستخلص

اليدف من ىذه الدراسخ ىٌ رٌثْق حبلخ الغطبء النجبرِ الطجؼِْ ًالززكْت النجبرِ فيِ أنظميخ ثْئْيخ مخزبرح فِ محمْخ ثُزع الطجؼْْخ - منطقخ ريبمخ - اليْمن. ًلزقيدّ قبئميخ اننيٌاع الحدّثيخ. ُُيممذ خطيخ الؼمييت لز يمت نييػٌْن مين الزقْْمييبد: الزقْيْ النييػٌِ الزفينْ ِ ًرقْييْ رزكْجيخ المعمػٌييبد النجبرْييخ. قسييمذ منطقييخ الدراسييخ ػ يٌائْبإ ىليَ ثي س نطبقييبد: الؼلييٌُ، ًالٌسييطِ، ًالسيي لِ رجؼيب إ لدرجخ االرر بع ػين مسيزٌٍ سيطا الجحيز. اسيزخدا المينيا االسيزقزائِ كمينيا أسبسيِ ًالمينيا الٌُي ِ كميينيا مسيبػد لزقْييْ الؼيد ال لييِ لألنيٌاع النجبرْييخ. ثبلنسيجخ للزقْييْ ال ميِ، ريي اخزْييبر 6 مٌاقغ فِ كت المنطقخ؛ مٌقؼْن فِ كت نطبق؛ ًفِ كت مٌقغ ري ىجيزاء مخططيْن ائيزّْن ى زيبر لدراسخ انشعبر ًال عْزاد؛ ر ػد انشعبر ًال عْزاد ػًد انفزا من كت نٌع ل يت قطؼيخ. لزقْْ النجبربد الؼ جْخ ر ىن بء أرثغ مزثؼبد 2 مزز x 2مزز ػ ٌائْب فِ كت قطؼخ؛ مين الجْبنيبد الزِ ر ىحفبءىب ر حسبة ال ثبفخ، الٌفزح، الزز ًمؤشز قْمخ انىمْخ.

حد د نزبئا مسا ال لٌرا 50 نػٌب إ نجبرْب إ منيب نجبد ًاحد غْز مشىيز رزّيدُ ً 44نجيبد مشىيز / مغطبح الجذًر. رنزمِ أنٌاع نجبربد مغطبح الجذًر ىلَ 43 جن إسب ضمن ػ 22بئلخ أً ففْلخ اخيت 21 ررجخ. ر رقدّ رقْْ ال لٌرا فِ قبئمخ رزضمن: انسمبء الؼلمْخ المحدثخ، ًالمزا فبد، ًانسمبء المحلْخ، ًًُ ب إ مٌجشا إ لألُنبف الزِ جمؼذ ًانز ب ر النٌع النجيبرِ فيِ اليْمن كميب ري اإلشيبرح ىلَ االسزخدامبد المحلْخ الزقلْدّخ ل ت اننٌاع. ًري ىػطيبء ُيٌر فٌرٌغزافْيخ لزٌضيْا السيمبد المٌرفٌلٌجْخ اليبميخ للنجيبد. أظييزد الززكْجيخ النجبرْيخ أا ال فيْلخ القزنْيخ (Fabaceae) ممثليخ ثأكجز ػد من اننٌاع )6 أنٌاع( مزجػٌخ ثبلدفلْخ )Apocynaceae( ًالزٌرْخ (Moraceae( )5 أنٌاع(. أظيز رز ش ت الحْبح سْطزح انشعبر ًال عْزاد ًر مت 32 نػٌب رلْيب 12 نػٌبإ من انػ يبة المؼمييزح ًرحيذ ال ييعْزاد. ثْنييذ االسييزخدامبد االقزفيب ّخ أا مؼظيي انُيينبف اد قْميخ اقزفيب ّخ ؛ 25 نػٌيبإ مين النجبريبد الؼل ْيخ مؼظمييب نجبريبد خ يجْخ، 24 رسيزغت لألخ يبة، ًثؼضيييب ّسييزخد نغييزا غجْييخ ًغْزىييب رسييزخد كأغذّييخ ث ييزّخ. ظيييز الز ييبثو ثييْن المنييبغق المدرًسييخ أا القطييبع الؼلييٌُ ًالمزٌسيي أكثييز ر ييبثيب )56٪(. ًأا نسييجخ الز ييبثو ثييْن القطييبػْن الؼلٌُ ًالمزٌس مقبرنخ إ ثبلقطبع الس لَ ٪36.

أثدٍ الزقْْ ال مِ أا رٌسّغ اننٌاع النجبرْخ الزِ ر جمؼيب ّخزلف اخت قطبػبد الغطبء النجبرِ المخزل خ. أظيزد النزبئا اخز فب إ نسجْب إ ثْن المنبغق. سعلذ المنطقخ الٌسطَ أػلَ رنٌع نجبرِ )36 نٌ إػب( رجؼزيب المنطقخ الؼلْب )31 نٌ إػب(؛ فِ حْن أا رنٌع اننٌاع النجبرْخ فِ المنطقخ الس لْخ منخ ض للغبّخ )13 نٌ إػب( مغ سّب ح ػبلْخ فِ ًفزح اننٌاع المسعلخ. السْبل/ السٌل

انمزّ ِ (Prosopis juliflora)ىٌ أكثز اننٌاع انز ب إرا فِ المحمْخ؛ أّضب الحلص (Cissus rotundifolia(، الضزف (Ficus ingens(، السلت (Sansevieria forskaliana) رزٌاجد فِ جمْغ القطبػبد. اقززحذ الدراسخ رٌُْبد قد رسبػد فِ الدراسبد الزفنْ ْخ الجْئْخ ًمؼزفخ غزق المحبفظخ الزيِ قد رؼشس رحسْن ًى ارح الغطبء النجبرِ الطجؼِْ فِ محمْخ ث ُزع الطجؼْْخ.

CHAPTER ONE Introduction and Literature Review

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Preamble

The attempts to classify all plants have gradually shifted from artificial, natural to phylogenetic systems. Phylogenetic systems classify plants according to their evolutionary sequence and relationship. The most advanced system of flowering plant classification is the molecular-based system which has been developed by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. The first version (APG I) was published in (1998), followed with APG II (2003) and APG III (2009) which was accompanied with a separate linear arrangement (Haston et al., 2009). A modern system APG IV was published in 2016.

Distinguishing plant communities has been part of vegetation science for centuries, with a traditional focus on the distribution, composition and classification of plant communities (Kashian et al., 2003).

Biodiversity conservation has become an urgent necessity and a branch of the development of scientific capabilities to derive health, economic and social benefits (Al-Osaimi, 2004).

A protected natural reserve is genetically conserved for the biodiversity of its plant and animal species, including endemic and rare. From the scientific point of view and the genetic value of biological diversity, a wealth and national heritage must be preserved )Tour Guide of Bura'a Protected Area, 2006).

Republic of Yemen is an Arab country in Western Asia, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is the second largest country in the peninsula. The country is characterized by variable soil types, which are mainly influenced by effects of local factors such as topography, parent material and broad climatic zones. Yemen is one of the richest countries in the Arab region with plant biodiversity. The geographical location and the landmarks of the topography have contributed to a great diversity in the natural environment. The climatic changes that

18 have taken place in Yemen since different times have led to a distinct plant biodiversity (Abbas, 1994).Yemen has been selected by the IUCN Arabian Plant Specialist Group as one of the important plant areas in the Arabian Peninsula (AL- Abbasi, 2010). In biodiversity, the competent authorities of Yemen have devoted attention to the protection of ecosystems and their vital components, as well as the protection of natural and cultural characteristics and features to improve the economic and social conditions of Yemeni society, preserve the vocabulary of wildlife in their natural habitat from extinction, and to promote natural communities (Environmental Bulletin, 2006).

Al Hodaidah is a governorate in Yemen that borders the Red Sea and is part of the narrow Tehama region. It is a mountainous region, with topographic features dominated by mountains that are dissected by seasonal Khors. In addition to lowland plains, the region consists of some high plateaus. One of Al Hodaidah districts is Bura’a which includes one of the last remaining Arabian forests, Bura’a Reserve, hides between the sea and the desert in the shelter of the magnificent granite. Jabal Bura’a mountain overlooking the Tehama plain onto the Red Sea.

Bura’a Reserve is selected for the present study because it exhibits wide topographical variations; which are reflected in vegetation diversity. An accurate description of the biodiversity of Bura’a Reserve is hard to provide, and detailed studies on the floristic composition and vegetation status of the proposed area are few. The biodiversity used to be even greater before the impact of climate change and the effects of human interference. The recent construction of tarmac road has disrupted the local water supplies and damaged the unique local fauna and flora (Al-Maqtari, 2012).

This study is designed as a comparative study to represent an aspect of plant diversity in Bura’a Natural Reserve, the status of natural vegetation cover and plant structures through various environmental systems in the reserve.

1.1.2 Justifications for the study The study area has not received rigorous systematic studies before, and intensive efforts and studies are therefore an urgent need to know the present status of the region. Economic activities have a negative impact on the Reserve area. The most important justification for the study is assessment of the effect of human activities, such as grazing, road construction and felling as well as the spread of invasive plants

19 such as Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. (Al-seyal) and Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. (Ushar), which may lead to the extinction of important plant species and the degradation of ecosystems.

1.1.3 Objectives:

The main objective of the present study is to document the natural vegetation status and floristic composition in selected ecosystems in the study area and to provide a recent species list. Other objectives include the following: 1- To assess the plant species diversity, density and stand structure of the different ecosystems in relation to topography (hills, plains and seasonal valleys), by providing a quantitative description of the flora. 2- To investigate the present floristic composition and make reference collections. 3- Updating the scientific names of the plants in the study area, this has been subjected to great changes and modifications. 4- To conduct an ethno-botanical study to evaluate the relationship between the local people and their land. 5- An attempt to monitor the environmental risks affecting the reserve. 1.2 Literature Review: 1.2.1 Natural reserves: The protected areas are defined as areas of land, inland water or coastal, or both, which enjoy special protection for the protection of living organisms from extinction, including the protection of archaeological sites (Environmental Protection Law, 1445). The origins of different forms of protected areas and the protection of resources have been more than two thousand years. In the twentieth century some references indicate that the Greeks, Romans and ancient Egyptians from the Middle Ages were the first to develop protected area systems. Conservation of nature has a long history in the Arabian Peninsula. The concept of biosphere reserves was created with the establishment of Man and its Biosphere Program (MAB) in the framework of UNESCO in 1971) Environment, 2001).

The main objective of the reserve is to protect and conserve biological diversity, scientific research or environmental monitoring, environmental tourism and benefits for the local population (Natural Reserves in the Sultanate of Oman, 2006).

Also, reserves protect the environments in which organisms are living and form a complex and balanced structure; and to fulfill the continuity of mankind in utilizing the natural resources to meet their growing needs (Obadi, 1993). Other purposes of the reserve may be to maintain a species of endangered species, a particular ecosystem, and perhaps a series of ecosystems (Al-Shazly and Al-Mursi, 2000).

Natural reserves are a strategic reservoir of biodiversity, preserving the country's wealth, especially rare or threatened species. The vegetation cover plays an important role in filtrating the atmosphere from the harmful gases dust; it also increases oxygen proportion and reduces global warming. Natural reserve provides a significant financial return through the use of organized eco-tourism. It is a natural center for researchers, university students and postgraduate studies. It provides jobs for many specialists, engineers and workers. Wild plant varieties conserved are a major source of drugs, active substances used in the manufacture of organic pesticides and many flavoring and colored ingredients used in the food industry. Also, wild plants are the most powerful and resistant genotypes and form a real gene bank used as genetic tools in biotechnology (Jara'atly, 2010).

Many countries in the world, including Yemen, have sought to protect the flora and fauna from deterioration and extinction, following various methods, including the establishment of nature reserves. More than 36 sites have been surveyed and identified as natural reserves in Yemen, where natural areas and reserves have been established as shown in Table (1). Table (1) Officially announced Natural reserves in Yemen.

No Name of Natural Reserve Nature Governorate

1 Otma Nature Reserve Wilderness Dhamar 2 Socotra Reserve (Socotra Archipel) Land- Maritime Socotra 3 Hof Nature Reserve Wilderness Mahra

4 Bura'a Nature Reserve Wilderness Hodeidah 5 Sharma Reserve – Jethmoun Coastal Hadramout 6 North of Kamaran Island Coastal Hodeidah 7 The five wetlands are nature reserves Land – Wetlands Aden

While many areas still need to be studied in more detail. These are the mountain of the puppets in Abyan governorate, Jabal Malhan in the governorate of Al-Mahweet, Jebel Irf in Lahj governorate, Meedi in Hajjah governorate, Islands in the Red Sea and other areas identified by the General Authority for Environmental Protection (Natural Reserves of the Republic of Yemen, 2005). 1.2.2 Vegetation Cover: Vegetation refers to groups of plant species in an area (Al-Askar and Majid, 1995). Humans have played a big role in diversifying their natural vegetation cover over large parts of the globe. The effect of human intervention on the natural vegetation may result in the manipulation of the original vegetation. The new plants reflect the balance between climatic conditions, vegetation and human intervention (Al-Mutari, 1987(. Information on the various vegetation zones of Yemen are available in numerous sources. Early vegetation accounts were given by (Hepper, 1977) who has provided lists of herbaceous and woody species growing in various habitats and the different climatic zones. (Hepper & Wood, 1979) described the vegetation of different habitats in North Yemen and focuses on tree species as an indication of the presence of forests. They assessed the changes in the environment that have taken place in the Yemen as indicated by the present vegetation. Also, the vegetation of Yemen has been studied as part of the works of (Al-Hubaishi and Muller, 1984), (Al Khulaidi, 1998), (AOAD, 1999) and (Faqeeh, 2005). (De Sanctis et al., 2012) identified four vegetation zones in Socotra Island in relation to climatic, geological and topographic factors.

Yemen had been divided by (Varisco et al., 1992) into three major zones;1. Tehama or coastal plain, 2. Eastern plateau, and 3.The vegetation of the Tehama foothills. Jabal Bura’a has been classified as part of Tehama Foothills and Low Altitude Western Mountains (< 1000 m) of (Scholte et al., 1991) who have identified eight main vegetation landscapes in Yemen. (Al Khulaidi, and El-Ghouri, 1996) classified Jabal Bura’a as part of the low altitude mountains. The botanical studies on Yemen are still limited.

1.2.3 Flora studies: It is commonly assumed that the documentation of Yemen's flora and fauna is limited. In fact, a wide variety of information is available, although not always in published

22 form (Varisco et al., 1992). A number of botanists and explorers visited Yemen between the 18th and 20th centuries. The most famous are Forsskal 1761–1763, Ehrenberg 1825, Bove 1830-1831, Botta 1836, Deflers 1889, Schwe in furth 1894, 1896, 1899), Bent 1893-1894, Rathjens and Van Wissmann 1927- 1938, Scott and Britton 1937-1938, Ahmed Khattab 1945. Between 1970 and 1982 a great deal of botanical research has taken place in Yemen; extensive collections were made in behalf of botanical institutes among them F. N. Herpper 1975, Lavranos 1974, 1976 and 1977, Ara dcliffe-Smith and Henchie 1977, Miller 1978 and 1981,Steinberg 1979 and 1980, Cuccuini 1981, Podlech 1981, Müller-Hohenstein 1980-1982 and Lavranos 1974, 1976 and 1977. Other collectors include Kamal Ibrahim 1964, Leach 1971, Carden 1974–76, Ritchie 1974–1976, Henry and Pratt 1974–1977, Heath 1977, Chaudhary 1976–1978, Wood 1978–1979, Gillespie 1979, Haj–Thomas 1977–1980, Firebrace 1980, Goodman 1980,Madge 1980, Weber 1980,Fleurentin 1976–1981, Larsen 1980–1981, Ehenberg 1981, Long 1981, Müller-Hohenstein 1980- 1982,Clissold 1982,Christmann 1982, Kassasian 1982, King 1982 andWood, 1997.Those explorers collected plants, compiled floristic checklists and made general descriptions of vegetation communities (Al-Duais, 2009 and Khaleelah, 2017).

Few data on the ecology and conservation of threatened and rare species have been compiled in Yemen and precise data on the status and number of rare and endangered plants are not available (Al-Duais, 2009).

The first full floristic account of the plants of North Yemen was made by Wood, (1997) in which he recorded 1,750 natural species of fernand flowering plants. Al- Khulaidi, (2013) studied the flora of Yemen. He recorded 2838 plant species, included in 1,068 genera from 179 families. 2602 from the recorded species grow wild, 129 species are cultivated and 107 species are introduced. Yemen is very rich in endemic and semi-endemic plants, estimated at 608 species, of which 457 are endemic, of which 307 species in Socotra.

The flora of selected are as from Yemen have been studied by different botanists. Al-Khulaidi, (2000) recorded thirteen plant species from Taiz city and adjacent areas.

Saif, (2014) found 247 plant species belonging to 164 genera of 57 species while studying the flora of the southern part of the valley of Al-Adabab (Bahra region), the Directorate of Heifan, Taiz province. With the aim of conservation of the high

23 floristic biodiversity in Socotra is land many endemic plants are reported from 9 localities by Tardalli and Baldini, (2000). Faqeeh, (2005) found more than 20000 hectares of the mangroves (Aveccnnia marina) in Northern Red Sea coast of yemen. Al-Shuaibi, (2007) studying the composition of natural vegetation of the coastal areas and low altitude in Abyan province reported 194 plant species belonging to 128 genera and 51 plant families. Fartut et al. (2010) added 8 new wild plant species to the mountain flora of Aden.

Few studies have been carried out on Tehama flora. Chaudhary had visited Tehama region in 1977, he identified and described the common weeds in the area (Chaudhary and Revri, 1983). Al-Khulaidi and Dubaie, (1993) reported 264 plant species belonging to 165 genera and 57 families from Tehama (western and eastern side).

Abdelbari, (1998) identified 120 species from Tehama Plain, and reported that most vegetation is concentrated in the eastern part; and the most widespread species are belonging to the genus Acacia. She also found that the tree species Ziziphus spina- christi and Balanites aegyptiaca are more common south of the plain. Faqeeh, (2008) while studying cultivars in the tree belts of the Environmental Protection Project in Tehama, found nine species with high success rate and normal growth. The best species was Acacia ehrenbergiana.

Botanical studies on Jabal Bura'a are still limited. The status and availability of comprehensive systematic studies on Bura’a vegetation is not encouraging. The early botanical explorations of Yemen didn’t offer a complete and detailed description of the flora and vegetation of Bura’a. In the last 30 years many researchers kept searching the Yemen flora with special emphasis in the hot spots of conservation priority, like Socotra archipelago and the tropical forest relicts of Jabal Bura'a (Al- Duais, 2009). Jabal Bura'a massif was surveyed by Hall et al. (2008); and the composition of this very rare forest and the diversity of vascular plant species were recorded. They note that the valley forest was home of several regionally rare species and record new locations for these taxa. Hall et al. (2009) surveyed Wadi Rijaf in Jabal Bura'a protected area. They present descriptive study of five important valley forest localities. To provide an assessment of conservation value, field studies recorded the extent, quality and composition of the vegetation and the presence of regionally rare species. They also discuss the significance of these remaining patches

24 of Arabian forest, and the immediate threats to their survival. Within his work, Al- Khulaidi, (2009) surveyed the vegetation of Wadi Rijaf districts, in the Jabal Bura'a protected area.

1.2.4 Economic Value of Vegetation:

Vegetation protects the soil from erosion, reduces the evaporation phenomenon, and helps to increase the water leakage below the upper layer of soil. In addition, it preserves the nature of the local climate(Abdel-Maqsoud, 1981). Trees are a source of wood, wood pulp, and other forest products, as well as permanent oxygen production and carbon dioxide consumption. The flora of Yemen is rich in economically important plant species. El Gouri et al., (1996) reported that many local trees are maintained and used by the farmers on the edges of fields for fuel, forage, medicine, shade and as wind breaks. Ibn Kadeem, (2014) while studying the medicinal plants in some areas of the coast of Hadramout found 42 species used in folk medicine, included in 27 families. Chhetri et al., (2015) recorded several aromatic plants used in traditional medicine in Yemen. J. Bura'a, a contains many plants which are useful for pharmaceutical purposes (El Gouri et al., 1996).

CHAPTER TWO

Materials and Methods

2.1 Description of study Area: 2.1.1 Geographical Location: Bura'a Natural Reserve is located in the western foothills of Tehamiah, northeast of Hodaidah. It is located approximately between latitudes14 50' ,1445' N and longitudes 4324', 4328' E.,with a total area of 4287 hectares (equivalent to 43 sq. km). It is the fourth reserve to be declared in the Republic of Yemen; announced in January 2006 (Natural Reserves in the Republic of Yemen, 2005) Administratively the Reserve follow Hodaidah Governorate, Bura'a Directorate(Map1) (Ka'aboob, 2012).

Map. 1. Bura'a Natural Reserve. Adopted from The Administrative Plan of Bura'a Natural Reserve, (2005)

2.1.2 Physical Environment:

2.1.2.1Geology of study Area:

The geology of the study area is related to the opening of the Red Sea which accompanied the tectonic movement in the Nubian Arab Shield. This phenomenon led to rise of large quantities of substances (Basalt) and the appearance of several granite blocks such as Limestone. This formation exists in several places (Sabar, Hofash and Bura'a mountains). Bura'a mountain is considered as one of the granite rocks of the volcano of Yemen which was formed in the Cenozoic era (the Tertiary period) (Al- Enba'awi and Al-Kherbash, 1996) Granite rocks in Bura'a mountain is characterized by rough texture; a result of crystallization conditions that accompanied their formation, these rocks are distinguished by a bright to white color with a very simple percentage of dark granodiorite. The grains size which forms the rocks differ in size from soft grains about one millimeter to rough grains of one centimeter. The granite rocks in J. Bura`a are generally considered resistant to erosion and corrosion, but there are factors which helped in corrosion process; the most important are spread of cracks and high average of rains falls. These rocks are used for building (Ghunaim and Aref, 2012).

2.1.2.2 Soil:

Soil of the study area is sedimentary composed of mud, rock and other materials that crumble from the highlands. The depth of the soil does not exceed 30 cm. The soil in the forest in its formation interact with the flora and fauna. In some parts the soil is superficial and many parts of the Jabal have naked rocks (Al-Haifan, 2004).

2.1.2.3 Features of Climate& Weather: 2.1.2.3.1 General Characteristics of Climate: The climate generally defines the types of plants that grow in each area, it is the most important factor related to vegetation, which through their effect resulted in change of the density, cover and distribution of plant species (Abu Samour, 1997).

2.1.2.3.2 Rainfall:

The monthly average data from the monitoring station in the region of Al-Khalifa (2000 - 2009) (Figure 2.1and Table 2.1-Appendix A) shows that the highest rainfall rate occurs between May and October and the lowest from November to April, with an annual rainfall rate of 442.7mm.

Rainfall in mm

450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

Fig. (2.1): Average monthly and annual precipitation (mm) Al-Khalifa Meteorological station

Wind Intensity (2000-2009) (S/M)

1.5

1.2 1.2

0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5

Fig. (2.2): Monthly average of wind intensity (2000-2009) (S/M) Al-Khalifa Meteorological station

2.1.2.3.3 Winds:

The study area is characterized by the north easterly and south westerly winds. (Figure 2.2 and Table 2.2-Appendix A) shows the wind intensity recorded for the period 2000-2009 (S/M) as monthly average. Wind is the most important climatic obstacle to agriculture in Tehama plain but it is very few and rare, with an average speed of 0.8s/m. at the higher altitudes and due to the decrease of wind speed its effect is reduced in J. Bura'a Reserve.

2.1.2.3.4 Temperature: The temperature varies due to geographical location. and prevailing winds (Aljawhari, 1989). From the data recorded for temperature and the monthly average for the period from 2004 to 2009 (Figure 2.3 and Table 2.3- Appendix A), it is clear that temperatures are moderate to semi-hot, with an average temperature of 30° C.

2.1.2.3.5 Relative Humidity:

Relative humidity is the water contained in the atmosphere in the form of vapor (Abu El-ainein, 1978). Humidity records differ during the year and ranges between 43,5 - 83, 9% with an average of 63.9% (Figure 2.4 and Table 2.4- Appendix A). 2.1.2.4 Water Resources:

The surface run-off is the only source of water used in agricultural practices and for human and animals drinking in J. Bura'a; the main source of water is the rainfall. The varying altitudinal setting and the prevailing conditions of the area. The rocky ground surface, the stormy rainfall, the steep slopes are highly favourable for run-off.

Rejaf Valley is one of two deep valleys in the study area with a steep slope. It is located on the western side of J. Bura'a; the second is Siham Valley. There are also a number of tributaries that flow into Rejaf Valley from the north including Majel, Thurrah, Jahan and Kadhih. There are Almontaser and Alasoad valleys to the south, Al-Basal and Juhaira valleys in the north-west. Surface water is usually present in the lower parts of the Valley Rejaf before entering the coastal plain, although the amount of water is very rare and breaks into ponds during the dry season (Environmental Bulletin, 2006).

monthly average temperature °C 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Max. Aver. Min.

Fig. (2.3): Monthly average temperature Al-Khalifa Meteorological station

% relative humidity recorded (2000 - 2009) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Max. Aver. Min.

Fig. (2.4): Percentage relative humidity recorded (2000 - 2009)

Al-Khalifa Meteorological station

2.1.3 Social Setting and Production Systems:

2.1.3.1 Population Composition:

The population in the study area was about 11,807 inhabitants for the year 2004, out of the total population of the Directorate of Bura'a for the same year which is about 45116 inhabitants about 26.2% (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2004). The population density in the Directorate of Bura'a amounted to about 178 persons/km², while the density of the study area was about twice the density of the Directorate 277 persons/km2. This density is very high, affecting the biological setup and accelerating the depletion in the region (Mohamed, 2013(. Belad Asharaf represents the largest ethnic group in the region mixed with small groups of Bani Baqi, Khoza'a and Bani Sulaiman tribes.

2.1.3.2 population characteristics: The population characteristics in the study area vary according to the conditions surrounding the area of their community. They have been divided by (Wahshan, 2006). in two communities. The population lives according to the prevailing characteristics within each region. 1. Mountain communities:

These are concentrated in villages located in the foothills of the mountains, they represent the population that surrounds the area on the mountain side, where they can be defined as residents of villages in a height is more than 300 m. above sea level. They represent about 73.2% of the villages in the study area with a population of 88.2% according to 2004 census.

2. Coastal communities (Tehama):

The coastal or tributary communities that inhabit the coastal villages under 300 m. above sea level. These villages represent about 26.8% of the villages in the study area with a population of about 11.8% of the total population of the study area in 2004.

2.1.3.3 Pattern of Livelihood:

2.1.3.3.1 Agricultural System: Agricultural system consists of traditional cultivation which is practised in the seasonal intermittent water courses; coffee, khat, sesame and cereals in the form of corn and millet are cultivated. Crop production system in Yemen is generally reflected by the availability of water supply as being the most important factor. The cultivated area may vary from one year to another depending on the amount and distribution of rainfall. Production in the study area depends upon the volume of seasonal flooding of water courses. The horticultural activities are also practiced and closely linked to traditional cultivation in the seasonal water courses. The main horticultural crops are dry legumes as lentil, faba beans and fenugreek; in addition to tomato, potatoes, okra, snake cucumbers, onions, garlic. carrots and water melon(El Gouri et al., 1996 and Environmental Bulletin, 2006).

2.1.3.3.2 Non Agricultural: Animal production is considered as one of the most important economic activity in the study area. Raise of livestock represents an important source of household income, which is mainly based on sheep and goats in addition to a limit number of cows and camels rearing. Other activities include: 1. Forests products include mainly fuel wood and charcoal production which form an essential source of income for the rural highland. In the recent years charcoal production has increased very rapidly, that it is considered as a worse threat for the vegetation than over-grazing. Other forest products include tar and agricultural tools (Mohamed, 2013). 2. Bees breeding through expansion of hives and honey production, this activity creates jobs and provide alternative and fast sources of income for local producers, because the produced honey is preferred inside and outside the area. 3. Producing and marketing crafts and connect it with tourism activities in the reserve. Sales of antiques and traditional products, which will have a significant impact on improving the income of families surrounding the reserve and preserve the customs and traditions of the local population, all these sources have major effect in increasing of the society income and activate the economic for the whole area.

4. Investments in the field of ecotourism that possible offer many different jobs and additional sources of income for citizens (Environmental Bulletin, 2006).

2.2 Plant diversity and Vegetation Assessment:

The study was conducted during the period from 2016 to 2017. Field trips were designed to cover both rainy and dry season. After the initial survey, the study area was divided into 3 locations representing different environmental zones.

2.2.1Qualitative Assessment: This assessment was carried out through information collected from the field and office work. Fresh plant specimens were collected from the study area from different locations under different conditions. From each plant species 3 samples (duplicates) were collected. The first is to classify the plant specimens and the second for conservation in the herbarium and the third for exchange with other herbaria (Forman and Bridson, 1991). Each plant species was photographed in its complete form along with the characteristic plant organs (leaves, flowers, inflorescences and /or fruits) using the high accuracy Pexell14 digital camera. Field information was recorded in a field booklet which included information: serial number, plant family, scientific name, local name, location, date of collection and any remarks that cannot be represented in the collected specimens or can change with drying such as plant nature, odor or color. The samples were classified using the plant keys from the available taxonomic references: (Al-Hobeishi and Hohenstein, 1984; Collenette, 1985; El Amin, 1990; Dajwi, 1997; Qashash, 2006; Al-Khulaidi, 2013; Bein et al.,1996; Von Maydell, 1986). Available images of taxa and some images of herbarium specimens from Google images (www.images.google.com) were used to confirm specimens identification. The plants that were not identified were taken to the herbarium to identify by comparison. Recent literature was consulted for updating plant names: The Plant List, version 1.1 http://www.plantlist.org/(2013) and Herbarium catalogue, Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew (http://apps.kew.org/herbcat/navigatoe.do). Plant samples were processed using cosmopolitan credited techniques (Forman and Bridson, 1991). The samples were deposited in the herbarium at the University of Al- Neelain. Local names and economic uses given were compiled from personal communication with the local people and available literature (Qashash, 2006; Al –

Hubeishi and Hohenstein, 1984; Al-sayed, 2013). The life-forms of plants were based on Raunkiaer, 1934). The collected plant species was presented in a form of a list. Throughout the preparation of the list, flowering plant families were classified according to the APG III system (2009), updated by APG IV system (2016) and arranged according to the linear Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (LAPG III) (Haston et al., 2009). Within these families, subfamilies, genera and species were arranged in alphabetical order. The standard up-dated scientific binomials were given to all taxa. A choice of a limited number of synonyms was made to show the major taxonomic changes in the reviewed floras and publications. Local names are given when available. The description of the taxa concentrated on the major diagnostic morphological characters. The ecological distribution of the taxa in the Yemen was considered in the study. It has been felt necessary to mention the economic uses of the studied plants. To complete the descriptive information photographs of fresh plants were taken to illustrate the major feature of the plant and to document the life form. Selected images of taxa from Google images (www.images.google.com) were used to confirm specimens' identification.

2.2.2 Quantitative Assessment:

2.2.2.1 Vegetation Sampling:

The reserve was divided into 3 zones: upper, medium and lower zones. Two sites were selected randomly in each zone. The sites were marked using GPS as evident by the coordinates in Table (2). To estimate the total number of trees and shrubs, two circular areas of 0.1 ha (around 1,000 square meters) and a radius of 17.84 meters were randomly used for every zone, following the procedure of Adamm and Eltayeb, (2008). In order to estimate the herbaceous plants and under shrubs, 6 random quadrats were created in each of the 6 sites, each quadrate is measuring 2 m x 2 m.

Table (2): Coordinates of studied sites Zones Longitude Latitude Elevation

Upper Site 1 14° 52 ' 147" 43° 26 ' 951" 756m

Site 2 14° 52 ' 233" 43° 26 ' 740" 795m

Medium Site 3 14° 52 ' 593" 43° 26 ' 726" 466m

Site 4 14° 52 ' 521" 43° 26 ' 766" 520m

Lower Site 5 14° 52 ' 416" 43° 24 ' 962" 358m

Site 6 14° 52 ' 434" 43° 24 ' 700" 341m

2.2.2.2 Vegetation analysis: In each site plant species were counted. From the counted data the vegetation parameters (the density, relative density, abundance, relative abundance, frequency and relative frequency) were calculated to obtain the importance value index for each plant type in each zone using Dangoli and Shivakoti, (2001) and (Chaudhry et. al, 2006) formulas.

Density (D) = No of plant of certain species

Total area sampled

Relative density (RD%) = Density of species × 100

Total density of all species

Abundance (A) = Total number of individual

No of quadrate where the species occur

Relative abundance (RA%) = Abundance of species × 100

Total abundance of all species

Frequency (F) = No of quadrate where species occur

Total numbers of quadrate

Relative frequency (RF%) = frequency of species × 100

Total frequency of all species

Importance value index (IVI)= RD% + RA% + RF%

An adapted system from the DAFOR scale given by Forbes (2012) was used to measure the frequency and cover of the different plant species in the studied sites to suit the obtained results. The species data was classified into groups using the importance value index (IVI) of species.

To evaluate the similarity and dissimilarity of the study sites in the vegetation zones BioDiversity Professional statistical analysis software (Mc Alecce et al. 1997) was used.

CHAPTER THREE Results and Discussion

3.1 Qualitative Taxonomic Assessments: 3.1.1 Floristic Composition: The source of plant material has been obtained from personal collections from Jabal Bura’a. The flora survey of Jabal Bura’a resulted in identification of 50 plant species including one non flowering plant/Pteridophyte and 49 flowering plant/Angiosperms. The latter belonging to 43 genera included within 28 families falling in 21 orders.

3.1.1.1 Pteridophyta (Non Seeded Plants) Order: Pteridales Family: (Pteridaceae) Adiantaceae Scientific Name: Aleuritopteris farinosa (Forssk.) Fée Mem. Foug. Gen. Filic. 153, t. 12B 1850-1852 )Plate1&2). Syn: Pteris decursiva Forssk. Fl. Aegypt. -Arab. 186 (1775(. Aleuritopteris decursiva (Forssk.) Saiki J. Phytogeogr. Taxon. 32(2): 85 (1984(. Local Name: Kafan Description: Rhizomatous perennial herb, about 10 cm. long. Fronds green, lobed; stipe black; lamina lanceolate to ovate with dark brown sporangia in the margin. Examined material: Upper and Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: J. Saber, J. Samara, J. Malhan, J. Rayma, J. Bura'a, Southern mountains, J. ba'adan, J. Sa'ada. Economic Uses: Used for cleaning dishes. 3.1.1.2 Angiosperms (Seeded and Flowering Plants) Clade: Magnollids. Order: Magnoiales Family: Annonaceae Scientific Name: Annona squamosa L. Sp. Pl. 537 )1753). )Plate3&4). Syn: Annona asiatica L. Sp. Pl. 537 )1753(. Annona forsskalii DC. Syst. Nat. 1: 472 )1817(. Local Name: Khermesh

Plate 1: Google 1 Plate 2: Medium Zone Aleuritopteris farinosa (Forssk.) Fée

Plate 3: Google Plate 4: Upper Zone Annona squamosa L.

Plate 5: Medium Zone Plate 6: Medium Zone Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott

Description: Medium tree; from 2-7 m long. Leaves long, pale green elliptical to lanceolate, apex acute. Flowers single or paired, yellow-brown. Fruits small or medium-sized; spherical or heart-shaped; yellowish-green, with numerous seeds. Seed small brownish. Examined material: Upper and Medium Zones, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Taiz, Tehama Foothills, the western Wadis. Economic Uses: Fruit edible, stem and branches collected as fuelwood. an oil extracted from the plant is introduced in the manufacture of soap and perfumes.

Clade: Monocots. Order: Alismatales Family: Araceae Scientific Name: Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Melet. Bot.18 (1832). )Plate 5&6). Syn: Caladium violaceum Engl.Monogr. Phan. 2: 492(1879(. Alocasia dussii Dammer Garten flora 1892: 31 )1892(. Colocasia vera Hassk. Flora 25 (2 Beibl. 1): 81 )1842(. Local Name: Colocas Description: Undershrub. Rhizomes large, branched, of different shapes and sizes, inside dark or light green. Leaves petiolate, green, cordate, undulate. Inflorescence 20-35 cm. Flowers green. Fruit greenish to whitish or red. Seeds 1-1.5 mm, mucilage. Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Socotra, low and medium altitude mountains. Economic Uses: Edible rhizomes rich in starch, used as an alternative of potatoes.

Clade: Monocots. Order: Asparagales Family: Amaryllidaceae Scientific Name: Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf, Fl. Tellur.4: 19 (1838).(Plate7&8). Syn: Amaryllis multiflora (Martyn) Tratt. Ausw. Merkw Gartenpfl. 37 (1821). Haemanthus abyssinicus Herb. Amaryllidaceae: 232 (1837). Local Name: Loof – Basal alhanash Description: Perennial herb. With an underground bulb. Stem mottled with brown spots. Leaves elliptical with purple spots, about 15-20 cm long. Inflorescences attractive heads. Flowers with red filaments. Fruit spherical, green, shiny. Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016.

Plate 7: Google Plate 8: Medium Zone Sadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf

Plate 9: Medium Zone Plate 10: Medium Zone Aloe officinalis Forssk.

Plate 11: Plate Google Plate 12: Medium Zone Sansevieria forskaliana (Schult. &Schult.f.) Hepper & J. R. I. Wood

Distribution in Yemen: Taiz, Ibb, Sumara, J. Bura'a, Al U'deyn, Assayani, Dhisufal, J. Alrays, Rodoum, Shabwa, NW of Ghail- bin Yamin (Hadhramaut). Economic Uses: Horticultural plant,contains toxic alkaloids used in medicine.

Clade: Monocots. Order: Asparagales Family: Asparagaceae (former: Xanthorrhoeaceae) Scientific Name: Aloe officinalis Forssk. Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 73 )1775(. (Plate 9&10). Syn: Aloe vera var. officinalis (Forssk.) Baker J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 18: 176 )1880(. Local Name: Sabar Description: Undershrub. Leaves green spotted with white, smooth, with prominently toothed margins. Perianth cylindrical, red or yellow. Inflorescences long, 3-branches. Fruit green, elliptical shape. Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Tehama, Tehama Foothills. Economic Uses: Fresh or dry juice used medically, used as bandage for burns and chronic wounds and as drops in eye infections. Women use the plant as a wash for hair and skin.

Clade: Monocots. Order: Asparagales Family: Aparagaceae (former: Agavaceae) Scientific Name: Sansevieria forskaliana (Schult. &Schult.f.) Hepper & J. R. I. Wood, Kew Bull. 38: 83 )1983).(Plate 11&12). Syn: Smilacina forskaliana Schult. & Schult. f. Syst. Veg. 7: 304 )1829(. Sansevieria abyssinica N. E. Br. Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew 1913: 306 )1913(. Acyntha abyssinica (N.E.Br.) Chiov. Result. Sci. Miss. Stefan.-Paoli Somal. Ital. 1: 170 )1916(. Local Name: Salab-Kharak Description: Perennial herb, about 70-120 cm long; rhizomes thick. Leaves large, oblong, evergreen. Flowers white impregnated with reddish green. Fruit green, spherical shaped; contains few seeds. Examined material: Medium and Lower Zones, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Ibb and Taiz and other areas of southern and northern Yemen.

Economic Uses: Used to make ropes and arches, and children's hats, as well as decorations.

Clade: Monocots/Commelinids.Order: Arecales Family: Arecaceae (Former: Palmae) Scientific Name: Phoenix dactylifera L. Sp. Pl.: 1188(1753). (Plate13&14). Syn: Palma dactylifera (L.) Mill. Gard. Dict. ed. 8: 1 (1768).Phoenix chevalieri D. Rivera, S. Ríos & Obón Varied. Trad. Frut. Cuenca Río Segura Cat. Etnobot.1: 79 (1997). Local Name: Nakheel Description: Evergreen tree, unisexual, dioecious, height ranges between 15 - 25 m. Stem un branched Leaves pinnate, 4–8 m long, with pointed end. Flowers small, whitish. Fruit cylindrical, rounded or ovoid, with fleshy, yellowish to reddish brown exocarp. Examined material: Upper and Medium Zones, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Coastal areas, Hadramout, Socotra, medium altitude mountains, eastern mountains. Economic Uses: fruit edible. An oil is extracted from the seeds and the byproducts used as animal feed. Fibers used as ropes and materials for filling furniture. Leaves made for popular hats, baskets, fruit transport containers and light furniture such as chairs and beds. The trunk used as supports and for roofing rural houses.

Clade: Monocots/Commelinids. Order: Poales Family: Poaceae(former: Gramineae). Subfamily: Aristidoideae

Scientific Name: Stipagrostis hirtigluma(Steud. ex Trin. &Rupr.) De Winter Kirkia 3: 134 (1963). (Plate15&16). Syn: Aristida hirtigluma Steud. ex Trin. & Rupr.Mém.Acad. Imp. Sci. Saint- Pétersbourg, Sér. 6, Sci. Math., Seconde Pt. Sci. Nat. 7: 171 (1849). Arthratherum hirtiglume Jaub. & SpachIll. Pl. Orient. 4: 52 (1851). Local Name: Nasi Description: Annual herb, up to 45 cm high. Branches crowded, yellowish green when young becoming white when dry. Leaves lanceolate, up to 10 cm long. Spike lets very thick, covered with bright white feathery hairs.

Plate13: Upper Zone Plate14: Upper Zone Phoenix dactylifera L.

Plate 15: Google Plate 16: Upper Zone Stipagrostis hirtigluma (Steud. ex Trin. & Rupr.) De Winter

Plate 17: Google Plate 18: Upper Zone Themeda triandra Forssk

Examined material: Upper Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Jabal Rayma Economic Uses: Used as animal feed.

Clade: Monocots/Commelinids. Order: Poales Family: Poaceae(former: Gramineae).Subfamily: Panicoideae Scientific Name: Themeda triandra Forssk. Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 178 )1775(. (Plate 17&18). Syn: Andropogon tenuipedicellatus Steud. Syn. Pl. Glumac. 1: 393 )1854(. Anthistiria caespitosa Andersson Nova Acta Regiae Soc. Sci. Upsal. III, 2: 241 )1856(. Themeda japonica (Houtt.) Tanaka Bult. Sci. Fak. Terk. Kjusu Imp. Univ. 1(4): 194, 207 (1925). Local Name: Karadah Description: perennial herb; about 80-130 cm. The culms slenderical. The leaves linear,10-50 cm long and 2-5 mm wide; green to grey. Inflorescence a narrow panicle up to 45 cm long. Spike lets green turning yellow – brown at maturity. Examined material: Upper and Medium Zones25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: The Yemeni island of Socotra. Economic Uses: Used as sheep fodder.

Clade: Core eudicots/Rosids. Order: Vitales Family: Vitaceae Scientific Name: Cissus rotundifolia Vahl Symb. Bot. 3: 19(1794). (Plate 19&20). Syn: Cissus crassifolia (Baker) Planch. Monogr. Phan.5: 508(1887). Local Name: Halas Description: Undershrub. Stem fleshy, cylindrical, 5-10 m. long climbing with tendrils. Leaves fleshy, semi-round, margins toothed. Flowers small, greenish yellow, in small racemes opposite to the leaf. Fruit berry, oval shape. Examined material: All Zones, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Widespread: Taiz, Lahj, Al-U'deyn, Dhisufal, AlQafr, Mutheikhira, Abyen, Adhale'.

Economic Uses: Ground leaves mixed with yogurt or milk eaten as a popular dish. Eaten by animals and birds. Used in folk medicine for the treatment of malaria, jaundice, as wound dressing and for back vertebrae pain.

Clade: Core eudicots/Rosids. Order: Vitales Family: Vitaceae Scientific Name: Cissus quadrangularis L. Syst. Nat. ed. 12 2: 124(1767). (Plate 21&22). Syn: Cissus quadrangular L. Mant. Pl. 1: 39 (1767). Local Name: Sala'a Description: Climbing undershrub, 2-10 m long. Stem fleshy, quadrangular, green. Leaves oval or semi-triangular, succulent, green, margins serrate. Flowers yellowish green, in small racemes opposite to the leaf. Fruit oval, green becoming dark reddish brown when ripe; containing one seed or two seeds. Examined material: All Zones, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Widespread: Tehama Foothills, Tehama Plain, Taiz, Al- U'deyn, Dhisufal, AlQafr, Al-Qa'ida, Lahj, Al Mahrah, Assayani. Economic Uses: Cooked leaves mixed with milk to lower body temperature and adjust acidity. Used as dressing for wounds. A good animal fodder.

Clade: Core eudicots/Rosids. Order: Vitales Family: Vitaceae Scientific Name: Rhoicissus revoilii planch Monogr. Phan. 5: 469 (1887).(Plate 23&24). Syn: Rhoicissus schlechteri Gilg & M. Brandt Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 46: 438 )1911(. Local Name: Marw Description: Climbing tree, about 5-7m long. Leaves dense, very green, have an acid taste. Flowers yellowish green, in small clusters. Fruit green, spherical, with white yellowish blisters, becoming red blackish at maturity; with one round, semi-solid seed. Examined material: All Zones, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Tehama Foothills, Al-Mahwit, Al-U'deyn, Abyen. Economic Uses: Fruits eaten by birds.

Plate 19: Medium Zone Plate 20: Medium Zone Cissus rotundifolia Vahl

Plate 21: Upper Zone Plate 22: Upper Zone Cissus quadrangularis L.

Plate 23: Upper Zone Plate 24: Upper Zone Rhoicissus revoilii Planch

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Zygophyllales Family: Zygophyllaceae (Former: Balanitaceae). Subfamily:Tribuloideae Scientific Name: Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Descr Egypte, Hist. Nat. 221 (1813). (Plate25&26). Synonyms: Agialid abyssinica Tiegh. Ann. Sci. Nat., Bot.IX, 4: 229(1906).Agialid abyssinica Tiegh. Ann. Sci. Nat., Bot. IX, 4: 229 (1906). Agialid schimperi Tiegh. Ann. Sci. Nat., Bot. IX, 4: 230 (1906). Local Name: Halag Description: A thorny tree; up to about 10 m. high. Bark gray to dark brown. Leaves compound; leaflets 2, elliptic, light green. Inflorescence subracemose. Flower yellow- green. Fruit oblong ellipsoid, 2.5 to 7 cm long, green turns yellow at maturity. Examined material: Lower Zone,25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Tehama Plain, Shabwa, Hadramout, south of Taiz. Economic Uses: Stem and branches used as fuel wood, and for charcoal production. Leaves and fruits eaten animals. Fruit edible. Many medicinal uses are known; used for stomachaches, laxative, purgative, as a treatment for intestinal worms and colds.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Fabales Family: Fabaceae(Former: Leguminosae).Subfamily:Caesalpinoideae Scientific Name: Tamarindus indica L. Sp.Pl.:34(1753). (Plate 27&28). Syn: Tamarindus somalensis Mattei in Boll. Ort. Bot. Palermo 7: 95(1908).Tamarindus erythraeus Mattei, in Boll. Ort. Bot. Palermo 7:94 (1908).Tamarindus indica var. emarginata Chiov. in Fl. Somala 2:178(1932). Local Name: Homar Description: A large tree, rising about 7-15m. Stem huge covered with dark brown rough bark, young branches covered with hairs. Leaves compound; leaflets oblong- ovate. Flowers yellowish or pink to violet color, in small terminal racemes. Fruit dark brown, about 5-10 cm long, straight or slightly curved, 2-7 seeded; seed semi-oval, dark brown to black. Examined material: Medium and Lower Zones, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Tehama Foothills, Ta'aiz, Hajdah, 'Udayn, Qafar, Mahrah and Socotra.

Plate25: Lower Zone Plate26: Lower Zone Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile

Plate 27: Google Plate 28: Medium Zone Tamarindus indica L

Plate 29: Google Plate 30: Medium Zone Acacia asak (Forssk.) Willd

Economic Uses: Widely used. All parts are browsed. Wood used as fuel and for charcoal production. Fruit pulp eaten fresh or used to produce refreshing drinks or as additive in food industry. Medical applications include inflammation, throat and chest infections, It is added to many foods. It is also considered as one of the most important decorative and shade trees in the streets and public parks.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Fabales Family: Fabaceae(Former: Leguminosae).Subfamily: Mimosoideae

Scientific Name: Acacia asak (Forssk.) Willd.Sp.Pl.4:1077(1806). (Plate 29&30) Syn: Mimosa asak Forssk. Fl. Aegypt. -Arab.:176(1775). Acacia glaucophylla Steud. ex A. Rich. Tent. Fl.Abyss.I:243(1847). Local Name: Asak Description: Shrub or small tree, about 5-8 m high. Branches with prickles. Leaves compound; leaflets linear-oblong. Inflorescence spikes. Flower white to light yellow. Pods straight, linear or slightly curved, green becoming brown or red at maturity, about 6-8 cm long; and shade 4-6 and brown to black. Examined material: Medium and Lower Zones, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Widespread on medium altitude mountains: Taiz, Adhale, Abyan, Lahj, Yafi, Madinat alSharq, Bagel, Ibb. Economic Uses: Used as fuelwood and for coal production, branches used as fences around gardens and farms. Nectar harvested by bees produce high amounts and good quality of honey. Used as a treatment for stiffening joints.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order: Fabales Family: Fabaceae (Former: Leguminosae). Subfamily: Mimosoideae Scientific Name: Acacia ehrenbergiana Hayne in Getreue Darstellung 9:29, tab.29(1825). (Plate 31&32) Syn: Acacia flava (Forssk.) Schweinf. Bull. Herb.Boiss.4:214(1896). Local Name: Salam Description: A thorny small tree or shrub, up to 3-4 m. Branches with axillary paired spines. Leaves with up to four pairs of pinnae. Inflorescence head. Flowers bright yellow. Fruits narrow, curved and slightly twisted, about 8 cm long. Examined material: Lower Zon, 28-11-2016.

Distribution in Yemen: Tehamah & Foothills, western mountains, Sa'dah, Marib, Harib, Radaa, Hadramout, Abyan. Economic Uses: Wood used as fuelwood and charcoal. Leaves eaten by camels and sheep. Produce gum used as emollent in local medicine.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Fabales Family: Fabaceae(Former: Leguminosae).Subfamily: Mimosoideae Scientific Name: Albizia lebbeck (l.) Benth. – Hooker,s London Journal of Botany 3 (1844). (Plate 33&34( Syn: Acacia lebbeck (L.) Willd. Albizia latifolia B. Boivin. Local Name: Lebback Description: Tree ranging in height between 10-15 m. Leaves bipinnate. Inflorescence head. Flowers greenish-yellow. Fruits thin pods, yellow turning to brown, containing 4-12 seeds. Examined material: Upper Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Introduced: Planted as ornamental. Economic Uses: Used for decoration and shading in the streets, gardens and parks, Bark is used to treat hemorrhoids and inflammation. An oil extracted from the seeds is used as a treatment for leprosy.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Fabales Family: Fabaceae(Former: Leguminosae).Subfamily: Mimosoideae Scientific Name: Dichrostachys cinerea(L.) Wight &Arn. Prodr. Fl. Ind. Or.: 271 (1834).(Plate 35&36). Syn:Mimosa cinerea L., Sp.Pl.:520 (1753). Mimosa glomerata Forssk. Fl. Aegypt. - Arab.:177(1775). Dichrostachys glomerata (Forssk.) Chiov. in Ann. Bot. Roma 13:409(1915). Dichrostachys nutans (Pers.) Benth. in Hook., Lond. Journ. Bot.4:353(1841). Local Name: Ganzeer Description: Shrub or tree, about 5-10 m long; with a sharp solitary spine. Leaves bipinnate; leaflets linear. Inflorescence head. Flowers greenish-yellow. Flowers white-yellowish. Fruit red or dark brown, twisted bundles. Examined material: Upper Zone 25-11-2016.

Plate 31: Lower Zone Plate 32: Lower Zone Acacia ehrenbergiana Hayne

Plate 33: Upper Zone Plate 34: Upper Zone Albizia lebbeck (l.) benth

Plate 35: Upper Zone Plate 36: Upper Zone

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn.

Distribution in Yemen: Tehama Foothills, Western Low, Medium altitude mountains, Al Mahara. Economic Uses: Wood used as fuelwood and charcoal. Leaves and young shoots browsed by domestic animals. Flowers a valuable honey source. Farmers used the plant as live fence. Different parts used in traditional medicine.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Fabales Family: Fabaceae/Leguminosae. Subf. Mimosoideae Scientific Name: Prosopis juliflora(Sw.) DC. Prodr. 2: 447 (1825).(Plate 37&38). Synonyms: Acacia juliflora (Sw.) Willd. Acacia cumanensis Willd. Prosopis cumanensis (Willd.) Kunth. Local Name: Seyal Description: A large tree; about 12 m high. Thorns in pair. Leaves bipinnate; leaflets 12 -20, oblong- linear. Inflorescences in cylindrical spikes. Flowers small, greenish- yellow. Flowers white-yellowish. Fruit greenish yellow, contains 10-30 seeds. Examined material: All Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Introduced: AREA experimental farm, Taiz, Tehama, Aden, Mukalla, Lahj, Shabwa, Socotra. Economic Uses: Wood used as fuel and coal material, and as supports for fences and building construction. Fruits used as feed for horses and cattle.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order: Rosales Family: Barbeyaceae Scientific Name: Barbeya oleoides Schweinf. Boll. Soc. Bot Ital. 269)1892( (Plate 39&40). Syn: Barbeya oleoides subsp. arussorum Chiov.Nuovo Giorn. Bot. Ital. n.s., 36: 370 )1929(. Local Name: Kamb Description: A Tree, 15-20 m long. Stem dark brown to black. Leaves lanceolate to oblong-elliptic, with a dark upper surface and dusty white below. flowers are male and female, yellowish-green. Fruits small granules, rectangular 6–10 mm long. Examined material: Upper and Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: J. Saber, J. Malhan, J. Rima, Haraz, J. Bura'a, Al Mahweet, Khawlan.

Plate 37: Lower Zone Plate 38: Lower Zone Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.

Plate 39: Upper Zone Plate 40: Upper Zone Barbeya oleoides Schweinf.

Plate 41: Lower Zone Plate 42: Lower Zone Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf.

Economic Uses: Branches used for building construction, as fuel for firewood and to warm the bees' cells in the winter.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Rosales Family: Rhamnaceae Scientific Name: Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. Fl. Atlant.1: (201). (Plate 41&42). Syn: Rhamnus spina-christi L.Sp. Pl. 1: 195 )1753(. Local Name: Sedr Description: Shrub rarely a tree, 4 -5 m high. Branches with paired unequal thorns Leaves alternate, ovate to lanceolate, strongly 3- nerved from the base. Flowers small pale yellowish green. Fruits are meaty, spherical or subglobose, brownish or red. Examined material: Lower and Upper Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Throughout the country. Economic Uses: Wood use in local furniture and folklore instruments, branches used as fencing around the fields and yield firewood and charcoal. In the past leaves used as cleaning material for skin and hair; and browsed by livestock. Flowers eaten by bees to produce the finest types of Yemeni honey, used in folk medicine. Fruits edible.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Rosales Family: Rhamnaceae Scientific Name: Berchemia discolor(Klotzsch) Hemsl.Fl. Trop. Afr.1: 381 (1868). (Plate 43&44). Syn: Adolia discolor (Klotzsch) Kuntze Revis. Gen. Pl.1: 117(1891).Phyllogeiton discolor (Klotzsch) Herzog Beih. Bot. Centralbl. 15: 168 (1903). Araliorhamnus punctulata H. Perrier Notul. Syst. (Paris) 11: 15 (1943). Local Name: Tamar Description: Tree; about 5 m high. Leaves rectangular and round; clear-veined. Flowers yellowish green, small in size, With armhole clusters. Fruits oval, dusty green, turning yellow when ripe. A viscous, semi-transparent pulp encapsulates the fruit. Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Tehama Foothills, W. of Taiz, middle altitude mountains .

Economic Uses: Branches used as fuelwood and as beehives. Leaves animals fodder. Fruits edible.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Rosales Family: Moraceae Scientific Name: Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq.Ann. Mus. Bot. Lugduno-Batavi 3: 288(1867). (Plate 45&46). Syn: Ficus ingens var. tomentosa Hutch. Fl. Cap. 5(2): 530 (1925). Local Name: Daref Description: A large tree, rising about 10 - 15 m. Stem silvery grey to brownish. Young branches green turning brown with age. Leaves ovate to lanceolate. Fig axillary, solitary or paired, globose, red - pink or purple with white dots. Examined material: All Zones, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: J. Sabr, Al Haima Mountains, Jabalin, Hajjah Mountains, Al U'deyn, Hof Hadramawt, Abyan, Makbana, Socotra Economic Uses: Stems used in manufacture of local instruments. Bark fiber for rope making. Leaves feed sheep in drought periods. Fig edible. Ground seeds eaten. Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Rosales Family: Moraceae Scientific Name: Ficus populifoliaVahlSymb. Bot. 1: 82 (1790). (Plate 47&48). Synonyms: Ficus intermedia Delile Voy. Méroé 4(prepr.): 64 (1826).Ficus indiana Hochst. ex A.Rich.Tent. Fl. Abyss.2: 265 (1850). Local Name: Madah Description: A medium size tree, rising about 3 - 7 m. Stem whitish grey Young branches green turning brown with age. Leaves ovate to cordate. Fig axillary, globose or obovoid, green with small yellow dots turning to yellow brown at maturity. Examined material: Upper and Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Taiz, Lahj, Hof, Al azzariq, J. Malhan, J. Bura'a. Economic Uses: Stems used in manufacture of local instruments. Bark fiber for rope making. Leaves feed sheep in drought periods. Figs edible. Ground seeds eaten.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Rosales Family: Moraceae Scientific Name: Ficus sycomorus L. Sp. Pl.: 1059 (1753(. (Plate 49&50(.

Plate 43: Medium Zone Plate 44: Medium Zone Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl.

Plate 45: Upper Zone Plate 46: Upper Zone Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq.

Plate 47 Upper Zone Plate 48: Upper Zone Ficus populifolia Vahl

Syn: Ficus sycomorus var. polybotrya Hiern Cat. Afr.Pl.: 1 (1014)(1900). Local Name: Khanas Description: A huge tree, of 20-30 m high. Bark yellow greenish, powdery. Leaves obovate – orbicular. Figs axillary, solitary or paired, obovoid - globose, reddish brown Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Taiz, Adhale, Ibb, Lahj, Dhawran, Hajjah, Baajil, Haidan, Hof Al-Mahrah. Economic Uses: Used for shade in houses, streets and mosques. Figs eaten by animals.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Rosales Family: Moraceae Scientific Name: Ficus vasta Forssk. Fl. Aegypt. -Arab. 179 (1775(. (Plate 51&52). Syn: Ficus dahro Delile Ann. Sci. Nat., Bot. II, 20: 94 (1843).Ficus rivae Warb. Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 36: 211 (1905). Local Name: Tawlaq Description: A huge tree, about 10-30 m high. Bark grey with orange powder. Leaves ovate to cordate. Figs axillary, 2 -3 together, green powdery, spherical. Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Taiz, Manakha, Lawder, J. Bura'a, Al U'dain, Hajjah, Adhale, Abyan, Hof Almahra, Socotra. Economic Uses: Shady tree. Stems and branches used in construction of bee cells. Seeds sweet, edible.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Rosales Family: Moraceae Scientific Name: Trichilia emetica Vahl Symb. Bot. 1: 31 )1790(. (Plate 53&54). Syn: Elcaja emetica Forssk. Fl. Aegypt. –Arab.: 127)1775(.Trichilia roka (Forssk.) Chiov. Boll. Soc. Bot. Ital. 1923: 115 )1923(. Local Name: Ruka'a Description: Large tree, about 9 -15 m. high. Leaves composite, feathery, semi-ovate, 7 to 14 cm long; dark green. Fruit dusty green; harsh, surrounded by a hard cover that divide to three hard cloves, resembling the cloves of garlic in size and body, red or buff orange, with black on its back almost round.

Plate 49: Medium Zone Plate 50: Medium Zone Ficus sycomorus L.

Plate 51: Medium Zone Plate 52: Medium Zone Ficus vasta Forssk.

Plate 53: Medium Zone Plate 54: Medium Zone Trichilia emetica Vahl

Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Al U'dain, Bagel Jabal, Wadi Dhahr, Hajjah Jabal, Socotra. Economic Uses: Used as fuelwood and in coal production, as windbreaks around the fields, and involved in the manufacture of some home furniture (doors and locks).Leaves and fruits fodder for cows.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order: Celasterales Family: Celastaraceae Scientific Name: Gymnosporia dhofarensis (Sebsebe) JordaanTaxon 55: 521 (2006). (Plate55&56). Syn: Maytenus dhofarensis Sebsebe Symb. Bot. Upsal.25(2): 71(1985). Local Name: Garoom Description: Under shrub, rise about 1,5-3 m. Leaves small, soft, ovate, light green with reddish, then dark green. Flowers small in size, yellowish-white. Fruits small, round shape, red color becoming purple - red after drying; split into three lobes inside. Examined material: Upper and Medium Zone,25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Low and medium altitude, Yafea. Economic Uses: The branches used as fence for plantations and sheep pens. The dry branches used as a good fuel.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Malpighiales. Family: Euphorbiaceae. Subfamily: Acalyphoideae. Scientific Name: Acalypha fruticosa Forssk.Fl. Aegypt. –Arab:161 (1775). (Plate57&58). Syn: Acalypha betulina Retz.Observ. Bot. 5: 30(1789(.Acalypha capitata Wall .Numer. List 7783A, B (1847).Ricinocarpus fruticosus (Forssk.) Kuntze Revis. Gen. Pl. 2: 618 (1891). Local Name: Dafran Description: Shrubs. Leaves ovate,very variable in size, margin serrate, dark green. Inflorescence consisting 2 or 3 unilateral bracts; each containing one sessile female flower; the male flowers in spikes. Fruit yellow, tri-lobed. Seeds ovoid. Examined material: Upper and Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Tehama Foothills, western mountains, Taiz, Lahj, Lauder, Yafi, Hadramout.

Plate 55 Upper Zone Plate 56: Upper Zone Gymnosporia dhofarensis (Sebsebe) Jordaan

Plate57: Google Plate58: Upper Zone Acalypha fruticosa Forssk

Plate 59: Upper Zone Plate 60: Upper Zone Jatropha curcas L.

Economic Uses: Browsed by stock. Root used for gonorrhoea and snake-bite remedy. Leaves used as a stomachic in dyspepsia, cholera and against intestinal parasites, and to stop hemorrhage. Leaves mixed with milk used for treatment of colds.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Malpighiales Family: Euphorbiaceae. Subfamily: Crotonoideae Scientific Name: Jatropha curcas L. Sp. Pl.: 1006 )1753). (Plate 59&60) Syn: Castiglionia lobata Ruiz and Pav. Fl. Peruv. Prodr.: 139 (1794). Jatropha acerifolia Salisb. Prodr. Stirp. Chap. Allerton: 389 (1794). Ricinus americanus Mill. Gard. Dict. ed. 82 )1768(. Local Name: Sharbat al-feel Description: Tree, up to 3-7 m high. Leaves ovate large and very green. Flowers yellow to green. Fruits ellipsoid capsules, scarcely 3-lobed, about 2.5–3 cm long, smooth-skinned, initially fleshy and green. Seeds ellipsoid, 1–2 cm long, mottled black. Examined material: Upper Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Tehama, Tehama Foothills, Western mountains, Ibb, Taiz. Economic Uses: Jatropha oil acquired from the seeds of Jatropha curcas is employed to produce bio-diesel; which is suggested to be a substitute for petro-diesel in the future and is used in soap and candle industries. Decoctions from all parts of the plant are used in traditional human and veterinary medicine. It was reported for skincare; as an anti-inflammatory. Seed oil is used as a purgative and to medicate skin diseases. Antimicrobial activities were reported. The sap was suggested as an anti- cancerous.

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Malvids. Order:Myrtales Family: Combretaceae Scientific Name: Terminalia brownii Fresen Mus. Senckenberg 2: 152, t. 9/1 (1837). (Plate 61&62). Local Name: Qoa'a Description: Tree,7–15 m. Leaves ovate, 7-10 cm long, margin wavy, side veins clear. Inflorescences of axillary spikes. Flowers whitish or creamy with an unpleasant smell. Fruits winged, reddish purple, broadly elliptic to ovate with oval seeds. Examined material: Upper and Medium, Zone,25-11-2016.

Distribution in Yemen: South of Taiz, Sharab, Al-'udyn, Hajjah, W. of Dhisufal, Mutheikhira. Economic Uses: Firewood, charcoal, timber (tool handles, mortars, pestles), poles, posts, medicine(Leaves and dark), fodder (leafy branches), mulch, shade, local pillows.

Core Eudicots/Rosids/Malvids. Order: Sapindales Family: Burseraceae Scientific Name: Commiphora quadricincta Schweinf. Bull Herb. Boissier 7(App. 2): 283 (1899) (Plate 63&46). Local Name: Kataf Description: Tree, up to 3-5m. long. Branches very soft and red, some of which modified into sharp thorns. Leaves compound tri foliate; leaflet ovate or semi- lanceolate; greenish yellow. Flowers cylindrical, red. Fruits green with a slight redness, turning to red when mature Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Tehama Plain (Bagel ,Suq al Jumaa). Economic Uses: branches from which incense is extracted are used as teeth cleaners.

Core Eudicots/Rosids/Malvids. Order:Sapindales Family: Anacardiaceae Scientific Name: Mangifera indica L.Sp. Pl.: 200 (1753). (Plate 65&66). Syn: Mangifera austroyunnanensis Hu. Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. 10: 160 (1940). Local Name: Mango Description: A large tree. Leaves lanceolate, 35 cm long, dark green or light. Flowers in terminal panicles nearly 20 cm long, whitish or reddish, unisexual, also hermaphrodite flowers can occur on the same inflorescence. Fruits variable in shape, often yellow or red in color with smooth shinny skin. Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Located in agricultural land. Economic Uses: A shade plant. Branches used as fuelwood and in the production of coal. Fruit edible and used in different food industries.

Plate 61: Upper Zone Plate 62: Upper Zone Terminalia brownii Fresen

Plate 63: Medium Zone Plate 64: Medium Zone Commiphora quadricincta Schweinf.

Plate 65: Medium Zone Plate 66: Medium Zone Mangifera indica L.

Core Eudicots/Rosids/Malvids. Order: Sapindales Family: Rutaceae Scientific Name: Vepris nobilis (Delile) Mziray Symb. Bot. Upsal. 30(1): 74 )1992(. (Plate 67&68). Syn: Cranzia nobilis (Delile) Kuntze Revis. Gen. Pl.1: 99 )1891(. Teclea nobilis Delile Ann. Sci. Nat., Bot. II, 20: 90 )1843(. Local Name: Darem Description: A huge tree. Leaves compound tri- foliate; leaflets, petiolate, lanceolate with entire margin. Flowers yellowish green. Fruits oval shaped or semi-round. Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Taiz, Ibb, Al'Udain, Jahaf, E. of Dhamar, Dhisufal, Qa'atabah, Jihaf. Economic Uses: Branches used as firewood, in construction wood, in local industry as sticks and agricultural tools. Fruits are eaten. Flowers visited by bees for nectar and pollen grains.

Core Eudicots/Rosids/Malvids. Order:Malvales Family: Malvaceae (Former: Tiliaceae). Subfamily: Grewioideae Scientific Name: Grewia tembensis Fresen. Mus.Senckenberg. 2: 158 (1837). )Plate 69&70). Syn: Grewia membranacea A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. 1: 90 (1847).Grewia Parvifolia Hochst. ex A.Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. 1: 91 )1847(. Local Name: Shawhat Description: A shrub, about 3-5 cm tall. Leaves dark green, lanceolate shape. Flowers with white petals. Fruits semi-oval, appearing in small clusters; each cluster contains about 3-6 fruits, green then turn to red at maturity. Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Widespread: Tehama Foothills, Western mountains, E. of Ibb, J.Gedu (Shabwa), Demt, Qa'tabah, Abyen. Economic Uses: Leaves good food for sheep and camels, and chewed for the treatment of gingivitis, tooth pain. Branches used as sticks and as columns for tents. Sweet tasted fruits eaten,

Plate 67: Medium Zone Plate 68: Medium Zone Vepris nobilis (Delile) Mziray

Plate 69 Google Plate 70 Medium Zone Grewia tembensis Fresen.

Plate 71: Medium Zone Plate 72: Medium Zone Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. ex Poir.

Core Eudicots/Rosids/Malvids. Order:Brassicales Family: Salvadoraceae Scientific Name: Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. ex Poir. Encycl.Suppl.2: 493 (1812).(Plate 71&72). Syn: Tomex glabra Forssk.Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 32(1775). Dobera coriacea (Hochst.) A. DC. Prodr. 17: 31(1873). Dobera glabra var. macalusoi (Mattei) Fiori Boll. Soc. Bot. Ital. 1913: 48 (1913). Local Name: Dabar Description: A tree, up to 8 m long. Leaves evergreen, short-petiolated, opposite, yellow to grey- green, thick, smooth, veins hardly seen, up to 7 cm long. Flowers white, in branched heads. Fruits ovoid with 1-2 flat seeds in soft pulp. Examined material: Medium and Lower Zones, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Tehama & Foothills, low western mountains, Ashueib, Al Azareq, Al Husa. Economic Uses: Used for decoration and shade in the streets and gardens. Fuelwood and coal production. Delicious fruits are eaten.

Clade: Core Eudicots. Order: Caryophllales Family: Cactaceae Scientific Name: Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. Gard. Dict. ed. 8: 2(1768). (Plate73&74). Syn: Opuntia vulgaris Mill. Gard. Dict. ed. 8: 1 (1768). Local Name: Teen shawki Description: Undershrub2-5 m. Leaves small, appear at the tips of very young shoots and soon fall, round-shaped. Flowers bright yellow to orange,6–8cm across with many sepals and stamens arranged spirally. Fruits fleshy, egg-shaped but deeply depressed at the top, green, ripening brickred-yellow-purple. Seeds pale, sub circular. Examined material: All Zones. 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Widespread. Economic Uses: Fruit edible. Cactus oil is extracted from seeds. Flowers used to reduce bleeding, for stomach problems and intestinal especially diarrhea and colitis. Flowers mixed with honey to treat asthma.

Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Gentianales Family: Rubiaceae Scientific Name: Breonadia salicina (Vahl) Hepper &J.R.I. Wood Kew Bull. 36: 860(1982). (Plate 75&76). Syn: Breonadia salicina var. Galpinii (Oliv.) Hepper & J.R.I. Wood Kew Bull. 38: 85 (1983). Adina galpinii Oliv. Hooker's Icon. Pl. 24: t. 2386 (1895). Local Name: Darah Description: A large tree. Leaves dense, evergreen, ovate - lanceolate, medium-thick. Flowers pink - yellow, spherical shaped. Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Tehama Foothills(J. Bura'a), W. Al Mua'ten (J. Rayma). S. of Taiz, Al Udeyn, Ba'adan, Hajjah and Utuma. Economic Uses: Used as feed for sheep seasons of drought and lack of grazing. Branches made as wood, hives, doors, windows, and build houses; produce good fuel and coal.

Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Gentianales Family: Apocynaceae. Subfamily: Apocynoideae. Scientific Name: Adenium obesum (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. Syst. Veg. 4: 411(1819). (Plate 77&78). Syn: Adenium arabicum Balf. f. Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 31: 162 (1888).Adenium obesum subsp. somalense (Balf.f.) G.D. Rowley Repert. Pl. Succ. 29: 31978 publ. (1980). Local Name: Aden Description: A Shrub of1-4 m in height with a stunt short many branched stem. Leaves soft, green, obovate to lanceolate. Flowers large, strikingly pink red or pink white, in fascicles of 3-5. Fruits paired, grey or pale brown, long and narrow. Seeds small, bearing a whitish tuft of hair at each end. Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Widespread: Tehama, Tehama Foothills, W.Raimaa, Taiz, Ibb, Sumara, Dhamar, Mukayras, Hadhramaut, Al Dhla'e, Huf al Mahra.

Plate 73: Upper Zone Plate 74: Upper Zone Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill

Plate 75: Medium Zone Plate 76: Medium Zone Breonadia salicina (Vahl) Hepper & J.R.I.Wood

Plate 77: Medium Zone Plate 78: Medium Zone Adenium obesum (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult

Economic Uses: Ornamental plant. Stem used for housing bees' cells and secrets a white fluid that heal wounds, used as a wash to relieve joints' pain, and for incurable skin diseases. Bees collect nectar and pollen grains from the flowers.

Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order: Gentianales Family: Apocynaceae (Former: Asclepiadaceae). Subfamily: Asclepiadoideae Scientific Name: Cynanchum viminale (L.) L. Mant. Pl. 2: 392 (1771).(Plate79&80). Syn: Sarcostemma viminale (L.) R.Br Asclepiadeae: 40 (1810). Local Name: Elb Description: Shrub, about 2-7 m long. Stem trailing or twinning, succulent, woody in the lower part. Leaves minute (1-2 mm long), ovate. Inflorescence many- flowered axillary or terminal umbels; petals greenish- white or yellow. Follicles appear singly or double, linear - lanceolate, 6-10 cm long, thick, smooth. Seeds ovate, flat with umbrella shape tuft of hairs. Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Western mountains medium height. Economic Uses: Stem used as ropes. Flowers sweet scented. Powdered roots reported as emetic. Crushed and soaked branches break and remove bladder and ureters stones.

Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Gentianales Family: Apocynaceae (Former: Asclepiadaceae). Subfamily: Asclepiadoideae Scientific Name: Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. Hortus Kew.2: 78 (1811). (Plate81&82). Syn: Aclepias procera Ait.,Hor. Kew.1: 305 (1789).Calotropis persica Gand. Bull. Soc. Bot. France65: 59 (1918).Calotropis gigantea var. procera (Aiton)P.T.Li.J. S . China Agric. Univ. 12(3): 39 (1991). Local Name: Ushar Description: Shrub or small tree, evergreen, up to 6 m high. Leaves large, ovate, fleshy, greyish- green, base cordate. Flowers subumbellate in cymes, white and red brown. Fruits green, ovoid, 10 cm diameter. Seeds numerous, surrounded by silky white floss. Examined material: Upper Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Throughout the country, Socotra.

Plate79: Google Plate 80: Medium Zone Cynanchum viminale (L.) L.

Plate 81: Upper Zone Plate 82: Upper Zone Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand.

Plate 83: Upper Zone Plate 84: Upper Zone Kanahia laniflora (Forssk.) R.Br.

Economic Uses: Almost every part of the plant is used medically. The Ushar latex is used to treat skin diseases that affect animals such as scabies and skin allergies; also used after heating to treat headaches and painful joints.

Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Gentianales Family: Apocynaceae (Former: Asclepiadaceae). Subfamily: Asclepiadoideae Scientific Name: Kanahia laniflora (Forssk.) R.Br.Voy. Abyss. App .: Ixiv (1814) (Plate83&84). Syn: Asclepias laniflora Forssk. Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 51(1775).Kanahia consimilis N.E.Br. Fl. Trop. Afr. 4(1): 298 (1902).Asclepias coarctata S.Moore J. Bot. 46: 297 (1908). Local Name: Harmal- Kanh Description: Herb or undershrub, 1-2 m high. branches yellowish green. Leaves with a cluster of short bristles, opposite, lanceolate, very green. Flowers white with five petals coated with thick soft hairs. Fruits double, oval, yellowish green. Examined material: Upper Zone,25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Taiz, Tehama Fothills, al kod, Sanaa, medium altitude mountains, Gheil omar (Hadhramaut). Economic Uses: Ornamental plant. Latex used to treat scabies and skin allergies.

Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Gentianales Family:Apocynaceae (Former: Asclepiadaceae). Subfamily: Asclepiadoideae Scientific Name: Leptadenia arborea (Forssk.) Schweinf. Arab Pfl.-Nam. 167 )1912). (Plate85&86). Syn:Cynanchum arboreum Forssk. Fl.Aegypt.-Arab. 53 )1775(.Leptadenia heterophylla (Delile) Decne.Ann. Sci. Nat., Bot. II, 9: 270(1838(. Local Name: Orqays- lawa Description: Twinning under shrub; grow to a height of 3-6 m. Leaves variable, lanceolate to oval, green. Flowers whitish-green, in subaxillary umbels, fleshy, hairy. Fruits lanceolate follicles, obtusely acuminate, 3-7.5 cm long, smooth. Examined material: Upper and lower Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Taiz, Tehama Fothills, Lahj, Aden, Adhale, Hadhramaut, Al Husha.

Economic Uses: Plant flammable, used as organic fuel, used for shade and decoration. Roots used for gonorrhea and for nose and tooth swellings.

Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Solanales Family: Convolvulaceae Scientific Name: Convolvulus arvensis L. Sp. Pl. 1: 153(1753). (Plate 87&88(. Syn: Convolvulus chinensis Ker Gawl. Edwards's Bot. Reg. Pl.322 (1878). Local Name: Olayk Description: Perennial climbing, trailing or prostrate herb. Stems glabrous or slightly pubescent. Leaves ovate, petiolate,2-5 cm long. Flowers white or pinkish – white. Fruit a globose capsule; each fruit contains two glabrous seeds. Examined material: Upper and Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Tehama Foothills, Taiz, Ibb, Dhamar, Sana'a, Ruda, Hajjah and Hadramawt. Economic Uses: Used as feed for cows and sheep.Fruits eaten by birds.

Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Lamiales Family: Oleaceae Scientific Name: Olea europaea L. Sp. Pl. 8 (1753) (Plate 89&90). Syn: Oleae uropaea var. communis Aiton Hort. Kew. 1: 13(1789).Olea europaea var. longifolia Aiton Hort. Kew. 1: 13(1789).Olea angulosa Gouan Herbor. Mont pellier: 264 (1796). Local Name: Otm Description: Tree evergreen, about 10-15 m long, with a rounded grey- green crown. Leaves stiff, narrowly ovate, sharply pointed in opposite pairs, underside pale to white. Flowers small, white to a few yellowish, in branched heads to 5 cm. Fruits oval, fleshy, 1 cm long, purple. Seeds solid about 1 cm long. Examined material: Upper Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Taiz, J. Bura'a, AlUdeyn, Utma, Shabwa, Baadan, Hajjah, Abyan, J. Sumara, J. Malhan, Hadhraamaut, Mutheikhira.

Plate 85: Upper Zone Plate 86: Upper Zone Leptadenia arborea (Forssk.) Schwein

Plate 87: Upper Zone Plate 88: Upper Zone Convolvulus arvensis L.

Plate 89: Upper Zone Plate 90: Upper Zone Olea europaea L

Economic Uses: Stem and branches used in the construction and manufacture of wooden tools, doors and windows, and beehives; and as a good fuelwood. Fruits bitter- sweet when ripe but edible. Fruit and leaves used for treatment for different diseases.

Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Lamiales Family: Lamiaceae(Former: Labiatae) Scientific Name: Mentha× piperita L.Sp. Pl. 576 (1753). (Plate 91&92). Syn: Mentha × citrata Ehrh. Beitr. Naturk. 7: 150(1792) Mentha × adspersa Moench Methodus: 379 (1794). Mentha×piperoides Malinv. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 54: 653)1907(. Local Name: Na'anaa Description: Undershrub, ranging in length from 90 to 130 cm. Leaves dark green with red veins, with a sharp apex, serrated and rough margins, 4-9 cm long, 1.5-4 cm broad. Flowers purple, 6-8mm long. Fruit divided into four fruit lets. Examined material: Upper Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Taiz, Middle and low mountain areas. Economic Uses: Used as an appetizer, and as a health drink with natural flavor, from which aromatic oil is extracted.

Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Lamiales Family: Lamiaceae(Former: Labiatae) Scientific Name: Ocimum basilicum L.Sp. Pl.: 597(1753). (Plate 93&94). Syn: Ocimum thyrsiflorum L.Mant. Pl. 1: 84 (1767).Ocimum bullatum Lam. Encycl. 1: 384(1785).Ocimum anisatum Benth.Labiat. Gen. Spec.: 4 (1832). Local Name: Rayhan Description: Undershrub, 1-1.5 min height, covered with fine hairs. Leaves petiolate, simple, ovate, green. Flowers are collective inflorescent, white or slightly red. Examined material: Medium Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Abyan, Dhala, Taiz, Lahj and Tehama. Economic Uses: It helps in the treatment of skin and hair problems, relieves colds, coughs, flu and colds. Purifies urinary tract and activates the kidneys.

Plate 91: Google Plate 92: Upper Zone Mentha × piperita L.

Plate 93: Medium Zone Plate 94: Medium Zone Ocimum basilicum L.

Plate 95: Upper Zone Plate 96: Upper Zone Barleria bispinosa (Forssk.) Vahl

Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Lamiales Family: Acanthaceae Scientific Name: Barleria bispinosa (Forssk.) Vahl Symb Bot. 1: 46(1790). (Plate 95&96). Syn: Barleria spinicyma Nees Prodr. 11: 240 (1847). Dicranacanthus bispinosa (Forssk.) Oerst. Vidensk. Meddel. Naturhist. Foren. Kjøbenhavn 1854: 136 (1855). Local Name: Shukhat Description: Undershrub, about 50-70 cm long, covered with thick thorns. Leaves elliptical, inverted, full-rimmed. The Inflorescences of limited or a single flower. Flower blue-violet. Fruits semi-oval. Examined material: Upper Zone, 25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: Taiz, Ibb, AlU'dain, Assayani, Dhisufal, Al Qa'idah, Al Azareq, Al Hussein, Qa'tabah, Al Husha, Jihaf, Adhale', Abyen. Economic Uses: Leaves used as a bandage for modern and chronic wounds Stem and branches used as firewood and feed for camels.

Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Lamiales Family: Acanthaceae Scientific Name: Anisotes trisulcus (Forssk.) Nees Prodr.11: 424(1847). (Plate 97&98). Syn: Diantheratrisulca Forssk. Fl. Aegypt.-Arab 7 (1775).Calasia sbracteata Raf. Fl. Tellur. 4: 64 (1838).Anisotes velutinus Lindau Syst. 20: 76(1894). Local Name: Mad Description: Undershrub, up to 3 m long. Leaves ovate to obovate, very green, petiole 2–13 mm long. Flowers in axillary pedunculate to sessile clusters; bracts narrowly obovate to narrowly oblong, 2.5–6 mm. Corolla 2.5–5 cm long; red to orange yellow. Examined material: Upper and Medium Zone 25-11-2016 Distribution in Yemen: Widespread: Tehama, Tehama Foothills, Taiz, Maqbanah, Shara'b, AlU'dain, AlQafr, Madinat Asharq, Adhalaa, ALAzareq, Qa'tabah, Juben, Abyen, Ataq-Aden, J. Assoda, Shabwa, Hadhramaut. Economic Uses: Branches used as fuel wood. Leaves bitter; used to treat diabetes, and in some areas people drink its boiled water to treat back pain and colds,

Plate 97: Upper Zone Plate 98: Upper Zone Anisotes trisulcus (Forssk.) Nees

Plate 99: Google Plate 100: Upper Zone Psiadia punctulata (DC.) Vatke

Core Eudicots/Asterids/Campanuliids. Order:Asterales Family: Asteraceae (Former: Compositae) Scientific Name: Psiadia punctulata (DC.) Vatke Oesterr. BotZ. 27: 196(1877). (Plate99&100). Syn: Psiadia resiniflua Hochst. & Steud. ex DC Sch.Bip. Beitr. Fl. Aethiop.(308). Baccharis resinifluaSteud. & Hochst. ex DC. 282 (1838).Psiadia aparine Muschl. Bot. Jahrb. Syst. xlvi.: 103 (1911). Local Name: Tebak Description: Undershrub, length of 2 m or more. Leaves lanceolate shiny, long and narrow, smooth, about 3 - 5 cm long, and about 3 mm wide. Flowers small, bright yellow in many- flowered heads. Fruits tiny with little rough hairs. Examined material: Upper Zone,25-11-2016. Distribution in Yemen: J. Saber, J. Shamsan in Hajjah. Economic Uses: Used as fuel wood and for soil conservation, Bees produce from the nectar a good yellow honey. Harmful, and used when needed to clean and sterilize wounds.

The floristic composition of J. Bura'a Reserve showed relative moderate diversity. It is presented by 28 families (Fig. 3.1 and Table 3.1-Appendix B). The family Fabaceae is represented by the highest number of species (6 species) followed by Apocynaceae and Moraceae (5 species) then Vitaceae (3 species). Acanthaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, Rhamnaceae, Poaceae and Aspergaceae are each represented by 2 species; and the rest 19 families are monophytic. This result can be considered normal in this area. Dominance of members of Fabaceae coincides with the findings reported by El-Ghanim et al., (2010) and Alatar et al., (2012). The common presence of Apocynaceae coincides with the findings reported by El Gouri et al., (1996) Who reported that Asclepiadaceae which is now according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) included in Apocynaceae is endemic in Yemen. The family Poaceae showed low presentation in the study area, this result disagrees with many authors (El-Ghanim et al., 2010 and Alatar et al., 2012). It is known that many members of the family grow in harsh dry conditions; this may be the main reason for the low presentation of the family.

% of Species in the Families

Acanthaceae 4% Apocynaceae 10%

Euphobiaceae 4% Lamiaceae 4% Fabaceae 38% Moraceae 12% Rhamnaceae Vitaceae Poaeae 4% Aspergaceae 10% 4% Others 6% 4%

Figure (3.1): Percentage of Species in the Families in the Study Area

No. of Species

24 25 22 18 18 15

4 2 3 EC BF G FU E I M T FD

Figure (3.2): Economic uses of the studied plant

Fd = Fodder, T= Timber, M = Medicinal, I = Industrial, E = Edible,

FU = Fuel, G =Gum, BF = Bio-Fuel, EC = Erosion Control

The collected economic uses of the studied species from the available literature and personal communication show that most of taxa in the study area of economic value (figure 3.2 and Table 3.1-Appendix B). 25 species are fodder plants most of them are woody or browsed plant. 24 species are utilized for timber. Some species are used for medicinal purposes others include edible parts used as human food.

The life form spectrum of the present study exhibited predominant of phanerophytes (trees and shrubs ) including 32 species (Table 3.1-Appendix B)., followed by Chamaephytes. The most prominent genera are Ficus (4 species) Acacia and Cissus (2 species each). These results coincide with the findings of (El Gouri et al., 1996). As would be expected, the herbaceous ground cover and its floristic composition would give the initial conspicuous responses to future progressive or retrogressive changes, well before that given by the perennial woody species.

Similarity between the studied zones (Fig. 3.3 and Table 3.2 and 3.3-Appendix C) shows that the upper and medium zones are most similar (56 %). The similarity between the upper and medium zones in relation to the lower zone is 36%. Prosopis juliflora is the most spread species in the reserve; and Cissus rotundifolia, Ficus ingens and Sansevieria forskaliana are present in all zones.

Figure (3.3): similarity between the studied zones

It is evident from figure 3.3 that the plant diversity in the low zone differs from higher zones, this confirm the correlation between vegetation and altitude. This may be due

81 to effect of climate change and human activities. As reported by (Hegazy et al., 2008) the habitat type has direct effect on the dominance relations among different vegetation groups.

3.2 Quantitative assessment The data for the quantitative measurement was obtained to confirm the field observations. The ecological parameters were recorded from in 3 different vegetation zones; in each zone, 2 vegetation sites were selected (map 2). The selection of the sites was based on observed variations in vegetation types and topographical feature.

Map 2: Studied vegetation sites

3.2.1 Phytosociological analysis:

The vegetation in Bura'a Natural Reserve is characterized by its diversity of plant communities in different environments. These environmental differences led to differences in the number and abundance of plant species, which were represented by several growth forms, including trees, shrubs, under shrubs and herbs. The results showed that there were 50 species of plants in the studied zones. The parameters tested are relative frequency (RF), relative density (Rd), relative abundance (RA) and importance value index (IVI) of vegetation in the studied sites.

3.2.1.1 Upper Zone:

The total number of plants in the upper zone is 31 species; of which 16 species are trees and shrubs (Fig. 3.4 and Table 3.4-Appendix D). The dominant species is Calotropis procera (IVI ˃35). Barbeya oleoides, Trichilia emetica and dichrostachys cinerea are Abundant (IVI 25-35). Prosopis juliflora, Jatropha curcas, Terminalia brownii and Phoenix dactylifera can be considered as frequent species (IVI 15-25). The rest families are occasional (IVI 5-15).

The spread of Calotropis procera is due to its adaptability to difficult environmental conditions such as dryness and low moisture content; also the plant produces many hairy seeds that help in dispersal. It is evidence by many authors that the spread of Calotropis procera indicate soil poverty. Annona squamosa scored the lowest IVI. According to Maunde and Tengnas (2005) and Bein et al. (1996), the genus Annona is tropical, growing between 800 – 1600 cm.; based on these facts J. Bura'a environmental conditions is less than the plant requirements.

Herbs and under shrubs recorded 15 species in the upper zone (Fig. 3.5 and Table 3.5- Appendix D). The dominant species are Opuntia ficus-indica Followed by Convolvulus arvensis (IVI ˃30). Stipagrostis hirtigluma, Cissus rotundifolia and Leptadenia arborea are abundant (IVI 25-30). Acalypha fruticosa, Cissus quadrangularis, Mentha× piperita and Themeda triandra are frequent (IVI 15-25). The rest 5 families are occasional (IVI 5-15).

The spread of Opuntia ficus-indica may be due to its ability to resist dryness because of its life form as a succulent species possessing a stem which store large quantities of water. Monkeys which feed on the delicious fruits of the plant are considered as another factor that helps in the spread of plant through their feces. The least IVI is recorded by Aleuritopteris farinosa of the Pteridophyte which is known to dominate wet areas; in the study area the plant nourishes only in the rainy season. Locals use the plant in cleaning dishes; and they get rid of it because it is considered as a harmful plant.

RF% 20 RA% RD% 15 IVI 10

(Fig. 3.4) Relative abundance, relative density, relative frequency and importance value index for Trees and shrubs in upper

20 RF% RA% 15 RD% 10 IVI

(Fig 3.5) Relative abundance, relative density, relative frequency and importance value index for herbs and under shrubs in upper zone

3.2.1.2 Medium Zone:

The medium zone records 36 plant species, 20 of which are trees and shrubs (Fig.3.6 and Table 3.6-Appendix D). The dominant plant is Adenium obesum (IVI = 38.682). Prosopis juliflora is abundant (IVI= 31.893). While the frequent species are Vepris nobilis, Berchemia discolor, Grewia tembensis and Breonadia salicina (IVI 15-25). The rest of the plants are occasional (IVI 5-15).

The dominant plant in this zone is the poisonous Adenium obesum which is adapted to grows in rocky environmental conditions; the plant produce winged seeds which are dispersed with wind away from the original plant and this help in the spread of the plant. It is evident that the less occurrence of other woody species such as Dobera glabra, Ficus ingens, Mangifera indica, Tamarindus indica and Phoenix dactylifera may be due to illegal felling by locals for domestic use in the form of charcoal production. Stems and branches of some trees are also used in local folk industries, bee hives and roofing of rural houses.

Herbs and bushes in this zone are 16 species (Figure 3.7 Table 3.7-Appendix D). The dominant species are Sansevieria forskaliana, Gymnosporia dhofarensis, Opuntia ficus-indica, Aleuritopteris farinosa and Aloe officinalis (IVI ˃25). Colocasia esculenta, Convolvulus arvensis are abundant (IVI 20-25). Cissus quadrangularis, Acalypha fruticosa, Anisotes trisulcus and Cynanchum viminale are frequent species (IVI 15-20). The remaining plants are occasional (IVI 5-10).

Sansevieria forskaliana; is used by the residents in the region as an important economic source, the leaves are harvested in large quantities for the extraction of fibers which are used for making mattresses, and in the construction of huts (Newton, 2001); in addition to the manufacture of cords and caps for children; and for medical use as a treatment for many diseases. Aleuritopteris farinosa is use in cleaning dishes; and locals get rid of it because it is considered as a harmful plant. The dominance of these two species in this zone may be due to the availability of the optimum conditions for their growth in the form of wet climate and good soil nutrient. The scarcity of the climber Rhoicissus revoilii which records low IVI is mainly due to its habitat; it grows far from the banks of the valleys and the wet slopes of the mountains, in addition to the lack of supports on which the plant can climb.

Themeda triandra is of less occurrence because it is a pastoral grass especially preferred when young before seed maturation.

RF% 20 RA% 15 RD% IVI 10

(Fig 3.6) Relative abundance, relative density, relative frequency and importance value index for trees and shrubs in medium zone

30 25 RF% 20 RA% 15 RD% 10 IVI 5 0

(Fig 3.7) Relative abundance, relative density, relative frequency and importance value index for herbs and under shrubs in medium zone

3.2.1.3 Lower Zone:

The total number of plants reported in the lower zone is only13 plant species; 8 of which are trees and shrubs (Fig.3.8 and Table 3.8-Appendix D). The predominant is Prosopis juliflora; with an importance value index (IVI) 87.6903. Balanites aegyptiaca and Acacia ehrenbergiana (IVI 40-50) are of abundant prevalence. Acacia asak, Adenium obesum and Ficus ingens are frequent (IVI 20-30). Dobera glabra and Ziziphus spina-christi are of occasional occurrence (IVI 10-20)

Prosopis juliflora spread is mainly due to its poor requirements and adaptability to hard conditions like dryness and salinity; it is known to replaces other plants and inhibit their growth. The plant produces a large number of pods each containing many seeds. These seeds are distributed within the feces of the animals which are feed with the desirable pods; this phenomenon accelerate the germination of the seeds.

Herbs and under shrubs were recorded as 5 plant species (Fig.3.9 and Table 3.9- Appendix D). The dominant plant was Opuntia ficus-indica (IVI = 99.3648). Leptadenia arborea and Anisotes trisulcus are of abundant prevalence (IVI 60-80); and the occasional species (IVI 20-40) are Cissus rotundifolia and Sansevieria ehrenbergii. Cissus rotundifolia is consumed locally as food and in folk medicine. The low of occurrence of Sansevieria ehrenbergii may be due to unsuitable environmental conditions as drought and high temperatures records.

It must be stressed that the establishment and growth of vegetation within a given landscape (identifiable vegetation unit) is a response to the availability of seed, and to some critical climatic factors, of water regime and to soil type and nutrients. Soil texture and nutrients are basically depending upon altitude, gradient of slope and magnitude of erosion.

100 90 80 RF% 70 RA% 60 50 RD% 40 IVI 30 20 10 0

(Fig 3.8) Relative abundance, relative density, relative frequency and importance value index for trees and shrubs in lower zone

120

100

RF% 60 RA% 40 RD% IVI 20

0 Sansevieria Opuntia Leptadenia Cissus Anisotes forskaliana ficus-indica arborea rotundifolia trisulcus

(Fig 3.9) Relative abundance, relative density, relative frequency and importance value index for trees and under shrubs in lower zone

The floristic gradient in the hills vegetation zones is governed by local topographic features (altitude). The total amount of annual precipitation and the fairly high relative humidity are the main abiotic factors affecting the natural vegetation cover and its performance in the upper and medium zones. Vegetation in the upper zone contains an abundance of plants relatively lower than the medium zone; due to the severity of the mountain slopes and the spread of insect pests, this finding agree with Saleh, (2006) The medium zone is more diverse than the other vegetation zones; this may be attributed to the fact that it is characterized by its narrow wadi beds and deep valleys filled with deposits that result in mineral-rich soil and represent favorable micro-sites for plant growth. The result agreed with Al-Khulaidi, (2013) who reported that increase in the proportion of vegetation cover and quality is co-related with rise from the sea level. Also, seeds may be locally present in the medium zone or transported from adjacent landscape by altitudinal gravity (or undulations), topography or by seasonal streams of water.

The results showed that the lower zone contains low vegetation diversity, this may be due to climate change, increase of drought as a result of low rainfall quantity and distribution, great change in temperature and high evaporation rates, and overgrazing. This confirms the findings of Al-Saeed, (2001). This is also in line with what Sankri, (1978), and Al-Ruwaili and Laila, (2003). It was agreed that open grazing and persistent pastoral pressure led to a few non-palatable plants and an increase in non- palatable species for animals, in addition to different human activities represented in expansion of urbanization and population increase. The spread of Acacia trees and availability of Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) and Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile in the study area agreed with what Abd-Elbarie (1998) concluded in Tehama plain. And the existence of Acacia ehrenbergiana confirmed what (Faqeh, 2008) concluded in his study about planted species in wooden belts of Tehama. Seed survival in this zone may be at risk due to climatic adversity or predation by livestock. Special attention should be directed to linkages amongst factors of water, soils nutrients and destruction. It is evident that overgrazing and intense rate of wood cutting are the major activities that caused environmental degradation. The recent rise in human population and the new patterns of livelihood may amount to adverse consequences upon the natural vegetation and flora of the lower zone. High magnitudes of removal of natural herbaceous flora through extensive grazing and browsing of drought-resistant woody plant coupled with

92 cutting have had pronounced ill-effects on soil fertility and exposed the top profile to rain wash and wind erosion.

There is a general decline in the over-all ground cover of the palatable flora and in the performance of the annual herbaceous plants and grasses in the study area. The degradation of forage species is indicated by a rise in abundance of non-palatable species such as Calotropis procera and Leptadenia arborea . Decrease in woody species is mainly due to felling by man and heavy browsing by domestic animals. Hardly, wooded tree species suitable for fuel-wood with other important commercial qualities such as Ficus spp. Dobera glabra, Tamarindus indica and Ziziphus spina-christi have declined in abundance.

3.3 Conclusion:

Bura'a natural reserve is considered as one of the important reserves in the Republic of Yemen. From the present study the results of the floristic composition and ecological evaluation in selected 6 sites from 3 different vegetation zones in the reserve can be concluded in the following points:  A total number of 50 plant species was recorded including one non flowering plants/Pteridophyte and 49 flowering plant/Angiosperms.  The flowering plant are included in 43 genera within 28 families falling in 21 orders.  The family Fabaceae is represented by the highest number of species (12%).

 All species are of important economic value; 50% are fodder plants most of them are browsed.

 The life forms of the recorded plants show that most of the species are phanerophytes/trees and shrubs (64%).

 The upper and medium zones are most similar (56 %).

 Investigations indicated that the medium zone records the highest species diversity (72% from the total number of species); followed by the upper zone (62 %) then the lower (26% from the total number of species).

 The dominant species in the tree and shrub layer in the upper zone is Calotropis procera (IVI = 41.24), in the medium zone is Adenium obesum (IVI = 38.682) and in the lower zone is Prosopis juliflora (IVI = 87.6903).

 The dominant species in the herbaceous and under shrubs layer in the upper zone is Opuntia ficus-indica (IVI = 34.028), in the medium zone the is Sansevieria forskaliana (IVI = 28.478) and in the lower zone the is Opuntia ficus-indica (IVI = 99.3648).

 The lower zone is the most densily populated and less diversified with only 13 species and an IVI range between 14.7730 and 99.3648.

3.4 Recommendations: It is recommended that this study should be followed by detailed ecological studies of Bura'a natural reserve. The expected result would serve towards developmental management of the area. Other important recommendations include:

1. Management of natural vegetation in Bura'a should follow recommendations based on thorough ecological understand of plant as a resource for the benefit of man and his domestic animals. 2. Establishment of a climate data monitoring station to support the ecological studies. 3. Conservation of natural vegetation, especially palatable species for grazing or browsing, must be a target. 4. Establishment of seed and gene banks in order to collect, characterize and conserve the endangered species and the genetic resources of important natural plants in the area. 5. Cooperation and coordination between competent authorities in the natural reserve for protection and reducing the environmental risks resulting from degradation of the reserve. 6. Promotion of environmental educational programmes and awareness between villagers and citizens for the protection of the cultural landscape of the area. 7. Activating legislation and laws concerning protected areas and protecting the environment. 8. Promote environmental awareness by ensuring commitment to environmental protection laws as tree logging for charcoal production, identification of grazing areas and activation of legal procedures to minimize overgrazing process especially for new regenerations. 9. Design and execute a comprehensive media campaign in various communication media aiming toward the need of environment and biodiversity protection. 10. Find better alternative economic resources to enhance the income level of the citizens who are completely dependent on reserve sources. 11. Minimizing the environmental risks and threats affecting the reserve through the following:

 Control the spread of trees such as Prosopis juliflora that invade the reserve and threaten the survival of endemic plants.  Introduction of suitable trees adaptable to the environmental conditions of the area.  Stop new agricultural, residential and other expansion projects. 12. Raising the level of environmental, governmental and community performance to reach high standard achievement which agreed on global environmental treaties and agreements. 13. Write regular reports including assessment of the effect of the management of the reserve; accompanied with regular monitoring of the environmental risks and threats affecting the reserve and compare it with global standards.

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Appendix

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Appendix A Table (2.1) shows the amount of monthly and annual precipitation (mm)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total

4.1 1.7 0.5 6.0 34.3 32.4 48.4 118.9 140.0 43.2 3.9 9.4 442.7

Source: Al-Khalifa Meteorological station

Table (2.2) shows the wind intensity recorded from the period 2000-2009 (S / M) as monthly average.

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Avg

0.6 0.7 1.2 0.7 0.7 0.8 1.2 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.5 0.8

Source: Al-Khalifa Meteorological station

Table (2.3) shows temperature and monthly average

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Avg

Max 36.8 36.2 39.3 41.6 42.8 43.5 43.6 43.2 41.0 39.3 38.0 35.7 40.0

Avg 27.4 27.2 29.4 31.5 33.3 34.1 34.6 33.1 31.5 30.3 28.7 27.3 30.4

Min 16.8 13.9 15.1 18.3 19.4 18.9 17.5 17.9 16.9 16.1 14.7 14.1 15.3

Source: Al-Khalifa Meteorological station

Table (2.4) shows the relative humidity recorded from the period (2000 - 2009) (%)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Avg

Max 85.5 84.1 81.8 84.4 83.7 82.2 82.4 83.4 86.3 85.2 81.3 86.3 83.9

Avg 66.8 68.4 66.3 62.3 61.4 58.0 53.8 60.8 68.6 69.1 63.9 66.8 63.9

Min 46.4 47.1 44.4 41.2 40.1 37.5 36.7 41.7 46.9 47.5 46.2 46.3 43.5

Source: Al-Khalifa Meteorological station

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Appendix B

Table 3.1: Species list, Life forms and Economic values

Family Scientific Name Life Uses form

Pteridophyta

Pteridales

Adiantaceae Aleuritopteris farinose (Forssk.)Fée Ch I Mem.

Angiosperms

Clade:Magnollids. Order: Magnoiales

Annonaceae Annona squamosa L. Ph E, T ,I

Clade: Monocots. Order: Alismatales

Araceae Colocasia esculenta (L.)Schott Mel Ch E et.

Clade: Monocots. Order: Asparagales

Amaryllidaceae Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf Ch Fl.

Clade: Monocots. Order: Asparagales

Asparagaceae (former: Aloe officinalis Forssk. Ch M, I Aloeaceae)

Aparagaceae (former: Sansevieria forskaliana (Schult.&S Ch I Agavaceae) chult.f.) Hepper &J.R.I.Wood.

Clade: Monocots/Commelinids.Order: Arecales

Arecaceae (Former: Phoenix dactylifera L. Ph Fd, E, I,T Palmae)

Clade: Monocots/Commelinids. Order: Poales

Poaceae(former: Stipagrostis hirtigluma (Steud. ex Th Fd Gramineae).Subf.: Trin. &Rupr.) De Winter Aristidoideae Themeda triandra Forssk. Th Fd

118

Clade: Core eudicots/Rosids. Order: Vitales

Vitaceae Cissus quadrangularis L. Ch Fd, E,M

C. rotundifoliaVahl Ch Fd, E,M

Rhoicissus revoilii Planch Ph Fd

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Zygophyllales

Zygophyllaceae(Former: Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Balanitaceae).Subf.: Tribuloideae Ph Fu, M,T

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Fabales

Fabaceae(Former: Tamarindus indica L. Ph Fd, T, E, Leguminosae).Subf.: Fu , M

Caesalpinoideae

Fabaceae(Former: Acacia asak (Forssk.)Willd. Ph Fd, M,T , Leguminosae).Subf.: Fu

Mimosoideae A. ehrenbergiana Hayne. Ph Fd, T, Fu

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Ph M

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight Ph T &Arn.

Prosopis juliflora(Sw.) DC. Ph Fd, T, Fu, I

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order: Rosales

Barbeyaceae Barbeya oleoides Schweinf. Ph Fu, I,T

Rhamnaceae Berchemia discolor(Klotzsch) Ph Fd, T, E,I Hemsl.

Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. Fl. Ph Fd, T,M, Fu, E,I

Moraceae Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. Ph Fd, T, E, , I

F. populifolia Vahl Ph Fd, T, Ec, I

F. sycomorus L. Ph Ec , E

F.vasta Forssk. Ph Fd, T, E,I

119

Trichilia emetica Vahl Ph Fd, T, E,Fu

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Celasterales

Celastaraceae Gymnosporia dhofarensis Ch T, Fu ,I (Sebsebe) Jordaan

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Fabids. Order:Malpighiales.

Euphorbiaceae.Subf.: Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. Ph Fd Acalyphoideae.

Euphorbiaceae.Subf.: Jatropha curcas L. Ph M, Bf Crotonoideae Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Malvids. Order:Myrtales

Combretaceae Terminalia brownie Fresen I,T

Clade:Core Eudicots/Rosids/Malvids. Order:Sapindales

Burseraceae Commiphora quadricincta Ph Schweinf. Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica L. Ph E, T, Fu ,I

Rutaceae Vepris nobilis (Delile) Mziray Ph Fd, T, E,I

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Malvids. Order:Malvales Malvaceae(Former: Grewia tembensis Fresen. Tiliaceae).Subf.: Grewioideae Ph Fd, T, E,I,M

Clade: Core Eudicots/Rosids/Malvids. Order:Brassicales Salvadoraceae Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. ex Ph T, Fu Poir.

Clade: Core Eudicots. Order: Caryophllales Cactaceae Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. Ch G, M

Clade: Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Gentianales Rubiaceae Breonadia salicina (Vahl) Ph Fd, T, Fu ,I Hepper&J.R.I.Wood

Apocynaceae.Subf.:Apo Adenium obesum (Forssk.) Roem. Ph G, Fd, M cynoideae. &Schult

Apocynaceae (Former: Calotropis procera(Aiton) Dryand. Ph G, Fd, M, Asclepiadaceae). Bf

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Subf.:Asclepiadoideae Cynanchum viminale (L.) L. Ph Fd, E, I, M

Kanahia laniflora (Forssk.) Ch G, M R.Br.voy

Leptadenia arborea (Forssk.)Schw Ph Bf einf.

Clade:Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Solanales Convolvulaceae Convolvulus arvensis L. Ch Fd

Clade: Core Eudicots/Asterids/Lamiids. Order:Lamiales Oleaceae Olea europaea L. Ph Fd, T,M,Fu

Lamiaceae(Former: Mentha× piperitaL. Ch M, I Labiatae) Ocimum basilicumL. Ch E, M

Acanthaceae Anisotes trisulcus(Forssk.) Nees Ch E, M, Fu

Barleria bispinosa (Forssk.) Vahl Ch Fd, M, Fu

Clade:Core Eudicots/Asterids/Campanuliids. Order:Asterales

Asteraceae(Former: Psiadia punctulata (DC.) Vatke Ch Fd, M,T ,I Compositae) Oesterr.

Life forms: Ph = Phanerophyte/trees and shrubs (32 species). Th= Therophyte/annual herbs(2 species). Ch= Chamaephyte/perennial herbs and under shrubs(16 species). Economic uses: Fd = fodder, M= medicinal, T = timber, Fu = Fuel wood,E= edible . G= gum. Ec= Erosion control, Bf= Bio-fuel, I= industry.

T= 24 E=18 M=22 Fu=15 Fd= 25 G=4 EC= 2 BF=3 i= 18

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Appendix C Table 3.2 : Distribution of Species in the Vegetation Zones

Scientific Name Zones

Upper Medium Lower

Acacia asak 0 1 1

A. ehrenbergiana 0 0 1

Acalypha fruticosa 1 1 0

Adenium obesum 0 1 1

Albizia lebbeck 1 1 0

Aleuritopteris farinosa 1 1 0

Aloe officinalis 0 1 0

Anisotes trisulcus 1 1 1

Annona squamosa 1 0 0

Balanites aegyptiaca 0 0 1

Barbeya oleoides 1 1 0

Barleria bispinosa 1 0 0

Berchemia discolor 0 1 0

Breonadia salicina 0 1 0

Calotropis procera 1 0 0

Cissus quadrangularis 1 1 0

C. rotundifolia 1 1 1

Colocasia esculenta 0 1 0

Commiphora quadricincta 0 1 0

Convolvulus arvensis 1 1 0

Cynanchum viminale 0 1 0

Dichrostachys cinerea 1 0 0

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Dobera glabra 0 1 1

F. ingens 1 1 1

F. populifolial 1 1 0

F. sycomorus 0 1 0

F.vasta 0 1 0

Grewia tembensis 0 1 0

Gymnosporia dhofarensis 1 1 0

Jatropha curcas 1 0 0

Kanahia laniflora 1 0 0

Leptadenia arborea 1 0 1

Mangifera indica 0 1 0

Mentha× piperita 1 0 0

Ocimum basilicum 0 1 0

Olea europaea 1 0 0

Opuntia ficus-indica 1 1 1

Phoenix dactylifera 1 1 0

Prosopis juliflora 1 1 1

Psiadia punctulata 1 0 0

Rhoicissus revoilii 1 1 0

Sansevieria forskaliana 1 1 1

Scadoxus multiflorus 0 1 0

Stipagrostis hirtigluma 1 0 0

Tamarindus indica 1 1 0

Terminalia brownie 1 1 0

Themeda triandra 1 1 0

Trichilia emetica 0 1 0

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Vepris nobilis 0 1 0

Ziziphus spina-christi 1 0 1

Total 31 36 13

1 = present 0 = absent

Table 3.3: Index of similarity

Step Clusters Distance Similarity Joined 1 Joined 2 1 2 43.2835808 56.7164192 1 2 2 1 63.2653046 36.7346954 1 3 Similarity Matrix Upper Medium Lower Upper * 56.7164 36.3636 Medium * * 36.7347 Lower * * *

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Appendix D

Table (3.4): Percentage Relative abundance (RF), relative density (RA), relative frequency(RF) and importance value index(IVI) for trees and shrubs in upper site

Species F A D %RF %RA %RD IVI

Albizia lebbeck 50 2.0 0.0010 4.347 2.721 1.739 8.807

Annona acuminata 50 1.0 0.0005 4.347 1.360 0.869 6.576

Barbeya oleoides 100 5.7 0075.0 8.695 10.204 13.043 31.942

Breonadia salicina 50 3.0 0.0015 4.347 4.081 2.608 11.036

Calotropis procera 100 10.5 0.0105 8.695 14.285 18.260 41.24

Dichrostachys cinerea 100 6.0 0.0060 8.695 8.163 10.434 27.292

Ficus ingens 50 4.0 0.0020 4.347 5.442 3.478 13.267

F.populifolia 50 3.0 0.0015 4.347 4.081 2.608 11.036

Jatropha curcas 50 8.0 0.0040 4.347 10.884 6.956 22.187

Olea europaea 50 4.0 0.0020 4.347 5.442 3.478 13.267

Phoenix dactylifera 100 3.5 0.0035 8.695 4.761 6.086 19.542

Prosopis juliflora 100 5.0 0.0050 8.695 6.802 8.771 24.268

Tamarindus indica 50 4.0 0.0020 4.347 5.442 3.478 13.267

Terminalia brownii 100 3.5 0.0035 8.695 4.761 6.086 19.542

Trichilia emetica 100 5.5 0.0055 8.695 7.482 9.565 25.742

Ziziphus spina-christi 50 3.0 0.0015 4.347 4.081 2.608 11.036

1150 5.73 0.0575 99.988 99.992 100

F = Frequency A = Abundance D = Density

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Table (3.5) Percentage Relative abundance (RF), relative density (RA), relative frequency(RF) and importance value index(IVI)for herbs and under shrubs in upper site

Species F A D RF% RA% RD% IVI

Acalypha fruticosa 50 8.0 0.004 4.5454 8.8397 5.566 18.951

Aleuritopteris farinosa 50 2.0 0.001 4.5454 2.2099 1.388 8.143

Barleria bispinosa 100 5.0 0.005 9.0909 5.5248 6.944 21.559

Cissus rotundifolia 100 6.5 0.0075 9.0909 7.1823 10.416 26.689

C.quadrangularis 100 3.5 0.0035 9.0909 3.8674 4.861 17.819

Convolvulus arvensis 50 11.0 0.0105 4.5454 12.1546 14.583 31.283

Gymnosporia dhofarensis 100 6.0 0.006 9.0909 6.6298 8.334 24.054

Kanahia laniflora 50 3.0 0.0015 4.5454 3.3149 2.083 9.943

Leptadenia arborea 50 12.0 0.006 4.5454 13.2596 8.334 26.139

Mentha× piperita. 100 3.0 0.003 9.0909 3.3149 4.166 16.571

Opuntia ficus-indica 100 10 0.01 9.0909 11.0497 13.888 34.028

Psiadia punctulata 50 3.0 0.0015 4.5454 3.3149 2.083 9.943

Rhoicissus revoilii 50 4.0 0.002 4.5454 4.4198 2.777 11.742

Stipagrostis hirtigluma 100 7.5 0.0075 9.0909 8.2879 10.416 27.794

Themeda triandra 50 6.0 0.003 4.5454 6.6298 4.166 15.341

1100 90.5 0.072 99.999 100 99.994

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Table (3.6) Percentage Relative abundance (RF), relative density (RA), relative frequency(RF) and importance value index(IVI)for trees and shrubs in medium site

Species F A D RF% RA% RD% IVI

Acacia asak 50 4.0 0.002 4.0 4.705 3.225 11.93

Adenium obesum 100 11.0 0.011 8.0 12.941 17.741 38.682

Albizia lebbeck. 50 4.0 0.002 4.0 4.705 3.225 11.93

Barbeya oleoides. 50 3.0 0.0015 4.0 3.529 2.419 9.678

Berchemia discolor 100 5.0 0.005 8.0 5.882 8.064 21.946

Breonadia salicina 100 3.5 0.0035 8.0 4.117 5.645 17.762

Commiphora quadricincta 50 3.0 0.0015 4.0 3.529 2.419 9.948

Dobera glabra 50 2.0 0.001 4.0 2.352 1.612 7.964

Ficus ingens 50 2.0 0.001 4.0 2.352 1.612 7.964

F.populifolia 50 5.0 0.0025 4.0 5.882 4.032 13.914

F. sycomorus 50 4.0 0.002 4.0 4.705 3.225 11.93

F.vasta 50 3.0 0.0015 4.0 3.529 2.419 9.948

Grewia tembensis 100 4.0 0.004 8.0 4.705 6.451 19.156

Mangifera indica 50 2.0 0.001 4.0 2.352 1.612 7.964

Phoenix dactylifera 50 2.0 0.001 4.0 2.352 1.612 7.964

Prosopis juliflora 50 10.0 0.01 4.0 11.764 16.129 31.893

Tamarindus indica 50 2.0 0.001 4.0 2.352 1.612 7.964

Terminalia brownii 50 5.0 0.0025 4.0 5.882 4.032 13.32

Trichilia emetica 50 5.0 0.0025 4.0 5.882 4.032 13.32

Vepris nobilis 100 5.5 0.0055 8.0 6.470 8.870 23.34

1250 85 0.062 100 99.987 99.988

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Table (3.7):Percentage Relative abundance (RF), relative density (RA), relative frequency(RF) and importance value index(IVI) for herbs and under shrubs in medium site

Species F A D RF% RA% RD% IVI

Acalypha fruticosa 50 10 0.005 4.761 8.403 6.329 19.493

Aleuritopteris farinosa 100 8 0.008 9.523 6.722 10.126 26.371

Aloe officinalis 100 7.5 0.0075 9.523 6.302 9.493 25.318

Anisotes trisulcus 50 10 0.005 4.761 8.403 6.329 19.493

Cissus rotundifolia 50 3 0.0015 4.761 2.521 1.898 9.18

C.quadrangularis 100 5 0.005 9.523 4.201 6.329 20.053

Colocasia esculenta 50 12 0.006 4.761 10.084 7.594 22.439

Convolvulus arvensis 50 11 0.0065 4.761 9.243 8.227 22.231

Gymnosporia dhofarensis 100 8.5 0.0085 9.523 7.142 10.759 27.424

Ocimum basilicum 50 3 0.0015 4.761 2.521 1.898 9.18

Opuntia ficus-indica 50 15 0.0075 4.761 12.605 9.493 26.859

Rhoicissus revoilii 50 2 0.001 4.761 1.680 1.265 7.706

Sansevieria forskaliana 100 9 0.009 9.523 7.563 11.392 28.478

Cynanchum viminale 50 9 0.0045 4.761 7.563 5.696 18.02

Scadoxus multiflorus 50 4 0.002 4.761 3.361 2.531 10.653

Themeda triandra 50 2 0.001 4.761 1.680 1.265 7.706

1050 119 0.0795 99.986 99.994 100

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Table (3.8) Percentage Relative abundance (RF), relative density (RA), relative frequency(RF) and importance value index(IVI)for trees and shrubs in lower site

Species F A D RF% RA% RD% IVI

Acacia asak 100 3.0 0.0030 16.666 6 7.3170 29.9830

A. ehrenbergiana 100 7.5 0.0065 16.666 15 15.5836 47.2496

Adenium obesum 50 6.0 0.0030 8.334 12 7.3170 27.6510

Balanites aegyptiaca 100 7.5 0.0075 16.666 15 18. 2926 49.9586

Dobera glabra 50 3.0 0.0015 8.334 6 3.6585 17.9925

Ficus ingens 50 5.0 0.0025 8.334 10 6.0975 24.4315

Prosopis juliflora 100 16.0 0.0160 16.666 32 39.0243 87.6903

Ziziphus spina-christi 50 2.0 0.0010 8.334 4 2.4390 14.7730

600 50 0.041 100 100 99.7295

Table (3.9) Percentage Relative abundance (RF), relative density (RA), relative frequency(RF) and importance value index (IVI)for herbs and under shrubs in lower site

Species F A D RF% RA% RD% IVI

Anisotes trisulcus 100 8.5 0.0085 22.222 24.2857 26.1538 72.6615

Cissus rotundifolia 100 2.0 0.0010 22.222 5.7142 3.0769 31.0131

Leptadenia arborea 100 8.5 0.0085 22.222 24.2857 26.1538 72.6615

Opuntia ficus-indica 100 13.0 0.0130 22.222 37.1428 40.0000 99.3648

Sansevieria forskaliana 50 3.0 0.0015 11.111 8.5714 4.6153 24.2977

450 35 0.0325 99.999 99.9998 99.9998

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