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Full-length paper Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 (257–282) 257

Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites in : XX. The

Anurudh K Singh

H.No. 2924, Sector-23, Gurgaon 122017, Haryana, India (email: [email protected])

Abstract The Konkan region – consisting of the narrow strip of India’s northwestern Western and the coastal plains – is a region with rich agriculture heritage, where most of the people are involved in agriculture. The region is credited with the use of unique agricultural systems, such as the Gavkari joint land management system. Agriculture has been practiced in the region from ancient times; the contacts it had with the Africans, , Turks, Romans, etc., enabled the trade of agricultural produce such as spices, textiles, perfumes, etc., much before the advent of Western European culture. The trading continued during the medieval period, and played an important role in the introduction and adaptation of several exotic crops into India, revolutionizing Indian agrobiodiversity. At the same time, it facilitated the dispersal of Indian crops such as rice, spices, coconut to other parts of the world, enriching global agrobiodiversity. Cultivation of enriched agrobiodiversity under diverse high-rainfall microclimatic conditions led to the development of unique tropical mixed cropping systems, generation and conservation of rich genetic diversity in most crops, and the creation of new avenues for farmers’ livelihood support. For these contributions, the region is being proposed as another National Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site in India, based on the indices illustrated for identifi cation of an agricultural biodiversity heritage site. The paper discusses some of these contributions in brief.

The Konkan region runs west of the side of the Sahyadri mountains, it receives Sahyadri mountains from the river Tapti to high rainfall. Consequent to its humid Kalinadi. In the ancient Hindu text Skanda climate and rich biodiversity, it attracted Purana, the region has been described as human settlers from time immemorial the Sapta-Konkan, stretching from present- from various parts of the world, including day to . The region parts of the , starting is part of the recently (2012) recognized with the Proto-Australoid, Indo-Aryans, UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Western Dravidians, and seaborne Sumerians, Ghats, a global biodiversity hotspot rich in evolving a complex culture and agriculture. biodiversity and species endemism, besides Agriculture is practiced in the region from several other sites like the Ajanta and ancient times on slopy mountains and Elephanta Caves, etc. Being on the windward fertile coastal plains, under diverse farming 258 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites systems. Centuries of settlement and and conservation of rich genetic diversity agriculture in such a region have resulted both in indigenous and exotic crops, and in the domestication of economically strengthening the livelihood support of the important species, evolution of rice, fruit, farming community of the region and of the and plantation crops-based production world at large with diversifi ed/improved systems, including mixed cropping system agriculture. The present article proposes with unique practices, generating signifi cant the region as another National Agricultural genetic diversity in indigenous fi eld crops Biodiversity Heritage Site based on the such as rice; fruits such as coconut, areca indices illustrated by Singh and Varaprasad nut, mango, and banana; and spices such (2008). as pepper. Being on the western coast of India with several entry ports, the Konkan Location and extent was an important center of foreign trade and played an important role in the introduction The precise extent of Konkan region of several exotic crops to the subcontinent, varies, but according to most descriptions, enriching the agricultural crop diversity, it includes the lands between the northern virtually bringing an agrobiodiversity and the , and revolution in the region/country. A number between the in the north and of these exotic crops have become an the Chandragiri River in the south. The integral part of Indian agriculture, evolving administrative areas falling in this region are: a number of production systems without (i) in Maharashtra – the fi ve western districts which the present agriculture of the region/ of , , Raigad, , and country would be incomplete. For example, Sindhudurg, including parts of , , cashew nut, introduced by Portuguese and districts; (ii) the entire state of to India through , is contributing to Goa; and (iii) in Karnataka – the the economy of the region and country, area, which covers parts of the three coastal which is currently the largest producer districts of Uttara , , and in the world. The cultivation/adaptation (Fig. 1). Geographically, of exotic and indigenous crop species the Sahyadri mountain range of the northern under diverse agroecologies facilitated Western Ghats forms the eastern boundary the enrichment of genetic diversity. Trade of the Konkan region, and the Arabian Sea interactions also led to the dispersal marks the western boundary, while the of Indian crops to other parts of the Tapti River forms the northern boundary, world enriching global agrobiodiversity. and the Chandragiri River the southern For example, spices were carried by the boundary, though agricultural infl uence may Portuguese to Brazil for cultivation, and extend beyond these physical boundaries. coconut and rice genetic diversity was Agroecologically, it will include the dispersed. The Konkan region therefore windward side of the northern Western deserves recognition for its contribution to Ghats that is the crest of the Sahyadri ranges enriching agrobiodiversity, evolving unique and the coastal plains. On the map of India, tropical production systems, generation the region appears as a narrow strip, west Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 259 of the Sahyadri, running south of the river it evolved by tectonic uplift due to the Tapti to Kalinadi in Karnataka and a little collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates. beyond (Fig. 1). Due to the collision, it produced variation in the landscape from open beaches to the areas surrounded by hills. The western Landscape extension of the uplifted landmass was Lying between the Arabian Sea and the submerged under the Arabian Sea. This Sahyadri Range, the Konkan region is a narrow coastal belt is arranged in step-like narrow coastal lowland, barely 50 km wide terraces, pointing to recent oscillations with steep cliffs. It has a slopy terrain and in the sea level and of submergence as highly percolative Lateritic soil. Historically, evident from the drowned valleys, lagoons,

Figure 1. Location and extent of the Konkan region. 260 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Agroclimate The Konkan region runs west of the Sahyadri mountains from the river Agroecologically, the Konkan region is Tapti to Kalinadi. In the ancient part of the hot humid-perhumid ecoregion Hindu text Skanda Purana, the region consisting of the Sahyadri mountain range has been described as the Sapta- and the , extending Konkan, stretching from present-day over the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Maharashtra to Karnataka. Karnataka, and (Sehgal et al., 1992). It is characterized by tropical or tropical like climate, with hot to mild summers and mild winters. This type of weather can be and sand bars. Wave cut cliffs and plate called equitable, without much variation forms are also common along the coastline between hot and cold seasons. The region indicating changes in sea levels. Though gets about 2,072–3,800 mm annual average the altitude is mostly below 200 m, it is far rainfall. The western slopes of the Sahyadri from being a plain. It is highly dissected and mountains experience heavy rains, while broken; the landscape alternates between the southern parts receive very heavy rains, narrow, steep-sided valleys and low lateritic going up to 4,000 mm, 90 per cent of which plateau. The general topography, therefore, is received from June to October (100–110 is characterized by undulating hilly tract, days). For these reasons, the region has mostly less than 300 m in altitude, dotted a long growing period extending to more with dense forests, white sand beaches than 270 days. The relative humidity varies with clean sea water, greenery of palm from 90 to 95 per cent in the kharif, and 80 to 85 per cent in the rabi season, while the trees and paddy fields, coconut groves maximum and minimum temperatures are and mango orchards. and 30 to 31°C and 22 to 24°C respectively. Harischandragad are the important peaks. Despite the heavy rainfall, scarcity of water during the summer months (February to April) is common. The Konkan region therefore deserves recognition for its contribution to The major soils of the region include enriching agrobiodiversity, evolving Red and Lateritic soils of the Sahyadri unique tropical production systems, mountains and alluvium-derived soils of generation and conservation of rich the coastal plains. The Red soils are formed genetic diversity both in indigenous from mixed parent material such as granite, and exotic crops, and strengthening gneiss, schist, trap, etc. The Lateritic soils the livelihood support of the farming are of three types: rice soils, warkas (light) community of the region and of the soils, and garden soils. On the hills, the world at large with diversifi ed/improved slopes are coarse and the soils are sandy in agriculture. nature, while in the valleys they are clay loams. The clayey soil is acidic in nature and Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 261 poor in base saturation. The coastal plains T. chebula Retz. The tropical deciduous have alluvium soil, which is more silty and forest is represented by Careya arborea sandy in nature. Roxb., Roxb., Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Merr., Macaranga Floristic diversity peltata, and Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. The dry deciduous forests have some of The climatic condition of the Konkan region the following important species: Acacia has supported rich fl oristic diversity with a chundra Willd., Anogeissus latifolia high level of rare and endemic plant species, (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill., Butea contributing to the overall biodiversity monosperma Roxb. ex Willd. (khakara), of the Western Ghats, one of the eight Cassia fistula L., Dalbergia latifolia hottest global biodiversity hotspots, and Roxb., Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd., one of the three mega-centers of species Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb., and endemism in India (Nayar, 1996). Nayar Sterculia urens Roxb. The scrub forest (1996) divided the mega endemic areas of species are represented by Acacia chundra, the Western Ghats into two mega-centers, A. nilotica (L.) Delile var. indica (Benth.) the Northern Western Ghats and the South A.F. Hill, Barleria prionitis Linn., Carissa Western Ghats. At the national level, congesta Wight (syn. C. carandas Auct.), Nayar (1996) considered Mahabaleshwar Capparis divaricata Lam., Dichrostachys ( ranges representing the main cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn., Flacourtia Sahyadris) and Konkan (Raigad) among 25 indica (Burm.f.) Merr., and Holarrhena micro-centers of species endemism in the pubescens Wall. ex G. Don. The marshy country. As the region falls on the windward areas and the swampy places near the sea side of the Northern Western Ghats, are occupied by the mangrove bushes. receiving maximum rainfall, it supports The dominant species of mangrove are moist deciduous forests with pockets of Avicennia L. spp., Rhizophora L. spp., evergreen type of forests. However, Ceriops Arn. spp., Lumnitzera Willd. the evergreen trees are characteristically spp., Aegiceras Gaertn. spp., Excoecaria dwarfed, not having typical canopies L. spp., etc. of evergreen tropical forests (Qureshi, 1965). The other forest types found in the Agriculture and agrobiodiversity region are semi-evergreen forests, montane (cloud or fog) subtropical evergreen Rainfed agriculture is commonly practiced forests, dry deciduous forests, scrub forests, in the region. Lands in the Maharashtra area and grasslands. The semi-evergreen are divided into Garva lands (with good forest consists of Albizia lebbeck (L.) water), Neem-Garva lands (with medium Benth., Elaeocarpus serratus L., Holigarna water holdings), and Halva lands (with arnottiana J.Hk, Lagerstroemia lanceolata poor soil). Agroclimatically, there are three Wall., Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Mueller, seasons: from June to September, Sterculia guttata Roxb., Syzygium cumini with heavy rainfall referred as kharif; winter (L.) Skeels, Terminalia bellirica Roxb., and from October to February, with relatively 262 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites less temperature and humidity, referred as The common plantation crops are mango, rabi; and summer from March to June, hot coconut, areca nut, cashew nut, jackfruit, and humid, with April being the hottest. banana, pineapple, chikoo (sapota), and Major traditional agricultural crops include spices such as clove, nutmeg, and pepper. rice, millets, pulses among field crops, and coconut, mango, cashew nut, betel With the intensification of agriculture, nut, aonla, vanilla, pineapple, etc. among kharif has intensive cultivation of rice horticultural crops. along with minor millets (proso millet, fi nger millet), pulses (green gram, cowpea, Oilseeds and pulses were the most common soybean), and vegetables such as okra, native crops of the region. But now rice is snake gourd, sponge gourd, ridge gourd, and the main crop, both in karif and rabi under pumpkin. Rabi has rabi-jowar, sugarcane, irrigated conditions, predominantly in the oilseeds such as sesame, mustard, and coastal plains and even in the uplands. Ragi groundnut, and pulses such as horse gram, (fi nger millet), vari (little millet), proso cowpea, lablab bean, moth bean, etc., grown millet (cheena), jowar, and tur (pigeonpea) on residual moisture. Vegetables such are grown on the slopes, particularly as kohlrabi, amaranths, radish, spinach, in hilly areas on marginal soils during brinjal, kidney beans, and bitter gourd, and kharif. The Konkan region of Maharashtra muskmelon and watermelon extend into obtains maximum productivity in the state, the summer. Pulses and vegetables are the contributing to 42.91% of the total rice major components of most traditional mixed production. The traditional rice-growing cropping systems. districts are Thane, Raigad, Ratnagiri, and Sindhudurg. Pulses such as horse gram and For cultivation of rice, Ulkatni and Awatni urad are traditionally grown on residual are two local practices followed in the Khar moisture during the postrainy or rabi (salty) lands of Thane and Raigad districts. season. Oilseeds such as niger, sesame, and In Ulkatni, the clods are turned upside down groundnut are cultivated during summer. with the help of a crowbar in April–May, Vegetables such as brinjal and cucurbits are while Awatni is the practice of putting the grown in kharif or summer. The perennial rice seedlings in the fi eld along with the fruit crops are cultivated on plantations. mud ball from the seedbed (transplantation) (Fig. 2). It was observed that both the methods of preparatory tillage were effective. Agroecologically, the Konkan region Hence, instead of Ulkatni, which was done is part of the hot humid-perhumid manually, plowing could be done after the ecoregion consisting of the Sahyadri harvest of kharif rice in reclaimed Khar mountain range and the western lands. Awatni was signifi cantly superior coastal plains, extending over the states to the regular practice of transplanting, of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and provided the plant population is maintained. Kerala. Superfi cial planting in Awatni avoids contact of the tender seedlings with the salty portion Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 263

ab

Figure 2. Transplantation of rice in the region: (a) irrigated; and (b) rainfed (Courtesy Dr DK Kulkarni). of the soil, avoiding seedling mortality. undulating and slopy terrain make the Intensification of paddy cultivation in region favorable for horticultural crops, Karnataka area of the region has resulted particularly the plantation crops of various in cultivation of paddy throughout the fruits, and the coastal agro-aqua farming. year in three seasons, Karthika or Yenel Therefore, the region is predominantly a (May–October), Suggi (October–January), horticultural zone of Maharashtra (Thorat and Kolake (January–April). et al., 2006). The fruit crops give four to fi ve times more return per unit area than In recent times, the popular rice varieties the traditional cereals. Mango, cashew grown in the region with the transplanting nut, kokum, jackfruit are the major rainfed method are: -184, Karjat-3, Karjat-5, plantation fruit crops, while coconut, areca Karjat-7, Palghar 1, 1, Ratnagiri 24, nut, sapota are the major irrigated plantation Ratnagiri 1, Ratna, Jaya, Mahsuri, Sahyadri, crops. Coconut is a small holder’s plantation Sahyadri-2, Sahyadri-3, Sahyadri-4, crop, cultivated as an allied crop in varied Suruchi, Swarna, Gujrat-11, and Rupali. The common rice-based cropping systems are: (1) irrigated: rice–rice, groundnut, mustard, The climatic condition of the Konkan maize, vegetables; rice–rice, groundnut, region has supported rich fl oristic pulses, vegetables; rice–chickpea, lentil, diversity with a high level of rare and peas, wheat, mixed pulses, vegetables; endemic plant species, contributing to and (2) rainfed: rice–fallow, Dolichos the overall biodiversity of the Western bean, horse gram, pigeonpea, green gram, Ghats, one of the eight hottest global chickpea, and cowpea. biodiversity hotspots, and one of the three mega-centers of species endemism The heavy rainfall, hot and humid climate, in India. well drained soils, and mountainous 264 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites crop-mix. About 92 per cent of the total area Kanyal goat for meat (Fig. 4). Fishing is of the region is under coconut farming. Most a fl ourishing business because the coast coconut plantations are of the variety West and creeks are rich in marine resources of Coast Tall (WCT), dwarf varieties such as shrimp, crabs, prawns and many kinds of Andaman Dwarf, Nicobar Dwarf, Laccadive fi shes such as mullet, seahorse, ornamental tall and dwarf, and hybrid varieties, Tall × fi shes, etc., besides the giant freshwater Dwarf, Dwarf × Tall, besides planting of prawn (Fig. 5). Fishing can be classifi ed into the hybrid VHC-1. fresh water, creek, and sea fi shing.

Though introduced around 300 years ago, Consequent to the cultivation of diverse cashew nut has become the traditional crop of crops and farming systems, such as rearing the region, mainly grown on hill slopes as a of livestock for milk and meat, poultry, rainfed perennial horticultural crop. In recent etc., Torane (2009) found 18 major farming times, in the upper Laterite zones, cassava systems being practiced in different areas (introduced) is also cultivated. Consequent of the region, as per the microclimate and to predominant plantation crops cultivation, resources: (1) paddy + irrigated plantations several mixed cropping systems have evolved + dairy; (2) paddy + grass + dairy + goat (Fig. 3). The ornamental crops grown in the rearing; (3) paddy + irrigated plantations + region are mogra (jasmine), jai, Hibiscus, fl owers; (4) irrigated plantations + dairy; sayali, kagda, and yellow champak. (5) paddy + irrigated plantations + betelvines; (6) paddy + other cereals + rainfed plantations Livestock rearing and fishing are the + dairy; (7) paddy + other cereals + dairy other fl ourishing agricultural practices. In + goat rearing; (8) paddy + pulses + dairy; livestock, the concentration is mainly on (9) paddy + vegetables + poultry; (10) paddy small animals. For example, the and communities rear the Konkan

Figure 4. The Konkan Kanyal goat breed evolved under the hot, humid and high Figure 3. Tropical climate with heavy rainfall rainfall conditions of the region supporting rice and horticulture crops (Source: www.dbskkv.org/research/research_ (Source: Suprioghatak.blogpost.com). rsi_nileli.html). Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 265

ab Figure 5. (a) The long coastline of the Konkan region gifted with diverse marine resources (Source: purnatravels.blogpost.com); and (b) Local fi shermen at work (Source: www.fl ickr.com).

+ grass + dairy; (11) paddy + vegetables + bicolor (L.) Moench], and vari or little dairy; (12) paddy + dairy; (13) paddy + dairy millet (Panicum sumatrense Roth.; syn. P. + goat rearing; (14) paddy + pulses + dairy miliare auct. non Lam.). + poultry; (15) paddy + rainfed plantations + dairy; (16) paddy + irrigated plantations Grain legumes and oilseeds. Black gram + rainfed plantations + dairy; (17) paddy + [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper; V. mungo (Linn.) irrigated plantations + vegetables + dairy; Hepper var. sylvestris Lukoki, Marechal, and (18) paddy + irrigated plantations + & Otoul.], chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), rainfed plantations + poultry. cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), green gram [Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek, V. radiata var. setulosa (Dalzell) Ohwi & Ohashi], Representative crop species in various groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), horse crop groups gram [Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Cereals, pseudocereals, and millets. Bajra Verdc.], jack or sword bean [Canavalia or pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) gladiata (Jacq.) DC.], lablab bean [Lablab R. Br.; syn. P. typhoides (Burm. f.) Stapf purpureus (L.) Sweet], lentil (Lens culinaris & C. E. Hubb.], cheena or proso millet Medikus), mustard [Brassica juncea (Panicum miliaceum L.), finger millet (L.) Czern.], niger [Guizotia abyssinica [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.], foxtail (L.f.) Cass.], pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan millet [Setaria italica (L.) Beauv], kang [S. pallidefusca (Schumach.) Stapf & C. E. Hubb.; syn. S. pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Major traditional agricultural crops Schult. subsp. pallidefusca (Schumach.) include rice, millets, pulses among fi eld B. K. Simon], makra [Dactyloctenium crops, and coconut, mango, cashew aegypticum (L.) Willd.] poor/famine food, nut, betel nut, aonla, vanilla, pineapple, Pennisetum orientale Rich. (cooked as rice), etc. among horticultural crops. rice (Oryza sativa L.), sorghum [Sorghum 266 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

L. Millsp.), pillipesara [Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdc.], rice bean [Vigna umbellata Livestock rearing and fi shing are (Thunb.) Ohwi & H. Ohashi], sesame the other fl ourishing agricultural (Sesamum indicum L.), and soybean practices. In livestock, the [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. concentration is mainly on small animals. Fodder and fi ber crops. Albizia lebbeck, Apluda mutica L., Aristida adscensionis Linn., Chloris dolichostachya Lag., C. charantia L.), bottle gourd [Lagenaria virgata Swartz., Chrysopogon fulvus siceraria (Molina) Standley], brinjal (Spreng.) Chiov., Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Solanum melongena L.), chili (Capsicum (L.) Willd.), Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) annuum L.), cucumber (Cucumis sativus Stapf. (weed), Echinochloa colona (L.) L.), Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr. Link (bhagar or vari cha tandul used as (pods edible), horse gram [Macrotyloma food too), Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. unifl orum (Lam.) Verdc.], kharbuj (Cucumis (soil binder), E. unioloides (Retz.) Nees melo L.), kundri [Coccinia grandis (L.) ex Steud., Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth Voigt; syn. C. indica Wight & Arn.], ex Walp. (in wet areas), Heteropogon Lens culinaris (young pods), Ougeinia contortus (L.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. oojeinensis (Roxb.) Hochr. (fl owers edible), (syn. Andropogon contortus L.), Leucaena pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.), ridge gourd leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit, Mucuna [Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.], snake gourd pruriens (L.) DC., Paspalidium fl avidum (Trichosanthes anguina L.), and spine gourd (Retz.) A.Camus, Pennisetum pedicellatum (Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd.). Trin., Perotis indica (L.) Kuntze, Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. var. lobata, and Leafy vegetables. Amaranths [Amaranthus Sehima sulcatum (Hack.) A. Camus. Several hybridus L., A. cruentus L. (syn. A. of these are harvested from nature. paniculatus L.), A. polygamus L. (syn. A. tricolor L.), A. spinosus L.], basale (Basella Vegetables. Bhindi [Abelmoschus esculentus alba L.), and Corchorus depressus (Linn.) (L.) Moench], bitter gourd (Momordica Stocks (leaves as pot herb).

Bulb and tuber crops. Amorphophallus Though introduced around 300 konkanensis Hett., S.R.Yadav & K.S.Patil, years ago, cashew nut has become A. sylvaticus (Roxb.) Kunth., Dioscorea the traditional crop of the region, esculenta (Lour.) Burk., Flemingia mainly grown on hill slopes as a procumbens Roxb. [syn. Moghania vestita rainfed perennial horticultural crop. (Baker) Kuntze], chavar or Indian arrowroot In recent times, in the upper Laterite [Hitchenia caulina (J. Graham) Baker.; syn. zones, cassava (introduced) is also Curcuma caulina J. Graham.] (rhizome cultivated. yields starch), Indian kudzu [Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC.P.], potato Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 267

(Solanum tuberosum L.), sherla or dragon dactyloides Gaertn.), turmeric (Curcuma stalk yam [Amorphophallus commutatus longa L.; syn. C. domestica Valet., C. brog (Schott) Engl.], sweet potato [Ipomoea L.), and vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex batatas (L.) Poir.], taro [Colocasia esculenta Andrews; syn. V. fragrans Ames). (L.) Schott], cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), and yam (Dioscorea bulbifera L; Plantation crops. Areca nut (Areca catechu syn. D. sativa L.). L.), cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale L.), coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), coffee Fruits. Aonla (Emblica offi cinalis Gaertn.; (Coffea arabica L., C. canephora Pierre ex syn. Phyllanthus emblica Wall. ex Stapf.), A.Froehner; syn. C. robusta Linden), and Cavendish banana (triploid Musa acuminata pan or betel vine (Piper betel Linn.). Colla; M. sapientum L.), chikoo or sapota [Manilkara zapota (L.) P.Royen; syn. Ornamentals. Vjradanti (Barleria prionitis Achras zapota L.], citron (Citrus medica L.) (also medicinal), crinum lily (Crinum L.), wood-apple (Limonia acidissima Linn.), woodrowii Baker) (rare), Delphinium Gunnamada patteballi (Elaeagnus latifolia malabaricum var. ghaticum (Huth) Munz., L.), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus doum palm [Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart., Lam.), jamun or jambhul [Syzygium cumini; H. dichotoma (White) Furtado.], Garcinia syn. Eugenia jambolana Lam.], karvandas indica (in landscaping), Hibiscus L. spp., or karonda (Carissa congesta; syn. C. Ixora singaporensis Linn., Jacaranda carandas), khirni [Manilkara hexandra acutifolia Humb. et Bonpl. (introduction), (Roxb.) Dubard], kokum [ jakandil kharchudi or kandil pushpa (Linn.) Robs.], litchi (Euphoria longan (Ceropegia fantastica Sedgw.), karnaphul Stued.), mango (Mangifera indica L.), or lily (Crinum brachynema Herb.), karvi maulsari (Mimusops elengi L.), papaya (Carvia callosa (Nees) Bremek.), mogra (Carica papaya L.), pineapple [Ananas (Jasminum L. spp.), nori karnaphul comosus (L.) Merr.], sitaphal or custard (Crinum eleonorae Blatt. & McCann.), apple (Annona squamosa L., A. cherimola Rosa leschenaultina, shindal makudi Mill.), Rosa leschenaultina Red. & Thory (Frerea indica Dalz.), sugandhi or ginger ex Wt. & Arn., Spondias pinnata (L. f.) lily (Hedychium coronarium J. Koenig.) Kurz, strawberry (Fragaria nilgerrensis (also medicinal), and yellow champak Schecht.), tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.), [Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre; and Ziziphus glabrata Heyne ex Roth. syn. Michelia champaca L.].

Spices. Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), Dye-yielding plants. Acacia catechu (L.f.) chili (Capsicum annuum L.), cinnamon Willd. (heartwoods), A. nilotica (barks), A. (Cinnamomum verum J.Presl; syn. C. nilotica var. indica (leaves), Caesalpinia zeylanicum Blume), Kaempferia galanga pulcherrima (L.) Swartz (fl owers), Emblica L., ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), officinalis (leaves), Hardwickia binata kalajira (Carum strictocarpum C.B.Clarke), Roxb., Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. (fl owers), nutmeg (Myristica malabarica Lamk., M. Lawsonia inermis L. (leaves), Mallotus 268 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites philippensis (Lamk.) Muel (capsules), Willd.], Dendrocalamus strictus Nees, Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f., Symplocos Pseudoxytenanthera ritcheyi (Munro) racemosa Roxb., and Syzygium cumini. H.B.Naithani.

Medicinal and aromatic plants. A signifi cant Multipurpose species. Acacia nilotica, amount of knowledge has been generated on Anogeissus latifolia, Boswellia serrata medicinal properties of plants of the region Roxb., Pterocarpus marsupium, Sterculia (Upadhye et al., 1994) and against specifi c urens Roxb. (wood, gum, and resin), Morus diseases. For example, for gastrointestinal alba L. (syn. M. australis Poir.; fruit and disorders, a recent survey found the use of silkworm rearing), Diospyros melanoxylon Aloe barbadense Mill., Ceropegia hirsuta Roxb. (tendu; leaves for beedi making), Wight & Arn., and Cicer arietinum, and and Vateria indica L. (bark resin, natural Anisochilus carnosus for stomachache, incense, medicinal). Citrus aurantifolium for dysentery, and Zingiber offi cinalis for acidity and ulcers Wild relatives of crop species. Abelmoschus (Kamble et al., 2008). Other plants angulosus Wall. ex Wight & Arn., A. commonly used for medicinal purposes fi culneus (L.) Wight & Arn., A. manihot are aghada (Achyranthes aspera L.) (found (L.) Medik. subsp. manihot, Cajanus as weed), Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. (syn. A. lineatus (Wight & Arn.) Maesen, C. barbadensis Mill.), kalmegh [Andrographis sericeus (Baker) Maesen, Canavalia lineata echioides (L.) Nees], Anisochilus carnosus (Thunb.) DC., Cinnamomum goaense (L.f.) Wall. (natural), apta (Bauhinia Kosterm., Coffea wightiana Wight & variegata L.), Chlorophytum tuberosum Arn., C. crassifolia Gamble, Cucumis Baker, Cissus quadrangularis L., Cissus ritchei (Chakr.) Jeffrey, C. setosus Cogn., repanda Vahl, Cymbopogon martini (Roxb.) Curcuma indora Blatt., C. pseudomontana W.Watson, C. nardus (L.) Rendle, C. J. Graham, C. purpurea Blatt., C. reclinata citratus Stapf, hirda (Terminalia chebula), Roxb., Dolichos bracteatus Baker [syn. madhunashini (Gymnema sylvestre R.Br.), Sphenostylis bracteata (Baker) Gillett], safed musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum Echinochloa colona, Garcinia malabarica L.), and tulasi (Ocimum tenuifl orum L.). Talbot, G. morella (Gaerntn.) Desr., G. talbotii Raiz. & Sant., Mangifera sylvatica Timber and bamboos. Timber: Albizia Roxb., Momordica tuberosa (Roxb.) chinensis Merr., Canarium strictum Roxb., Cogn. (syn. M. cymbalaria Hook. Fenzl ex Chloroxylon swietenia DC., Chukrasia Naud.), Oryza meyeriana (Zoll. & Moritzi) tabularis A. Juss., Dipterocarpus Baill. (syn. O. indandamanica J.L.Ellis), indicus Bedd., Hopea parviflora Bedd., Panicum hippothrix K.Schum. ex Engl., Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight, Mesua Pennisetum orientale, Piper argyrophyllum ferrea L., Palaquium ellipticum Engl., Miq., P. galeatum C.DC., P. hookeri Miq., Tectona grandis L.f., Toona ciliata P. hymenophyllum Miq., P. trichostachyon M.Roem.; bamboo: Bambusa bambos (L.) DC., Vigna dalzelliana (Kuntze) Verdc., Voss. [syn. Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) V. khandalensis (Santapau) Raghavan & Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 269

Wadhwa (syn. V. grandis Dalz. & Gibbs.), Rich var. sepiaria (Dalz.) Babu & Sharma, Zingiber neesanum (Grah.) Ramamoorthy V. vexillata. (L.) A. Rich var. stocksii Benth (syn. Z. macrostachyum Dalz.), and Z. ex Baker, and Zingiber cernuum Dalz. Table purpuram Roxb. (medicinal). 1 lists the representative economic endemic species from the region. Endemic species. The region is one of the mega-centers of species endemism Threatened species. The Red Data Book of from Western Ghats with many species Plants of India (Nayar and Sastry, 1987– belonging to Ceropegia L., Crinium L. (lily), 90) lists economically/agriculturally Dichanthium Willem., Eriocaulon L., and important species of the Konkan region, Isachne R.Br. strictly confi ned to the region such as Abutilon ranadei, Achyranthes (Nayar, 1996). The economic/agriculturally coynei Santapau, Aglaia lawii (Wight) important species listed from the region Saldanha ex Ramamoorthy, Aglaia talbotii include Abutilon ranadei Woodrow & Sundararagh., Aponogeton satarensis Stapf, Amorphophallus konkanensis Hett., Sundararagh., A.R.Kulk. & S.R.Yadav, Asparagus laevissimus Steud., Carvia Asparagus jacquemontii Baker, Barleria callosa (Nees) Bremek., Cassia kolabensis gibsonioides Blatt., Bhidea burnsiana Kothar et al., Ceropegia attenuata Hook., Bor, Bidaria khandalensis (Santapau) C. evansii McCann, C. huberi Ansari, C. A.P.Jagtap & N.P.Singh, Cajanus lineatus maccannii Ansari, Chlorophytum bharuchae (Wight & Arn.) Maesen, Calamus Ansari & Raghavan, Crinum brachynema, C. brandissi, Ceropegia attenuata, C. lawii woodrowii Baker, Cucumis ritchei, Cucumis (and many more Ceropegia spp.), Crinum setosus, Curcuma purpurea, Dalbergia woodrowii (and many more Crinum spp.), horrida (Dennst.) Mabb. var. concanensis Crotalaria bidiei Gamble, C. fi lipes Benth. Thoth., Delphinium malabaricum (Huath.) var. fi lipes, C. stocksii Benth. ex Baker, Mung. var. ghaticum Billore, Dendrobium Chlorophytum borivilianum, Delphinium lawianum Lindl., D. ovatum Kraenzl. malabaricum var. ghaticum, Dichanthium (orchid), Dichanthium maccannii Blatt., armatum, D. compressum, Elaeocarpus D. panchganiense Blatt. & McCann, D. munorii J.Graham (rudraksha), Euphorbia paranjpyeanum (Bhide) Clayton (and panchganiensis Blatt. & McCann, E. many more Dichanthium spp.), Diospyros katrajensis Gage (veterinary medicine), paniculata Dalz., Garcinia indica (Dupetit- Frerea indica Dalzell, Garcinia Thours) Choiss, G. tallbotii, Habenaria tallbotii, Ipomoea clarkei Hook. f., gibsonii var. gibsonii, H. panchganiensis Isonandra montana (Thw.) Gamble, Santapau & Kapadia (orchid), Iphigenia Paracautleya bhattii R.M.Sm., Pimpinella stellata Blatt., Ischaemum L. spp. of tropical katrajensis R.S.Rao & Hemadri, P. grasses, Lavandula lawii Wight, Urochloa rollae K.V.Billore & Hemadri, Syzygium panicoides P. Beauv. var. marathensis bourdillonii (Gamble) Rathakr (syn. (Henr.) Bor, Vigna khandalensis (Sant.) Jambosa bourdillonii Gamble), S. stocksii Raghavan & Wadhwa, V. trilobata (L.) Verd. (Duthie) Gamble, Typhonium incurvatum var. pusilla Naik & Pokle, V. vexillata (L.) A. Blatt. & McC., Vepris bilocularis Engl., 270 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Table 1. Representative economic endemic plant species from the Konkan region.1 Plant species Family Habit Distribution Remarks Amorphophallus Araceae Cormous herb Konkan Food konkanensis Carvia callosa Acanthaceae Tall shrub Konkan Western Source of Carvia Ghats honey Ceropegia evansii Asclepiadaceae Herb Konkan Ornamental Ceropegia huberi Asclepiadaceae Herb Konkan Ornamental Ceropegia maccanni Asclepiadaceae Twining herb Konkan Ornamental Chlorophytum Liliaceae Herb Northern Western Medicinal value of borivilianum Ghats tubers Crinum brachynema Amaryllidaceae Bulbous herb Northern Western Medicinal Ghats Cucumis ritchei Cucurbitaceae Scandent herb Northern Western Genetic resource Ghats Curcuma purpurea Zingiberaceae Rhizomatous Konkan Spice, genetic herb resource Dendrobium Orchidaceae Herb Konkan Ornamental lawianum Dendrobium ovatum Orchidaceae Herb Konkan Ornamental Dichanthium Poaceae Herb Konkan Grass, genetic concanensis resource Diospyros paniculata Ebanaceae Tree Northern Western Wood, matchbox Ghats making Garcinia indica Cluseaceae Tree Northan Western Kokum butter, Ghats fruit Habenaria Orchidaceae Herb Northern Western Ornamental panchganiensis Ghats Vigna trilobata Fabaceae Herb Northern Western Fodder, genetic Ghats resource Vigna vexillata var. Fabaceae Herb Northern Western Fusiform tuber is sepiaria Ghats edible

1. Source: Nayar (1996).

Vateria indica, Vigna khandalensis Associated culture and tribes (syn. V. grandis), Zingiber cernuum, and Z. neesanum (Grah.) Ramam. Some It is believed that the tribes of Austric origin representative economic species under such as the Kols, Mundaris, had threat are presented in Table 2. settled in the Konkan area and Goa during Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 271

Table 2. Representative economic plant species under threat in the Konkan region.1 Species Family Habitat Threat status2 Remark Abutilon ranadei Malvaceae Undershrub CR Endemic, medicinal, wild Cajanus lineatus Fabaceae Shrub I or DD Genetic resource of pigeonpea Calamus brandissi Arecaceae Scandent shrub R Used in construction Ceropegia attenuata Asclepiadaceae Herb R Endemic, ornamental, genetic resource Crinum eleonorae Amaryllidaceae Herb Possibly Ex Endemic, medicinal Crinum woodrowii Amaryllidaceae Herb Rare/CR Endemic, rediscovered Delphinium Ranunculaeae Perennial herb I or DD Endemic, ornamental, malabaricum var. genetic resource ghaticum Vigna khandalensis Fabaceae Herb/ R Endemic, seed eaten in (syn. V. grandis) undershrub scarcity, genetic resource Zingiber cernuum Zingiberaceae Herb I or DD Endemic, genetic resource Zingiber neesanum Zingiberaceae Herb I or DD Genetic resource 1. Source: Nayar and Sastry (1987–90); Nayar et al. (2009). 2. CR = Critically endangered; Ex = Extinct; I or DD = Indeterminate or Data defi cient; R = Rare. the Neolithic period, around 3,500 BCE, records of boundaries of land from village living on hunting, fi shing, and a primitive to village with its topographic details, form of agriculture. During the Neolithic along with management, social, religious period also came the Negroids. They were and cultural interactions details. It is still basically food-gatherers. Agriculture was just prevalent in some parts of Goa. The second shaping up at that time. Later, after the drying wave of Indo-Aryans occurred between up of the mighty , came 1,700–1,400 BCE, and was accompanied by the Indo-Aryans who settled in the region the Dravidians from the , and around 2,400 BCE, and then around 1,775 probably by the Kusha or Harappan people BCE, the seaborne community of Sumerian from around 1,600 BCE, consequent Phoenicians. The Sumerians introduced to the submergence of their civilization, the Gavkari system, whose main feature which thrived on sea-trade. This admixture of was that the village lands belonged to the several cultures, customs, religions, dialects, village gods or goddesses. The agricultural and beliefs brought a revolutionary change land was jointly owned by the group of and complexity in early Konkani society. villagers, who had the right to auction or rent The name Kongvan or Konkan was probably the land, which was used for development, derived from the Konkas tribe of Proto- and the remaining was distributed amongst Australoid origin. Later, migration from the Gavkars (followers). The system had the east during the Maurya era marked the 272 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

as the Mother Goddess. Their paintings are Later, after the drying up of the stunning and unique in style. Historically, mighty Sarasvati River, came the Bhils used to reside in the deep forest the Indo-Aryans who settled in and were expert hunters. Today they are the region around 2,400 BCE, settled farmers. The Kolis are distinctly and then around 1,775 BCE, the identifi ed for their focus on dance. seaborne community of Sumerian Phoenicians. Agriculture has been practiced in the region from ancient times. As it is blessed with high rainfall, traditionally it was largely a advent of . Introduction of Jainism, wet crop area, with intense cultivation. Rice patronizing of Shaivism, use of and was traditionally the main crop followed by Kannada and overseas trade contacts with ragi, pulses, and fodder crops. Productivity Africans, Arabs, Turks, Greeks, Romans, was traditionally high. The main traditional etc. had an overwhelming impact on the horticulture crops were coconut, betel nut, people of the region. During the medieval cashew nut, banana, jackfruit, mango, period (13th–15th century), Goa was ruled bhirand or kokum, pineapple, and a variety by the Bahmani Sultanate, bringing Muslim of gourds. The Kadambas (1000–1350 CE) culture. Portuguese rule of Goa (1510–1812), and later the Governors of Vijayanagar brought Christianity to the region, creating promoted mango orchards in the region. greater cultural complexities. Although crude methods of mango grafting were known, the Christians helped perfect Most residents of the region are called the art of grafting in Goa. Konkanis, and they speak an Indo-Aryan language, Konkani, which also uses the Agriculture evolved in the region over time, written letter in the Devanagari script. The and tribal people accumulated substantial other major ethnic groups of the region are indigenous technological knowledge (Pandit, the Tuluvas, living in the coastal districts 2001). For example, the community of Karnataka, , Udupi, and living in the Warli hills of Maharashtra Dakshina Kannada; they speak Tulu and follow complex multiple cropping, making use Kannada script to write. The main tribes optimum use of the available resources, and from the northwestern area in Maharashtra mixed cropping (even at the varietal level, the are Bhilla, Warli, Thakar, Kokana, Gamita multiline concept), since it was an insurance (Gavit), Kathkari, Kathodi, Mahadeo Koli, for specific crop failures, due to pests, Koli-dhor, Dhangar, Dangar-koli, etc. These drought, and irregular rains and assured the tribes are involved in cultivation and other minimum yield. They usually cultivate a few agriculture-related activities, particularly of the more than 10 to 15 traditional varieties the Dhodia, Konkas, and Warli and the (multiline) of paddy, which have different small group of Koli, Kathodi, Naika, and requirement and mature at staggered times Dubla. Warli is the dominant community and varied in susceptibility to pests and with beliefs focusing on nature, considered diseases. Under normal conditions, their Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 273 main variety gives a good yield; if it does with society in response to the landscape not, the other, hardier varieties lower in and needs, and to support and help conserve yield ensure production of suffi cient food local biodiversity. Daarche Paani consists of (Pereira, 2010). seven tanks, each built in stone at a different level. The fi rst tank receives continuous freshwater from an underground spring, Technology and products which is called Devache Taake (‘Tank of The agricultural history of the region the Gods’). This is generally untouched and appears very old, as the region traded in is worshiped with locally grown produce ancient times, in agricultural products like every time there is a wedding or a birth spices, textiles, perfumes, herbs, etc. In fact, in the village. The Devache Taake then the maritime history of the West Coast of overfl ows through a channel to a drinking India, including the Konkan, predates the water tank, from where the women collect birth of Western Civilization. Even before water. Washing and bathing near these Alexander, there were references to India tanks is not allowed. It is cleaned daily in Greek works for a fl ourishing trade with by the fi rst and the last user. Then follows Rome. The Roman writer Pliny speaks of a bigger tank for the cattle, with gently Indian traders carrying away large quantities sloping margins. It is interesting to see of gold from Rome, in return for precious these margins, which allow small animals stones, skins, textiles, spices, sandalwood, as well as birds to use the tank, without the perfumes, herbs, and indigo. The lure of perennial danger of a thirsty one falling in spices attracted traders from the and drowning. Next in the hierarchy are the and to the several trading ports of tanks for cleaning and bathing, which have Sapt-Konkan. specially built stone platforms. These tanks converge into a channel, which fl ows down To facilitate the high and quality to irrigate indigenous areca nut and pepper productivity of agricultural produce, the plantations downstream. Further, this small indigenous people evolved effective natural spring eventually joins the river and meets resource management practices. For water the Vashishthi estuary (Dandekar, 2010). management the Lateritic plateaus of the Recognizing the common water scarcity Konkan acted as sponges for water storage. during the summer months, despite heavy Consequently, numerous small community- rainfall, the traditional farmers have adapted managed water harvesting systems evolved, diverse water management techniques to downhill of these plateaus, for centuries. ensure availability of water throughout the For example, Daarche Paani (‘water at year. For example, an underground rainwater the doors’) is an intricate system of tanks, harvesting structure constructed in 1710 in channels, and falls on a small fl at plateau Ainy, in , construction of called ‘Sadaa’, which supplies water to the ponds for populations, usefulness of tree village and goes down as a free-fl owing plantation and use of recharged wells were stream, to irrigate the plantations of areca known to local people from the ancient nut, pepper, and mangoes. It has evolved times (Paranjape et al., 2007). 274 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

a common heritage of village/community, Most residents of the region are called also provide vital ecosystem and cultural Konkanis, and they speak an Indo- services to the population for important Aryan language, Konkani, which festivals and social gatherings. Many are also uses the written letter in the still surviving in the Dakshina Kannada Devanagari script. The other major and Udupi districts of Karnataka because ethnic groups of the region are the of certain taboos, religious attachment and Tuluvas, living in the coastal districts strong beliefs supplemented with mystic of Karnataka, Uttara Kannada, Udupi, folklores. They have contributed to the and Dakshina Kannada, and who conservation of tropical biological diversity speak Kannada. for several species, lost from everywhere. The Sacred Groves are known by different names: in Maharashtra as Devarai and For conservation of biodiversity, Devarakavu, and as Kan in Uttara Kannada. preservation of sizable patches of forests However, self-centered modern people are under the reigning deity, in the form of ignoring these considerations and have unshaped stone blocks smeared with red started exploiting and destroying these paint – Kalkai – is common. They are sacred forests (Chandran, 1997). considered amongst the fi ercest of deities; breaking even a dead twig in a sacred grove In addition to the domestication of the is sure to invite the wrath of the deity. local economically important plants and These ‘Sacred Groves’, conserving regional animal species and adaption of crops from biodiversity in association with a deity, is a unique practice visible in the region (Gadgil and Vartak, 1976). Almost all villages of For water management the the Sahyadri and other parts of the region, Lateritic plateaus of the Konkan by tradition, have at least one Sacred acted as sponges for water storage. Grove ranging from a few to hundreds of Consequently, numerous small acres. These community forests with rich community-managed water harvesting biodiversity have mostly been created at systems evolved, downhill of these the sites wherefrom originate the streams or plateaus, for centuries. For example, rivers, the important source of water for the Daarche Paani (‘water at the doors’) rural population. This valuable biodiversity is an intricate system of tanks, is under threat because of encroachment, channels, and falls on a small fl at agriculture, grazing, and developmental plateau called ‘Sadaa’, which supplies activities. Often these groves are connected water to the village and goes down as by seed-dispersing birds (Great Pied and a free-fl owing stream, to irrigate the Malabar Pied Hornbill), and are indicators plantations of areca nut, pepper, and of the type of vegetation that once existed mangoes. along these hilly terrains. Sacred Groves, as Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 275 the other parts of the Indian subcontinent, agriculture. It is known as Dongarsheti or the region has played an important role in Naglisheti. The main crops of shifting the introduction/adaptation of exotic crops cultivation are nacahni (Eleusine coracana), from several parts of the world through kang (Setaria pallidefusca), vari (Panicum several ports of the region, such as Mumbai miliare) and some traditional vegetables. (then Bombay), , Goa, Honavar, It was a subsistence activity for the local and Mangalore. Being comparatively near people who used rich knowledge of their to the Arabian Coast, the region received surrounding environment to infl uence crop the earliest travelers. Goa traded with the yield. However, use of this knowledge African coast, Egypt, the Persian Gulf, and of these practices is on the decline and Southeast before the medieval (Godbole and Sarnaik, 2000). Nevertheless, period. During the medieval period, after the these areas have received minimal impact discovery of the sea route to India in 1498 by of modern agriculture and those of high- Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese in the North yielding varieties, with tribal communities Konkan, and the British, Dutch, French, and preserving local landraces and farmers’ Spanish in South Konkan intensifi ed trans- varieties. oceanic and maritime trade, bringing more exotic crop species to Indian shores (16th Rab is an age-old cultivation practice century), diversifying and enriching the followed in the Konkan region. In this agricultural crop diversity, and thereby the practice, farmers burn the piece of land gene-pools of the region and of the country. where a rice nursery is to be raised. The socially dominant Hindu ethos of Scientifi cally, rabbing is a sort of partial accepting valuable knowledge and material sterilization of the soil. It improves the from any source, ensured adaptation and physical structure of the soil and increases further dispersal of these exotic crop species the availability of nutrients in the soil. The to the other parts of the Indian subcontinent. practice is therefore benefi cial in raising By the early 18th century, the cultivation vigorous seedlings, though it involves of tobacco, chili, chickoo, guava, sitaphal, wastage of valuable organic matter, which pineapple, cashew, papaya, and breadfruit can preferably be used in compost making. became an integral part of the region Rab, also helps control the weeds, provide and South Indian agriculture. The return better germination and healthy seedlings, gesture facilitated the dispersal of Indian which help better plant stand and increase crop species to other parts of the world. the yield on per unit area basis. Facilitation of germplasm exchange has been the greatest contribution of the region Paddy became the main crop of the to national and global agriculture. region occupying 46 per cent of the total cropped area. Traditionally, hundreds of Traditionally, rainfed agriculture was indigenous rice cultivars were cultivated practiced, including the primitive shifting representing significant variability for cultivation on the higher slopes, where botanical to agronomic features, engineered meager fl at land was available for permanent by generations of rice farmers and natural 276 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Shiedi, and Tamde Jyoti. Several of these Almost all villages of the Sahyadri and cultivars have been evolved and conserved other parts of the region, by tradition, with specifi c traits. For example, Kolamba have at least one Sacred Grove ranging is an early-maturing landrace with greater from a few to hundreds of acres. These water-use effi ciency, Patni and Dodga are community forests with rich biodiversity upland drought tolerant and suitable for have mostly been created at the sites coarse sand, and Panyo is fl ood tolerant. wherefrom originate the streams or Kalisal and Tambsal are important rice rivers, the important source of water for landraces, while Bhadshi and Kuthethivu the rural population. are known for high yield, from the area. Mazarel has specifi cally been selected for poha (fl at rice) preparation. Kalbhat and evolution (Fig. 2). Even the smallest Ambemohar are known for their aroma. tribal farmer grew six to eight traditional Mhadi, Bela, and Walai are known for varieties, suited to the local microclimates medicinal and nutritional value. Names and/or soils. As per the Academy of like Sal and Giresal indicate Mauryan Development Sciences, Karjat (Raigad infl uence. Kulkarni et al. (1998) reported District), 300–400 varieties are still grown the collection of 25 landraces from the in the region. Some of the traditional Mahadeo Koli tribe, the second largest, cultivars representing genetic diversity including aromatic Varngal, Rajguda, for traits such as nutrition, medicinal Kolambi, Tamb, Rajbhog, Halva, and Garva properties, pests and diseases resistance are: white. Other common knowledge traditional Botwel, Mhadi, Walai, Bela, Patni, Bhadas, cultigens from Maharashtra are Ratnagiri, Kalarata, Bhurarata, Kolamba, Kolpi, Ratna, Jaya, Karjat, etc. Transplanting Early kolpi, Jiresal, Kala girga, Ghansal, and dibbling are the popular methods for Kothimbari sal (Bodga), Champakali, cultivation with very low use of fertilizers Krishna sal, Tambada jog, Ambemohar, (organic) (Fig. 2). Most traditional cultivars Kasbai, Thilsa, White luchai, Chinoor, are associated with specifi c geographical Halga, and Zinia from the Maharashtra areas and are being grown for specific area (Thaware et al., 2011). Kamath (2011) features like fi ne grain, scent, and nutritional reported a number of traditional cultivars value. In fact, these cultivars are cultivated from Goa: Damgo, Kalo damgo, Babri, Dodig, Kochri, Patni, Korgut, Kalo korgut, Asago, Kendal, Kenal, Vadlo Kenal, Sotti, By the early 18th century, the cultivation Giresal, Xitto, Nermar, Mudgo, Shirdi, Belo, of tobacco, chili, chickoo, guava, Noxvan, Dongri, Valay, Chagar, Kusago, sitaphal, pineapple, cashew, papaya, Runga, Odusko, Panyo, Mutalgo, Barik and breadfruit became an integral kudi, Dhave, Ek Kadi, Ghansal, Girga, part of the region and South Indian Kalo novan, Kalo Mungo, Karz, Kolyo, agriculture. Kotmirsal, Masuri, Muno, Ner, Sal, Taysu, Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 277

11 landraces in the traditional agricultural Rab is an age-old cultivation practice system. Of these, three have reddish black, followed in the Konkan region. In two copper red, fi ve light brown, and one this practice, farmers burn the piece white grain. These have drought tolerance, of land where a rice nursery is to be disease resistance, high yield, high protein raised. Scientifi cally, rabbing is a sort and amino acid, and low carbohydrate of partial sterilization of the soil. It content. Local landraces are also known in improves the physical structure of the jowar (Sorghum bicolor), like Dukari and soil and increases the availability of Kawali from Bhor taluka. These strains are nutrients in the soil. The practice is cultivated in kharif. Dukari is cultivated in therefore benefi cial in raising vigorous light soil, has yellow grain and matures in seedlings, though it involves wastage September, while Kawali with white grain of valuable organic matter, which can is cultivated in mixed cropping systems. preferably be used in compost making. Rab, also helps control the weeds, The region has contributed signifi cantly provide better germination and healthy to the genetic resources in grain legumes seedlings, which help better plant stand such as Vigna and pigeonpea. The region and increase the yield on per unit area is one of the major centers of diversity basis. of wild Vigna species. Of the 24 Vigna species reported from India, 12 species occur or are cultivated in the region: Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Marechal (moth bean), and conserved predominantly for the local V. angularis (Willd.) Ohwi & Ohashi. (azuki market, home consumption, and religious bean), V. dalzelliana, V. khandalensis, V. rituals. Superiority of some of these mungo, V. mungo var. sylvestris, V. radiata traditional cultivars (Korgut from Goa) for var. setulosa, V. sublobata, V. trilobata traits like salt tolerance and cooking quality var. trilobata, V. umbellata, Vigna pilosa has been experimentally proved. However, Backer ex K.Heyne, V. unguiculata ssp. the areas under traditional varieties are sesquipedalis, V. vexillata var. sepiaria going down with the introduction of high- (Dalzell) Babu & S.K.Sharma, and V. yielding varieties. vexillata var. stocksii Baker (Nayar et al., 2009). Characterization and evaluation The farmers cultivate millets, like nagli or of the wild Vigna species have revealed ragi (Eleusine coracana), represented by that the higher yield in V. radiata (green landraces like Mutka, Kolshi, Kaliaguni, gram) is due to the trait donated by the Gulshi, Asani, and Argadi in the Mahad wild V. sublobata (Jain and Mehra, 1980). region. They have greater nutritive value Similarly, in the case of pigeonpea, the and are considered more suitable for people landrace Turk-thogai (ICP 7217), which doing hard physical work. Marathe and has its origin in Karnataka, has been Bhaskar (2011), while collecting finger released directly as a variety because of millet in Thane, found tribals conserving superiority over checks (Remanandan and 278 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Singh, 1997). Additionally, wild species is recorded in cucurbitaceous crops such as such as Cajanus lineatus and C. sericeus, Cucurbita, Cucumis, and Luffa, along with identifi ed as sources of resistance to sterility wild relatives of Cucumis, Momordica, and mosaic virus have been collected from the Trichosanthes. In okra, collections have region. Cajanus sericeus is also resistant to been made with features of Abelmoschus Phytophthora blight. Signifi cant variability caillei, an introduced cultivated species from has also been collected in cowpea, lablab , suggesting probable outcrossing bean, horse gram, and moth bean, and a between A. esculentus and A. caillei, and number of varieties have been evolved, its naturalization to the region (Rana et al., such as ‘Konkan Sadabahar’ and ‘Konkan 1994). Additionally, Abelmoschus manihot Safed’ in cowpea, and ‘Konkan Wal-2’ in ssp. tetraphyllus var. megaspermum (large lablab bean. Konkan Sadabahar is a short- seeded) has also been collected from the hill duration (55 to 65 days), small-grained, slopes and foothills of the region. high-yielding (1000 kg ha-1) variety suitable to grow throughout the year. Konkan Safed Similarly, the Sahyadri–Deccan hinterland is bold-grained cowpea with white grains, (behind the coast), because of high rainfall matures in 75–80 days, and yields about and different microclimatic conditions, is 1200–1300 kg ha-1. Konkan Wal-2 matures suitable for raising quality tropical fruit in 40–45 days and yields about 1000 kg ha-1, crops such as mango, jackfruit, pineapple, and is drought tolerant and yields well under and sapota, which presents significant residual moisture conditions. In chickpea, variability, particularly in mango. In the small-seeded varieties of the Warli tribe mango, the region is well known for some are pest resistant (Pereira, 2010). high-quality varieties such as Alphonso (longer shelf life), Colaco, Mankur, The Konkan region’s tropical climate with Dudhpeda, Fernandin, Kesar, Konkan high rainfall has supported the cultivation Ruchi, Mankurad, Mulgoa, Maussarda, of horticultural crops. To facilitate effective Pairi (high pulp content), Ratna, Sindhu, and effi cient land use and greater income, and Xavier, and in jackfruit for varieties a number of mixed cropping systems have such as Cappco and Rassal. Landraces of evolved in the region, including both jackfruit in national collections from the rainfed and irrigated, fruit and plantation region include Koozha, Navarikka, Varikka, crops, and cereals, pulses, vegetables, and and Rudrakha koozha. Kokum (Garcinia spices (Fig. 3). For example, papaya is indica) growing luxuriously in forest areas, intercropped in sapota orchards; pineapple predominantly in the low lying belt, is one of in coconut orchards; spices such as black the important minor fruits that have attained pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, and nutmeg commercial value/domestication in recent with coconut and areca nut, and clove times. Even in introduced sapota (Spanish and other spices with coconut. These introduction from ), mixed cropping systems have evolved signifi cant variability has been generated, further genetic diversity in all crops. resulting in the selection of varieties such Among vegetables, signifi cant variability as Bhuripatti, Dhola Diwani, Cricket Ball, Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 279

Jhaumakhia, Kalipatti, Murraba, and irrigation. On the borders of the plot, they Pilipatti. plant fi ber crops like ambadi or Deccan hemp (Hibiscus cannabinus), lal ambadi In coconut, significant variability with (Hibiscus sabdariffa), or okra. Cucumber superior morphological types, infl orescence, and okra are intercropped between rows of and fruiting characteristics with high yield maize. Ambadi and Khorasni (niger) and potential has been recorded. Benaulim is udid (Vigna mungo) are cultivated on the a tall variety grown in Goa and coastal borders of fi elds (Pereira, 2010). The Maharashtra. The variety ‘Banavali Green are known for crop rotation, where, after the Round’ named as ‘Pratap’ was selected harvest of quick-maturing paddy, pigeonpea from Benaulim collections from Ratnagiri and other crops are planted on the same and released in 1987 for cultivation in the fi eld to exploit the residual moisture. After Konkan Coast region. In areca nut, varieties their harvest, harbara (Cicer arietinum), such as Shrivardhanee are known from val (Dolichos lablab), mustard and other the region. The region is also credited for crops are grown, which can thrive on the introduction of cashew from Brazil, the remaining residual moisture. They by the Portuguese travelers during the control pests by planting branches of trees 16th century (1563–1578). It is from the possessing pesticidal properties and for Konkan region (Goa) that the crop spread birds to perch, in paddy fi elds. To control to other parts of India. In spices, the brown spot diseases of paddy, the leaves region exhibits cultivar variability in Piper of khair (Acacia catechu) are put in the nigrum, ginger, turmeric, and cinnamon. water channels. They cultivate nagli In cinnamon, the variety Konkan Tej is a (Eleusine coracana) and kodra (Paspalum selection from the Ceylon type with superior scrobiculatum) on land on the rocky and quality. In turmeric, the variety Krishna infertile hillsides. The tribal farmers of was developed through selection in a clone commonly practice sowing from Tekurpeta collections, with a plumy fi ve rows of rice alternated with one row rhizome and moderate resistance to insect of pigeonpea as a drilled rainfed crop, pests and diseases. Even in introduced as part of a strategy for effective disease nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), high-yielding management. Konkan Sugandha was selected from a local seedling. Livestock rearing is an important component of agriculture in the region, which has In addition, the farmers of the tribal belts resulted in the domestication, evolution, and have developed several practices for better conservation of animal breeds. For example, land use and to strengthen the subsistence the Konkal Kanyal goat, a meat type breed farming. For example, the Warli tribe is adapted to the high rainfall and hot and living around the Maharashtra– humid climate of the region. It has typical border sow pigeonpea, sorghum, or cowpea white bands on a black face, and black in the paddy seedling beds to obtain ears with white margins (Fig. 4). The body multiple crops from the same plot without weight of adult bucks and does averages 280 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

35 and 30 kg respectively. In May 2012, it (Marine Biological Research Station, has been registered as a distinct breed with Ratnagiri). the National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (www.indianindigenouscattle. Future perspective blogspot.com/.../nbagr-registered-nine- new-breed). Despite being part of a global biodiversity hotspot and a national micro-center of The Konkan being a coastal region, fi shing species endemism, many valleys of the is another main agriculture activity related region supporting species-rich forests have with the livelihood of farmers (Fig. 5). been submerged by reservoirs created for Farmers use two methods of fishing, a hydroelectric dams. Secondary activities, traditional method called Dol and the such as road building, encroachment other using trawlers. In the Dol method, into forests, settlements, fuelwood and hand-woven nets are used for catching the non-wood forest product collection have fi shes. The nets are placed 18 feet deep in further exacerbated the loss of habitat and the water with the help of wooden poles biodiversity. The important riparian habitat and two boats, which help adjust distances is the fi rst to be lost. Further, the forest of the net. The net is pulled off one hour patches are being converted to rubber, areca, before the beginning of high tide. The fi sh and coffee plantations. The grasslands that are trapped are then harvested. The fi sh have become highly vulnerable to fi re and resources are represented by mullet (Liza have retarded growth and regeneration persia), seahorse (Hippocampus kuda), of shola forests. These degraded habitats white-spotted-mottled spine-foot (Siganus are being colonized by exotic invasive canaliculatus), and ornamental fi shes such species (Lantana camera and Eupatorium as angel fi sh (Pterophyllum scalare), gold odorata), restricting the regeneration of fi sh (Carassius auratus), rosy barb (Barbus native vegetation. Thus, conservation is conchonius), and Siamese fi ghter. The other needed to save the important biodiversity of marine food resources are represented by the region. Additionally, several mountain shrimps such as the banana shrimp, Penaeus ranges believed to be islands of species merguiensis and Metapenaeus affi nis, the endemism need evaluation and thorough two dominant species; the giant freshwater mapping for rare and endangered plant prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) and species (Tetali et al., 2000). crabs, like mud crab (Scylla serrata), green crab (Scylla tranquebarica), etc. The The rich climatic conditions of the region are latter was a dominant resource in Guhagar, suited for growing horticultural crops, rare Mandangad, Dapoli, Ratnagiri, and Rajapur medicinal plants, and high-potential export- Taluka of Ratnagiri District. Additionally, oriented plantation crops such as tea, coffee, planktonic diatoms (Chaetoceros spp.), cocoa, pineapple, pepper, etc., refl ecting the microalgae (Isochrysis spp.), single-cell potential for market-oriented agribusiness. green algae (Chlorella spp.), Branchinus To harness these markets, infrastructure spp., Artemia spp., etc. are also found facilities and policies for implementation Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 281 of market-oriented agriculture, including AH, eds.). Kew, Royal Botanical Gardens, UK. dairy, poultry, and fishing need to be pp. 459–468. evolved. Studies have indicated that in NM. 2011. Goa’s neglected rice the northern coastal plains, there is ample diversity. The Navhind Times 01:1–29. scope for developing fl ower cultivation, particularly of jasmine (mogra) and crops Kamble SY, More TN, Patil SR, Pawar SG, such as sapota, betel vines, etc. Bindurani R, and Bodhankar SL. 2008. Plants used by the tribes of Northwest Maharashtra for treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Acknowledgment Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 7(2):321–325. The author is thankful to Dr Yogendra Shankar Nerkar, former Vice-Chancellor, Kulkarni DK, Kumbhojkar MS, and Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Khedkar R. 1998. Rice germplasm collection, Rahuri, and Dr DK Kulkarni, Programme conservation and use: a case study in Western Maharashtra. Ethnobotany 10:27–31. Organizer, BAIF Development Research Foundation, Warje-Malwadi, Pune, Marathe CL and Bhaskar VV. 2011. Germplasm Maharashtra, for perusing the manuscript collection of fi nger millet [Eleusine coracana and sharing valuable information. (L.) Gaertn] landraces grown by tribals of , Maharashtra. International Journal of Current Research 33(6):24–28. References Nayar MP. 1996. Hot spots of endemic Chandran MDS. 1997. On the ecological plants of India, Nepal and Bhutan. Tropical history of the Western Ghats. Current Science Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Palode, 73:146–155. Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. 252 pp.

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