HOL0010.1177/0959683620961482The HoloceneEkholm 961482research-article2020

Research Paper

The Holocene 2021, Vol. 31(1) 83­–94 Hunter-gatherer adaptions during © The Author(s) 2020

the Early Holocene in Northern Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683620961482 10.1177/0959683620961482 journals.sagepub.com/home/hol

Therese Ekholm

Abstract This paper deals with the study of the ecology of early Holocene, 9000-4000 cal BC, specifically human and faunal dispersal into the Norrland and Dalarna areas of northern Sweden. It has been hypothesised that this region of Sweden was settled by hunter-gatherer groups of Butovo/Veretye ancestry moving in from the eastern taiga zone and at the same time groups from the West Scandinavian coast were moving north following the melting Weichselian ice sheet. Due to the speed of the melting ice these two groups must have encountered each other in the central part of northern Sweden. This article discusses the environment of these two separate groups and the possible consequences of their encounter, informed by results from the zooarchaeological analysis of burnt, radiocarbon dated bones from sites spanning much of Norrland and Dalarna. A compilation of previously dated sites are presented, and also new 14C dates from excavated sites. The northern population preferred to hunt forest game and held on to it for a long time even if sea mammals were available. The southern population, on the other hand, hunted sea mammals and forest game through the whole period.

Keywords ecology, environment, fauna, hunter-gatherers, mesolithic, northern Sweden, radiocarbon dates Received 30 October 2018; revised manuscript accepted 18 August 2020

Introduction for the study of long-term processes, but only as long as they were sampled correctly from contexts, since charcoal can derive The research about the prehistoric settlement in Norrland and from a forest fire, for example, whereas calcined bones are burnt Dalarna (an area of 270 924 km², see Figure 1) covering the on purpose. The second paper was a pilot study for the research Mesolithic period, 9000-4000 cal BC, has previously mainly in this paper, and it focused on comparing faunal data from focused on chronology, lithic technology and settlement organisa- Mesolithic sites from Norrbotten (BD in Figure 1b), with the tion (Baudou, 1992: 55; Bergman et al., 2004; Knutsson and surrounding area. Samples of burnt bone of known species and Knutsson, 2012; Olofsson, 2003). More recently, research has mainly from sealed contexts were chosen for radiocarbon dat- been oriented towards climate change, specifically the effects of ing. The results were discussed in relation to radiocarbon dated the 8.2 k cold event, one of several cold periods in prehistory. It bone samples from a wider regional context, with a special has been done by studying demographic fluctuations by 14C sum focus on northern . The present paper is an extension of probability distributions as proxies (Apel et al., 2018; Manninen, that study. 2014; Persson, 2017). The purpose of the present study is to investigate the movement of people into the ice-free areas of Nor- rland and Dalarna and their adaption to a changing environment. Background Only few dated contexts from this time period existed, and the The last remnant of the Weichselian ice sheet covered Norrland establishment of a more detailed chronology and identification of during the preboreal (9600-8000 cal BC). This area was thus the hunted animals was needed. To accomplish this, burnt faunal spe- last part of northern Europe to be settled by humans in the early cies from Mesolithic sites with zooarchaeological assemblages Holocene (Stroeven et al., 2016, Figure 9). As the melting ice were selected, analysed and dated. exposed new land both in the north and the south, it played an As a preparation for the research presented in this paper, two important role in the settlement process. Geological and climatic pilot investigations were made; A cross-check of radiocarbon factors were essential for the introduction of plants, which in turn dates from stone age sites in northern Sweden (Ekholm, 2015a) were essential for the establishment of fauna and humans. and Mesolithic settlements in northernmost Sweden; economy, technology, chronology (Ekholm, 2016). The first paper deals with the reliability of the results from radiocarbon dated char- coal samples from previous excavations to test their usefulness Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden for this study. To cross-check the results, samples from the ana- lysed zooarchaeological record from the same features and con- Corresponding author: texts were radiocarbon dated as well, since they were expected Therese Ekholm, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, to represent the actual occupation of the sites. The results from Uppsala University, Postbox 626, Uppsala, 751 26, Sweden. the charcoal samples indicated that they were reliable and useful Email: [email protected] 84 The Holocene 31(1)

Figure 1. Maps of Sweden today. (a) The three regions Norrland, Svealand and Götaland. (b) Counties; BD-Norrbotten, AC-Västerbotten, Z-Jämtland, Y-Västernorrland, X-Gävleborg, W-Dalarna. The study area includes the region of Norrland and County Dalarna (W) in northernmost Svealand. Map by the author and Michel Guinard.

As the ice slowly melted the vegetation from the surrounding areas spread into the newly ice free area. From south and north- east tundra vegetation with light loving herbs, shrubs and bushes established. The earliest plants were generally ranunculus (Ranunculus sp.), horsetail (Equisetum sp.) and dwarf willow Figure 2. Fennoscandia with the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet ca (Salix herbacea) followed by bushes and small trees like dwarf 8000 cal BC. (The data for the ice sheet by the Aareavaara site had to be revised af- birch (Betula nana) and willow (Salix sp.). The earliest trees ter the site had been found and radiocarbon dated.) Map by the author. (birch (Betula sp.), aspen (Populus tremula) and pine (Pinus syl- verstris)) entered also very soon (Robertsson, 2009: 136; Väli- ranta et al., 2015: 3). continent in the south (Berg-Hansen, 2017) as the ice slowly The earliest vegetation looked the same over the study area, melted (Figure 3). It is discussed by the study by Günther et al. but at around 6000 cal BC Hazel (Corylus avellana) entered (2018) about DNA studies of populations migrating to southern Dalarna and Gävleborg, the southern part of the investigation area Scandinavia. (Robertsson, 2009: 136). Spruce (Picea sp.) and larch (Larix These pioneer hunter-gatherers that may be associated to two decidua) on the other hand, entered Norrland from the north at different lithic traditions and two different adaptive strategies, 7000 cal BC and spread to the south, but never reached the moun- one based on forest game moving in from the Russian taiga and tain area. Later juniper (Juniperus communis) and buckthorn one based on a marine diet (Bang-Andersen, 1989; Kindgren, (Hippophaë rhamnoides) also immigrated from north to south 1995) living on the west coast of Scandinavia. The population (Robertsson, 2009: 136). This indicates that environments north moving in from the east and north were hunter-gatherers of and south of the melting ice had slightly different characteristics Butovo/Veretye ancestry, deriving from the eastern taiga zone and which should have had some implications for how the humans were characterised by a lithic pressure blade technology, which entering the area adapted to the new landscapes. produced conical cores with a facetted platform. The raw material As soon as vegetation became established in the ice-free area, was Cretaceous flint from Belarus and southern Lithuania and the archaeological record shows that both animals and humans Carboniferous flint from north-western Russia (Zhilin, 2003, followed (Ekholm, 2016: 14; Knutsson and Knutsson, 2012). 2005). The lithic technology of the people from the south was The earliest archaeological site in the northern part of the study characterised by a direct percussion blade production strategy, area, Aareavaara, 9305-8641 cal BC, (Figure 2) (Östlund, 2011: based on one-sided cores with opposed platforms typical of the 18), is characterised by a simple quartz industry with no formal Ahrensburg- and early Mesolithic cultures in northwestern tools, reminiscent of the contemporaneous adaption of quartz Europe. Raw materials were mainly derived from ice-transported amongst Early Suomusjärvi cultures to the east. On the oldest flint originating in the southernmost areas of Scandinavia (Berg- site in the southern part of the study area, Orsand, 8812-7611 cal Hansen, 2017; Bjerck, 2009; Damlien, 2014; Eigeland, 2014; BC, (Figure 2) situated south of the remaining ice, (Lindberg and Glørstad, 2013). Sandberg, 2010: 14), a lithic technology of a different character The variation in lithic technologies indicates different adap- was identified, characterised by a pressure blade technology tions to the raw material available in the new virgin landscape made from local igneous rock (Knutsson and Knutsson, 2012; and possibly hints at the origins of the two populations that may Wehlin, 2014a, 2014b). This indicates a contemporaneous pres- have met halfway through Norrland where they created a cul- ence of humans both north and south of the ice. The idea was tural border zone in central Sweden, described in Taberlet et al. presented that the region during the pioneer phase was populated (1998) as a suture-zone, as the last of the ice finally disappeared by hunter-gatherers both from the Asian continent in the east and ca 8000 cal BC (Knutsson and Knutsson, 2012; Taberlet et al., north (Rankama and Kankaanpää, 2008) and from the European 1998: 457, 461). Ekholm 85

During the late Preboreal, ca 8300 cal BC, the eastern lithic technology spread through social learning, migration, or both from northernmost , southward along the Norwegian coast down to south Sweden (Bjerck, 1986; Damlien, 2014; Figure 1; Knutsson and Knutsson, 2012; Sørensen et al., 2013; Figure 1). This process created the cultural and demographic background for the subsequent settlement of northernmost Swe- den as the ice during the preboreal and boreal slowly melted from the north and from the south. Eastern populations that adjusted to using locally available quartz for toolmaking (Knutsson et al., 2016) moved in from the north and populations from the west that had incorporated pressure blade technology in their cultural tradition, moved in from the south (Sørensen et al., 2013). This migration theory has also been discussed by ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis. There are samples from northern Europe dated to Early/Middle Mesolithic (Günther et al., 2018; Figure 1a; Table 1) showing that the genome composition in Scandinavian hunter-gatherers (SHG) was a mix of eastern hunter-gatherers (EHG), descending from northeastern and eastern Europe, and western hunter-gatherers (WHG), descending from western, cen- tral and southern Europe (Günther et al., 2018: 2; Kashuba et al., 2019). Those results do not inform about the pioneers in the area of northern Fennoscandia, because the only sample possible to extract DNA deriving from that part of this area is from the Nor- wegian coast and from a later phase, when the SHG already lived in the area for at least 2500 years. There are no samples of human skeletal remains from, or before, the phase when the hypothesised population admixture took place in central Norrland. In addition to differences in lithic assemblages, cultural differ- ences are also manifest in economic strategies and pathways to exploiting animal resources. Since there is already a hypothesis that two different populations with two different lithic technolo- Figure 3. The migration routes into Fennoscandia during gies settled the area, it is of interest to study the faunal remains at Mesolithic. the sites associated within the realm of each lithic technological Figure is arranged by the author, map made by Michel Guinard and tradition. The work on faunal assemblages, presented here, will drawings of cores by Anders Andersson and Mikkel Sørensen. contribute to discussions of whether or not colonising groups

Table 1. Bone samples collected for the extended radiocarbon for the study.

County Sample Site Raä no. Context Species Bone element Weight (g)

Västerbotten Vojmsjön A6:1 Vojmsjön Vilhelmina 180:1 – Alces alces Phalanx I 1.1 Vojmsjön A6:2 Vojmsjön Vilhelmina 180:1 – Alces alces Phalanx II 2.5 Vojmsjön A1:1 Vojmsjön Vilhelmina 180:1 Hearth Alces alces Dewclaw 2.1 Vojmsjön A1:2 Vojmsjön Vilhelmina 180:1 Hearth Castor fiber Talus 1.5 Vojmsjön A1:3 Vojmsjön Vilhelmina 180:1 Hearth Castor fiber Tibia 1.6 Tärna 1 Tärna Tärna 550:1 Cooking pit Rangifer tarandus Carpus 4 1.3 Tärna 2 Tärna Tärna 550:1 Cooking pit Rangifer tarandus Radius 3.1 Åsele 1 Åsele Åsele 125:1 Site Alces alces Phalanx I 1.6 Åsele 2 Åsele Åsele 125:1 Site Alces alces Phalanx I 3.6 Åsele 3 Åsele Åsele 125:1 Site Alces alces Phalanx II 1.5 Åsele 4 Åsele Åsele 125:1 Site Castor fiber Humerus 1.8 Sävar 1 Sävar Sävar 330:1 Site Phoca sp. Metatarsus II 1.6 Västerdal 1 Västerdal Umeå 510:1 Site Phoca hispida Calcaneus 4.4 Västerdal 2 Västerdal Umeå 510:1 Site Phoca hispida Phalanx II 1.0 Garaselet A20 Garaselet Jörn 79:1 Hearth Alces alces Talus 1.2 Garaselet A2 Garaselet Jörn 79:1 Cooking pit Castor fiber Femur 1.5 Garaselet B1 Garaselet Jörn 79:1 Bone feature Castor fiber Tibia 2.2 Västernorrland Fagerviken 1 Fagerviken Holm 174:2 Cooking pit Alces alces Phalanx I 3.2 Fagerviken 2 Fagerviken Holm 174:2 Cooking pit Alces alces Phalanx II 1.3 Fagerviken 3 Fagerviken Holm 174:2 Cooking pit Castor fiber Radius 0.8 Snickerstensmon Snickerstensmon Ådals-Liden 194 Site Castor fiber Talus 0.7 Gävleborg Gårdsjösundet 1 Gårdsjösundet Skog 170:1 Site Alces alces Phalanx I 1.1 Gårdsjösundet 2 Gårdsjösundet Skog 170:1 Feature of fire Phoca sp. Metatarsus V 2.9 cracked rocks Gårdsjösundet 3 Gårdsjösundet Skog 170:1 Hearth Phoca sp. Humerus 2.0 Gårdsjösundet 4 Gårdsjösundet Skog 170:1 Cooking pit Phoca sp. Tarsus 3 1.1 86 The Holocene 31(1) originated from coastal areas or from an inland tundra/taiga envi- fauna. This is also where the work on this paper begins. These ronment by studying the composition of species on different sites calcined bones from hearths and cooking pits will provide valu- in inland and coast. Different hunting strategies and different con- able data pertinent to the discussion of hunter-gatherer adaption sumption patterns make marks in the zooarchaeological record during the early Holocene in northern Sweden in this paper. (Sørensen et al., 2013). This is best done by analysing data from radiocarbon dated sites, and it is even better if those dates derive from faunal remains that have been identified to the species level; The ecology of the last pioneers which species can be correlated to environmental and climate of northernmost Europe, a changes. Even if hunting strategy and cultural preference plays an Mesolithic fauna history of important role in the forming of faunal remains on site, environ- mental and climate changes necessarily also affect the composi- Northern Sweden tion of prey on site. The new chronological and contextual data sketched above can In this paper, new data on dates and faunal assemblages, now tentatively be used as a starting point for a discussion of the together with previously published results, illustrates the settle- ecology and adaptive strategies of the two hunter/gatherer popu- ment process as a consequence of the deglaciation and also the lations settling the area south and north of the Weichselian ice in use of different animal species during the Mesolithic. This forms the early Holocene. The problem archaeologists have faced in a base from which to discuss economic strategies as new lands previous years was the lack of proper dating of the faunal remains became accessible and environmental change altered the ecologi- and their relation to the general cultural process. Based on recent cal setting of these different groups. When the economy and the developments in 14C dating of burnt bones, the strategy followed lithic technology are connected to this new chronology, similari- for this paper has been to date different Mesolithic contexts with ties and differences can perhaps become visible, helping to burnt animal bones from the supposedly early Stone Age settle- answer questions pertaining to the origin of the first settlers and ments in northern Sweden. In doing so it became possible to the processes by which they adapted to new environments. explore the adaption of the two hunter-gatherer populations to the new ice-free area (Ekholm, 2015a, 2016). Furthermore, advances in dating allow for a better understanding of how their ecology Chronology changed as they adapted to the environment in the area and, even- Northern Fennoscandian Mesolithic research has previously been tually, due to their hypothesised encounter with each other in cen- performed within each nation state, each with its own scientific tral Norrland. traditions determining the definition of prehistoric cultures. These The purpose of this study was thus to: different archaeological research traditions have thus created seemingly isolated groups of people in Scandinavia with different •• Select already known, and potentially, Mesolithic sites cultural practices. In fact, these groups and their lifestyles might in Norrland and Dalarna with zooarchaeological be more related to each other, judging from similarities in their assemblages. reconstructed movement patterns and networks of contact span- •• Radiocarbon date selected faunal species from these ning areas that transcend modern national borders, than assumed. contexts. This has actually been suggested in previous research (Manninen •• Merge and expand dataset by using the tested charcoal and Knutsson, 2011; 2013; Sørensen et al., 2013). dates with the data from bones to build the reconstructed Apart from the problem of a slightly different classification population history. system for material culture creating artificial borders between groups, another major problem is the construction of a reliable One specific focus will thus be to investigate and compare over cultural chronology in the prehistory of Norrland. This relates to the long durée the identified fauna and relate this to the ecology of the problem of dating artefact assemblages due to a lack of stra- the two populations who assumedly settled the area simultane- tigraphy. The assemblages often represent palimpsests of material ously in the early Holocene (Knutsson and Knutsson, 2012). from several periods making the relation of dates, features and However, the possibility that the absence of a certain species in artefacts difficult. Furthermore, due to the decomposition of the archaeological record reflects a shift in human adaptation pat- organic materials in the acidic soils, artefacts made of wood and tern unrelated to the availability of this species cannot be ruled unburnt bones are rarely found, not even in sunken features out. (Andersson, 1898: 142; Borg et al., 1994: 97f; Björdal, 1999: 120f; Christensson, 1999: 172f). From the point of view of this paper, a general chronological frame focusing on the general Databases and samples trends over time is being relied upon. To accomplish the goal of this study, a survey of known Meso- As the situation stands now a Middle Mesolithic macro blade lithic sites in Norrland and the county of Dalarna in Svealand was industry (ca 8300-7000 cal BC) with semi-conical cores reminis- carried out (Figure 1). To do so ADIN 1950-1995 (Ramqvist, cent of the Butovo/Veretye tradition defines the southern part of 2000), a database of all archaeological sites excavated between Norrland, at the same time defining the northern border of the 1950 and 1995 in the region of Norrland was used. Since the data- suture-zone (Knutsson et al., 2016). In the north, north of the base only contains excavations from Norrland, the sites in Dalarna assumed suture-zone, the Middle Mesolithic is characterised by a were not present in the database. Therefore, a database made by lithic tradition of simple quartz industry and of slate tools. The PhD student Michel Guinard, Uppsala University, was also con- late Mesolithic, 7000-4500 cal BC, there is an expansion of a tra- sulted, as the sites from Dalarna and more recent excavations in dition foremost identified by a microblade production of insets Norrland were listed there. Also, a recent compilation of all the for slotted bone tools based on handle cores stretching from excavated sites in the county of Västernorrland (Persson, 2015) northern to northernmost Sweden. Raw materials are were used. The databases used for the study are organised accord- varied depending on local variation in access to suitable raw ing to; county, parish, RAÄ-number (site ID number) and site. materials. From this period sites with oblique arrow points based Selected sites for the study are represented in Figure 4. on a simple flake industry characterise the late Mesolithic stretch- The osteological assemblages were housed at their respective ing over a vast area of northernmost Sweden, Northern Norway county museums as well as the Swedish History Museum in and most of Finland. Most, if not all, sites from the period typi- Stockholm (http://mis.historiska.se/mis/sok/start.asp). All the cally have hearths and cooking pits filled with a burnt fossil osteological assemblages that derived from the selected sites were Ekholm 87

Ramsele 113:1; 128:1 and Holm 174:2 had not gone through the appropriate antiquarian procedures and thus it was not possible to get permission to radiocarbon date them. The database made for this study contains both archaeological and zooarchaeological information about every sample dated for the study. It also contains information about the new radiocarbon dates and bone samples and charcoal samples dated previously. Together they constitute the foundation of this study. (See supple- mentary file.) The bone samples were selected from small assemblages and the bones were very fragmented (Figure 5). The general fragmen- tation rate of north Swedish bone materials are 0.1–0.2 g per frag- ment. Some of the zooarchaeological assemblages did not contain even one bone sample large enough for radiocarbon dating (e.g. Rastklippan, Hästboberget (Figure 4)). The samples were mainly phalanges from hoofs and paws. As beaver paw bones are too small for radiocarbon dating, proximal and distal segments of the long bones were chosen. The amount of zooarchaeological analysis from Norrland is fairly meagre. So far the most extensive work has been the analy- sis of, and a review of, the analysis of the zooarchaeological assemblages from the NTB (Norrlands tidiga bebyggelse) project made by Elisabet Iregren and Jan Ekman in the Early Norrland series no.8. It was a research project sprung out of the excavations from the major building project of the power plants (Iregren and Ekman, 1984). Besides that, there are some more recent osteologi- cal analysis of bones from Mesolithic contexts made in connection to archaeological excavations, for instance; Iregren (1984), Jons- Figure 4. Radiocarbon dated sites for the Mesolithic sites in son (2004, 2010), Sjöling (2009) and Ekholm (2013, 2014, 2015b) Norrland and Dalarna. (1) Kitkiöjärvi, (2) Kangos, (3) Aareavaara, (4) Pajala 238, (5) Kårtje- which all have been included or, at least, considered for this study. jaure, (6) Killingholmen, (7) Nelkerim, (8) Tröllomtjärnen, Vuollerim, In addition to the osteological research discussed above, Taber- (9) Bodträskfors, (10) Stockberg, (11) Alträsket, (12) Petbergsliden, let et al. (1998) also examined Scandinavian fauna in the study (13) Garaselet, Lappviken, (14) Skiljesmyren, (15) Dumpokjauratj, (16) Comparative phylogeography and postglacial colonization routes Rackträsk, Döudden, (17) Ipmatisjauratj, (18) Blomnäs, (19) Tärna, (20) in Europe, which detailed the introduction of animals and plants Rastklippan, (21) Stalon 636, 772, 774, (22) Högland, (23) Maksjön 272, into Europe during the Quaternary. Their work shows a number of 263, 770, (24) Vojmsjön, (25) Gråtanån 188, 554, 577, Nyluspen, Lus- suture-zones in Europe where different species met after dispersed pen, (26) Tjikkiträsk, (27) Lycksele 8:2, (28) Norrmalm, (29) Sävar, (30) Västerdal, (31) Åsele, (32) Bellsås, (33) Lemnäset, (34) Lafssjön, (35) into Europe from different directions. One of them are situated in Ammerån, (36) Snickerstensmon, (37) Näsåker, (38) Anundsjö, (39) Själ- the centre of Scandinavia (Taberlet et al., 1998; Figure 6) reminis- evad, (40) Sidensjö, (41) Gussjölandet, (42) Åkroken, (43) Fagerviken, cent of the special structure of archaeological sites with different (44) Holm, (45) Klingsta, (46) Skån, (47) Tvärforsen, (48) Laforsen, (49) lithic technology (Knutsson and Knutsson, 2012). Bölberget, (50) Smalnäset, (51) Krankmårtenshögen, (52) Tisjön, (53) Finnhed, (54) Skattungbyn, (55) Orsa 214, 234, (56) Orsand, Limsjön, (57) Tjärna, (58) Sörromme, (59) Däcksvägen 3, (60) Hästboberget, (61) Kolfallet, (62) Valsjön, (63) Järbo, (64) Vittersjö, (65) Gårdsjösundet. Method • = Radiocarbon dated bones.▲ = Radiocarbon dated contexts. The first step in finding the information about possible Mesolithic Map by the author. sites with zooarchaeological assemblages in Norrland was to search the ADIN 1950-1995 (Ramqvist, 2000), together with a already dated to the Mesolithic based on charcoal samples, other database made by PhD student Michel Guinard, Uppsala Univer- bone samples or artefact typology. The osteological references sity, and a recent compilation of all the excavated sites in the used included the present author’s private collection of Eurasian county of Västernorrland (Persson, 2015). elk (Alces alces) and domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) The second step was to identify representative sealed contexts and the collection at the Osteoarchaeological Research Labora- with samples of burnt bone for radiocarbon measurements from tory at Stockholm University containing Eurasian beaver (Castor the sites chosen for the study. It was accomplished by: fiber) and Ringed seal (Phoca hispida). The calibrations of the dates were performed with the program OxCal v4.3.2 (Bronk 1. Searching for zooarchaeological assemblages from sealed Ramsey, 2013) using IntCal13 (Reimer et al., 2013) and the dia- contexts on the site. grams of the total sum of the dates of every species and the dia- 2. Through reports and articles surveying and clarifying the grams of the total sum of the dates were performed in the program lithic technologies connected to the site. rcarbon (Bevan and Crema, 2020). In this study bones from Eurasian elk, reindeer, Eurasian bea- The third step was to search for good bone samples for radiocar- ver and seal (Phocidae) were selected for dating (Table 1), as all bon dating and to determine or confirm the species and bone ele- other species in the assemblages were very few and/or their bones ment. Most of the osteological assemblages were already were too small for radiocarbon dating. To be sure at least one analysed, but for the purpose of this study the present author con- gram was used but two exceptions were made on beaver bones; firmed the previous analysis of the bone sample. In instances 0.7 g and 0.8 g. Details pertaining to the bone element, species, where the bone assemblages were not analysed, an analysis of context, site, Raä (site ID-number) and county of each sample are the sample to be dated was made by the present author. When the listed in Table 1. decision of permission for 14C-dating had been made by each Two of the assemblages were not found; Haverö 12:1 in museum, the samples were sent to Ångström Laboratory, Uppsala Västernorrland and Fors 12:1 in Jämtland. Apart from that, University, for AMS radiocarbon dating. 88 The Holocene 31(1)

Table 2. The results from the radiocarbon dated samples.

Sample Lab. No. δ13C ‰ VPDB Species Context 14C Age BP Cal. BC

Vojmsjön A6:1 Ua-53978 –16.4 Alces alces – 7555 ± 47 6481–6261 Vojmsjön A6:2 Ua-53975 –21.5 Alces alces – 7588 ± 39 6499–6393 Vojmsjön A1:1 Ua-53977 –26.9 Alces alces Hearth 5830 ± 36 4789–4586 Vojmsjön A1:2 Ua-54123 –25.6 Castor fiber Hearth 5898 ± 28 4836–4712 Vojmsjön A1:3 Ua-54124 –25.2 Castor fiber Hearth 5885 ± 28 4829–4705 Tärna 1 Ua-53973 –23.5 Rangifer tarandus Cooking pit 6905 ± 38 5877–5721 Tärna 2 Ua-53974 –19.9 Rangifer tarandus Cooking pit 6841 ± 37 5801–5646 Åsele 1 Ua-53979 –24.1 Alces alces Site 5913 ± 36 4896–4709 Åsele 2 Ua-53980 –21.0 Alces alces Site 6844 ± 38 5809–5646 Åsele 3 Ua-53981 –21.9 Alces alces Site 6733 ± 37 5716–5569 Åsele 4 Ua-54125 –26.8 Castor fiber Site 5066 ± 27 3952–3796 Sävar 1 Ua-54126 –23.4 Phoca sp. Site 5887 ± 30 4833–4702 Västerdal 1 – – Phoca hispida Site – – Västerdal 2 Ua-54129 –21.1 Phoca hispida Site 6071 ± 29 5057–4853 Garaselet A20 Ua-53972 –22.2 Alces alces Hearth 8034 ± 42 7079–6778 Garaselet A2 Ua-54127 –26.6 Castor fiber Cooking pit 4668 ± 28 3521–3367 Garaselet B1 Ua-54128 –22.8 Castor fiber Bone feature 4620 ± 28 3506–3349 Fagerviken 1 Ua-53970 –24.6 Alces alces Cooking pit 5894 ± 35 4842–4696 Fagerviken 2 Ua-53971 –26.6 Alces alces Cooking pit 5960 ± 36 4941–4730 Fagerviken 3 Ua-54119 –26.1 Castor fiber Cooking pit 7346 ± 50 6361–6076 Snickerstensmon Ua-54120 –25.9 Castor fiber Site 4371 ± 34 3090–2907 Gårdsjösundet 1 Ua-53976 –23.9 Alces alces Site 7879 ± 40 7024–6635 Gårdsjösundet 2 Ua-54121 –27.2 Phoca sp. Feature of fire cracked rocks 7856 ± 46 7021–6593 Gårdsjösundet 3 Ua-54122 –26.7 Phoca sp. Hearth 7671 ± 33 6591–6456 Gårdsjösundet 4 – – Phoca sp. Cooking pit – –

temperature. Since there are two different ways of dating bones, whether they are burnt or unburnt, a suggestion is never to use partially charred bones for the reason that they are neither entirely burnt nor unburnt (Olsen et al., 2008: 795f). Another complicat- ing factor could be the presence of tree roots which can contami- nate samples, and thus where possible samples with roots were avoided (Borg et al., 1994: 97). It has also been discussed whether burning old wood together with bones would affect the radiocarbon dates of the bones. Olsen et al. (2008, 2013), Snoeck et al. (2014), Zazzo et al. (2012) coin the phenomenon as ‘old wood effect’, when the bones are dated older than the actual date of burning as a result of them being burnt together with old wood. Challenging are bones from ani- mals that live in the sea or feed on animals from marine habitats, as they may yield dates exceeding their actual age, due to the so- called reservoir effect. It is therefore important to take this into account when marine animals are analysed, as well as when dat- ing animals that may have been feeding on marine resources Figure 5. The zooarchaeological assemblages were very (Hedman, 2009: 5; Lanting and van der Plicht, 1998: 151; Lanting fragmented. Here is a part of the assemblage of Laforsen in Färila et al., 2001: 249–250). This does not, however, affect burnt bones parish Raä 426, Gävleborg together with a scale bar where every as much as it does unburnt bones. Structural carbonate, which is square is one centimetre. Photo by the author. used when dating burnt bones, originates from the whole diet rather than just animal protein. Thus while burnt bone samples from predators that feed entirely on marine animals are impacted In OxCal v4.3.2 the radiocarbon dates have been calculated by the reservoir effect, this impact is minimised amongst animals and each species has been arranged in sequences in rcarbon to that do not consume marine based animal proteins (Lanting and show the duration and the density of certain species on archaeo- Brindley, 1998: 6). It is not possible to tell from burnt bones what logical sites in the northern region and in the southern region of percentage of the diet of the animal whose remains are being the study area, separated by the previously mentioned suture- sampled was either marine or terrestrially based. One can how- zone. Also, the total sum of the radiocarbon dates from bone sam- ever assume that the elks and reindeers had different but still ples, supported by the total sum of the radiocarbon dates from the entirely terrestrially based diets and that seals had entirely marine charcoal samples, have been arranged in sequences north and diets. Although the beaver bones sampled are almost surely south of the suture-zone. impacted by the reservoir effect, because of their freshwater liv- The collected samples for 14C-datings were carefully chosen ing environment, and waterplant diet (Jensen, 2004: 110), for the to make sure that the sample represented the activities at the site purposes of this study their diets could be said to be terrestrial. and to avoid errors caused by contamination. When burnt bone is Thus during radiocarbon data curve calibrations, seal samples dated the sample has to be of solid, white bone, burnt in a high were calculated as having had 100% marine diets, while elk, Ekholm 89

Figure 6. The total amount of radiocarbon dates for each species (reindeer, elk and seal) divided into the regions north and south of the suture-zone. reindeer, and beaver bones were all 100% terrestrial. However, and they were all samples of beaver bones. All together in the when calibrating all data together 100% atmospheric (terrestrial) database there are 13 samples of reindeer, 35 samples of elk, 9 was chosen. samples of beaver, 13 samples of ringed seal and 5 samples of The new information from the samples was later, together with undetermined seal. There are also 39 bone samples of undeter- the information from previous samples, compiled in the author’s mined species and 132 samples of charcoal in the database. Elk database, attached as a supplementary file to this article. and reindeer are the most reliable species since beaver and seal might be affected by the reservoir effect. But due to the long time span in the study and to the overall geographical perspec- Faunal population history tive, the reservoir effect does not seriously affect the outcome The results of the radiocarbon dates are listed in Table 2 in the of the study. Besides the radiocarbon dated species collected same order as in Table 1. Out of 25 samples, 23 resulted in new from specific contexts there were, in most cases, more species dates, and out of them 19 were Mesolithic. The ones that were in the same feature and on the same site, especially fish but also not dated to Mesolithic were dated to Early or Middle Neolithic birds. These species can in some cases connect to the dated 90 The Holocene 31(1) species, if they were found in the same sealed context as the bone sample. This also goes for sites, although, it is important that the samples are connected to the activity on site and that the site is from a single occasion. Some features are more com- plex and seem to have contextual contemporaneity, which means that they have been used several times or reused after some time (Ahlbeck, 1995: 42; Ekholm, 2015a, 2016). It is pos- sible to transfer the date to other species from the same context and the same site as long as one is aware of the errors that can occur. In Table 2, all known radiocarbon dated species from the sites are listed. The dates cover the whole Mesolithic period in Norrland with reindeer being the earliest species to be hunted both south and north of the ice (Figure 7). The known data from reindeer bones on Mesolithic sites are from Norrbotten, Tärna in north-western Västerbotten and Limsjön in Dalarna, with a huge gap in between where the ice sheet remained longest. When the ice sheet was completely gone, at around 7000- 8000 cal BC, Eurasian elk entered rapidly together with the taiga vegetation of bushes and trees. The elk reached the whole study area basically at the same time, only slightly later in the north, and the population was quite stable through time, apart from a peak around 6500 cal BC. Looking closer, it seems like the appearance of elk, or to be more precise, the use of elk, is dated earlier in the southern counties and later in the northern area. In southern Scandinavia elk was present already at 11800-11400 cal BC in Denmark and 11300-11200 cal BC in southern Sweden (Aaris-Sørensen, 2009: 27). Most of the beaver remains sampled date to the Neolithic, and the Late Mesolithic dates are very late and somehow connected to the Neolithic. One sample however suggests that beaver were present in Västernorrland by as early as 6361-6076 cal BC. The Figure 7. Samples of reindeer, elk, seal and beaver from 8000- lack of Mesolithic beaver bones are the reason why beaver is left 5500 cal BC. The suggested directions of entrance and also where out of Figure 6. it stops according to the results. The suture-zone according to One important result is that there is a difference in hunting of Taberlet et al. 1998 is also presented in the figure. seal. North of Gävleborg the hunting of seal began much later Map by the author and Michel Guinard. than in southern Norrland (Figure 6) even if the seals probably was present in the entire Baltic Bay at the time (Ukkonen, 2001: The results of the earliest dates reflects the results in Figure 6, 192). In southern Norrland, the oldest radiocarbon dates from seal especially the ones from the southern part. There is a fast increase bones show up at the same time as the first known radiocarbon of dates of elk, seal, undetermined bones and charcoal at around dates from elk bones. Not until around 5300 cal BC are seal bones 7500 cal BC in the southern part of the study area. Even the few found on the northern sites, at the same time as reindeer disap- reindeer samples derive from that date. In the northern part the peared from the archaeological record. At that time the handle increase is much slower and stretches over a longer period of core tradition also appears as a new lithic technology (Forsberg time. and Knutsson, 1996). Figure 6 show that the first dates of all three species in the south are the same but in the north the first dates of each species differ a lot. Discussion Together with the suggested mobility patterns of incoming popu- lations, results from radiocarbon samples of burnt bones from Population history, all dated sites reindeer, Eurasian elk, Eurasian beaver and seal, dating to 8000- Figure 8 is based on all samples in the database with dates older 5500 cal BC, are shown in Figure 7. The results from the radiocar- than 5200 uncal. BP. The total amount of radiocarbon dates of bon datings of the present study show it is possible to interpret the bones are shown in black and the total amount of radiocarbon suture-zone, modelled after Taberlet et al. (1998) mentioned ear- dates of both charcoal and bones are shown in grey. The diagrams lier in the text, to have had relevance also in the prehistoric times. are divided into two areas; one with the results north of the suture- The reindeer seems to be the first of the four examined species zone and one with the results south of the suture-zone, after (reindeer, elk, beaver and seal) to enter the new, ice-free area Taberlet et al. (1998; see also Figure 7). Since the amount of dated both from the northeast and from the south (Table 2 and Figures bones are sparse, the results from the charcoal samples have been 6 and 7). The known data from reindeer bones on Mesolithic sites used to strengthen the picture of the population history in Norr- are from Norrbotten, Tärna in north-western Västerbotten and land and Dalarna. In an earlier study (Ekholm, 2015a), mentioned Limsjön in Dalarna. When the Weichsel ice sheet melted reindeer earlier, samples from the analysed zooarchaeological record from dispersed into the area, likely following the expanding tundra the same features and contexts as previous radiocarbon dated vegetation, bringing with them a pioneering reindeer hunting charcoal were dated and showed the same results as the previous population. During this time the vegetation was dominated by results. The results from the charcoal samples indicated that they light loving herbs, and shrubs and bushes such as ranunculus, wil- were reliable and useful for the study of long-term processes, but low and dwarf birch. only as long as they were sampled correctly from contexts and not The results from Dalarna in southern Norrland probably repre- only connected to the sites. sent the northernmost extent of a southern reindeer population Ekholm 91

Norrland, on the sites in Gävleborg, the lithic technology seems to be the same as in Dalarna and probably derives from western Scandinavia. There are no seals in the archaeological Mesolithic records north of Gävleborg before 5300 cal BC. It is not possible to argue for the seals not to be able to live in the northern Baltic Sea because most of the seal samples are interpreted to be Ringed seal and they live and keep their pups in pockets in the land fast ice during winter (Jensen, 2004: 263). Also, in Finland there are no findings of seal bones from the earliest settlements, including the coastal ones (Sørensen et al., 2013: 34; Ukkonen, 2001; Ukkonen et al., 2014; Ukkonen and Mannermaa, 2017). It is thus probable that the groups of pioneering hunter-gather- ers entering northern Norrland hunted reindeer and they may not have been adapted to hunting aquatic big game. Therefore the hunting of seal was introduced much later. As mentioned earlier in the text, the first recognisable culture to settle in northern Nor- rbotten were assumed to have derived from the inland taiga zone of Russia and were presumably adapted to hunting terrestrial rather than marine based fauna. Whatever the case, this study has showed that the earliest evi- dence for seal hunting coincides with a disappearance in evidence of reindeer hunting in northern Norrland around 5300 cal BC. The lack of seal bones in this area prior to this period suggests a cul- tural change occurred ca 5300 cal BC that might be linked to fol- lowing factors:

•• There might be another group of people settling northern Norrland from the south. Such a colonisation event could correlate with the introduction of the handle core lithic Figure 8. The total amount of radiocarbon dates divided into tradition, which might indicate another group of people north and south of the suture-zone (after Taberlet et al., 1998. Also settling the area replacing or cohabiting the area alongside shown in Figure 7). The total amount of radiocarbon dates of bones an earlier population. are shown with a black line and the total amount of radiocarbon •• Perhaps climate ‘pushed out’ the reindeers and the dates of both charcoal and bones are shown in grey. humans needed to look for another source. At this time forests had spread and the environment suited elks more that could disperse northwards on the land bridge between than reindeers and the elks were already established long present-day Sweden and Denmark in the Late Glacial/Early before. Holocene. The oldest date of reindeer in Scania, situated in •• Perhaps there was a cultural change within the group. A southernmost Sweden, is 9700 cal BC and the population seems to change in hunting or in handling the prey. have become established around 9500 cal BC, which coincides with the period of the land bridge. It has previously been stated According to earlier interpretations of beaver hunting the beaver that the southern reindeer population spread northward as the ice was connected to the elk and the eastern pressure blade lithic sheet melted (Ekman, 1922; Liljegren and Lagerås, 1993: 10) but technology groups originating from inland (Sørensen et al., 2013). disappeared around 7100 cal BC (Aaris-Sørensen et al., 2007: The beaver lives in the same environment as the elk and is there- 915f) before reaching the area of Svealand (Figure 1b). Recent fore available at the same place. But beavers do not move as good data show that reindeer have been present in the area later than on land as in water and therefore they tend to stay in the same that (Ekholm, 2014; Boethius, 2018). water system. They rarely move to another water system (Jensen, The results also show that reindeer disappeared from the 2004: 109). The elk, on the other hand, can move as far as 100 km archaeological records from Norrbotten after 5300 cal BC. This between winter and summer pasture (Jensen, 2004: 294f). Per- disappearance may be representative of a declining reindeer pop- haps people did not hunt beavers in a large amount until later even ulation triggered by changing climate and vegetation patterns that if it was available. In Scania, the earliest known remains of beaver may have ‘pushed out’ reindeer from the area (Lepiksaar, 1986: on archaeological sites date to 8818-8487 cal BC (Hansson et al., 61). However, we cannot rule out the possibility that the absence 2017; Table 1), but these culture groups are certainly not the same of reindeer in the archaeological record reflects a shift in human as the ones in Norrland. consumption unrelated to the availability of this species. How- The general human migration/hunting pattern seems to be dif- ever, we find this unlikely. ferent north and south of the suture-zone (Figures 6 and 8). In the The oldest known radiocarbon dates from elk bones in southern southern part, the earliest dates of all recorded animal species and Norrland, and the few available dates from reindeer in Dalarna, are charcoal are from the same time, at around 7500 cal BC and the concurrent with radiocarbon dates from seal bones. All along the amount increased fast. The lithic technology from those sites indi- southern and eastern Scandinavian coast (Boethius et al., 2017; cates a migration from the west. It seems like it took a while until Lepiksaar, 1986: 55; Storå, 2001), as far north as to the suture- humans entered Dalarna and Gävleborg after the ice sheet melted. zone (Figure 7), people were hunting seal during this time. The A suggestion is that they came from the west and were used to ringed seal probably entered the Baltic Sea at the time of Yoldia hunt reindeer, elk and seal. There might, of course, also have been Sea stage (Storå, 2001: 2; Ukkonen, 2001: 17) and the early groups people coming from the south but there are no traces of that. of Ahrensburgian ancestry living along the coasts in southern and In the northern area it seems like the humans entered earlier, western Scandinavia were already used to the marine fauna from together with the reindeer, or slightly after, but before the elk. The before they inhabited the Scandinavian peninsula. In southern migration was slower and increased over a longer period of time. 92 The Holocene 31(1)

The sites in northern Norrland were most likely inhabited by the Acknowledgements quartz using Butovo/Veretye descendants (Riede and Tallavaara, I would like to thank Leena Drenzel, Swedish History Museum, 2014) that had moved in from Finland and Russia (Ekholm, 2016; Maria Björck, Gävleborgs museum, David Loeffler and Marie Knutsson et al., 2016; Sørensen et al., 2013), thus the site Aareav- Svedin, Murberget, Västernorrland, Susanne Sundström, Väster- aara might have been occupied by another population entering ear- botten’s museum and Johan Linderholm and Peter Holmblad, lier, perhaps from the north Norwegian coast (Östlund, 2017). Department of Historical, Philosophical and Religious Studies at The lithic technology on the sites of Orsand and Limsjön in Umeå University. I would also like to thank Peter Persson at the Dalarna seems to be connected to the eastern pressure blade tech- County of administrative board of Västernorrland for the book nology probably originating in western Sweden and eastern Nor- released right in time for my study. I am grateful to Jan Storå way but originally from northern Norway. Since the technology and Sara Gummesson, Osteoarchaeological Research Labora- might have been transferred by social learning it is impossible to tory, Stockholm University, for letting me use the osteological tell where the actual individuals originated. According to recent collection and for all support with very short notice. Thanks aDNA investigations (Günther et al., 2017) they may represent an to Jan Apel, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, admixture between western (WHG) and eastern (EHG) hunter- Lund University, for assistance with the OxCal program, to Per gatherers defined as Scandinavian hunter-gatherers (SHG). Unfor- Persson at the University of Oslo for assistance with the rcar- tunately there are no preserved aDNA from the pioneer phase in bon program and to Michel Guinard, Department of Archaeol- the study area. ogy and Ancient History, Uppsala University, for assistance with the figures. And at last, thanks to Kjel Knutsson, Sabine Sten and Anna Shoemaker, Department of Archaeology and Ancient Conclusions History, Uppsala University, for support, discussions and proof This study has shown that the first settlers in both north of and reading. Rachel Shoemaker, former ECL teacher, did the final south of the melting Weichsel ice sheet hunted reindeer. Originat- proof reading. ing from the south, hunter-gatherer groups of Ahrensburgian ancestry entered and spread northward along the Norwegian coast Funding and also established in settlements in southern Scandinavia. Their The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for lithic technology was characterised by a direct percussion blade the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work production strategy, based on one-sided cores with opposed plat- was supported by Berit Wallenbergs Stiftelse, Åke Wibergs Stiftelse, forms. Along the Norwegian coast the preservation of bones are Doris och Gustav Holmgrens Stipendium, Gunvor och Josef Anérs very bad but the first groups with the same origin settled in south- Stiftelse, Knut Stjernas Stiftelse and GW Ekmans Stipendium. ern Scandinavia hunted reindeer and seal. The interpretation is that the groups which travelled north did the same. ORCID iD In the northeast there were at first hunter-gatherer groups of Therese Ekholm https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6683-9480 unknown descendant, not very similar to the later groups. These earlier groups might have arrived either from the north Norwe- Supplemental material gian coast or from Finland/Russia in the east, and there are not many traces of the people from the first phase. Soon after, groups Supplemental material for this article is available online. of hunter-gatherers of Butovo/Veretye ancestry arrived, mainly from the Russian inland, bringing their pressure blade technol- References ogy, which produced conical cores with facetted platforms. The Aaris-Sørensen K (2009) Diversity and dynamics of the mamma- first groups of Butovo/Veretye ancestry also hunted reindeer. lian fauna in Denmark throughout the last glacial–interglacial When the tundra vegetation changed to taiga vegetation, at cycle 115-0 kyr BP. Fossil and Strata 57: 1–59. around 7000-8000 cal BC, Eurasian elk seems to enter rapidly Aaris-Sørensen K, Mühldorff R and Brinch Petersen E (2007) from the south. 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