Guide to Air Quality Assessment in Sacramento County

GUIDE TO AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT IN SACRAMENTO COUNTY

DECEMBER 2009

Revised September 2010, April 2011, May 2011 and April 2013 Guide to Air Quality Assessment in Sacramento County

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Introduction and Air Quality Air Monitoring Stations Chapter 2 Environmental Review and Thresholds of Significance Thresholds Table Chapter 3 Construction Generated Emissions of Criteria Pollutants Basic Construction Emission Control Practices Enhanced Exhaust Control Practices Enhanced Fugitive Dust Control Practices PM10 Dispersion Modeling Guidance Chapter 4 Operational Emissions of Criteria Air Pollutant and Precursor Emissions

Operational Screening Table CO Dispersion Modeling Guidance Chapter 5 Toxic Air Contaminants Chapter 6 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Chapter 7 Odors Recommended Odor Screening Distances Odor Reduction Measures Chapter 8 Cumulative Air Quality Impacts Chapter 9 Program-Level Analysis of General and Area Plans

Page i December 2009, Revised April 2013 Time series - Annex I

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Time series - Annex I NEGOTIATIONS

Meetings Documents & Decisions Select the appropriate table for presentation of relevant data: Bodies Link (ZIP Data item CRF category FOCUS format)

Adaptation Data for greenhouse gas (GHG) total

Finance Total CO Equivalent Emissions without Land Use, Land-Use Change GHG total excluding LULUCF 2 Full table in Excel Mitigation and Forestry Technology Total CO Equivalent Emissions with Land Use, Land-Use Change and GHG total including LULUCF 2 Full table in Excel Forestry PROCESS Data by gas Essential Background CO excluding LULUCF Total CO Emissions without Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry Full table in Excel Kyoto Protocol 2 2

Cooperation & Support CO2 including LULUCF Total CO2 Emissions with Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry Full table in Excel Adaptation CH4 excluding LULUCF Total CH4 Emissions without Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry Full table in Excel National Reports

GHG Data CH4 including LULUCF Total CH4 Emissions with Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry Full table in Excel GHG Data - UNFCCC N2O excluding LULUCF Total N2O Emissions without Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry Full table in Excel Data sources

Time series - Annex I N2O including LULUCF Total N2O Emissions with Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry Full table in Excel GHG profiles HFCs Total HFC Emissions Full table in Excel Detailed data by Party Comparisons by gas PFCs Total PFC Emissions Full table in Excel Comparisons by category SF6 Total SF6 Emissions Full table in Excel Flexible queries User defined indicators Sum of HFCs, PFCs and SF6 Total emissions of HFCs, PFCs and SF6 Full table in Excel

Global map - Annex I Data by sector KP Data - UNFCCC Energy Total GHG (CO Equivalent) emissions from category 1 Full table in Excel GHG Data - Non-UNFCCC 2 Online Help Energy Industries Total GHG (CO2 Equivalent) emissions from category 1.A.1 Full table in Excel Contact Manufacturing Industries and Construction Total GHG (CO Equivalent) emissions from category 1.A.2 Full table in Excel Methods & Science 2

Parties & Observers Transport Total GHG (CO2 Equivalent) emissions from category 1.A.3 Full table in Excel Press Other Sectors Total GHG (CO2 Equivalent) emissions from category 1.A.4 Full table in Excel Secretariat

Energy - Other Total GHG (CO2 Equivalent) emissions from category 1.A.5 Full table in Excel KEY DOCUMENTS Fugitive Emissions from Fuels Total GHG (CO2 Equivalent) emissions from category 1.B Full table in Excel The Convention Industrial processes Total GHG (CO Equivalent) emissions from category 2 Full table in Excel Kyoto Protocol 2

Bali Road Map Solvent and other product use Total GHG (CO2 Equivalent) emissions from category 3 Full table in Excel Cancun Agreements Agriculture Total GHG (CO2 Equivalent) emissions from category 4 Full table in Excel Issues Quickfinder: Land use, land-use change and forestry Total net GHG (CO2 Equivalent) emissions/removals from category 5 Full table in Excel Please choose (LULUCF)

http://unfccc.int/ghg_data/ghg_data_unfccc/time_series_annex_i/items/3814.php[1/7/2013 12:16:44 PM] Time series - Annex I

Waste Total GHG (CO2 Equivalent) emissions from category 6 Full table in Excel

Other Total GHG (CO2 Equivalent) emissions from category 7 Full table in Excel

Emissions/removals from LULUCF

Net CO2 emissions/removals from LULUCF Total net CO2 emissions/removals from category 5 Full table in Excel

CH4 emissions from LULUCF Total CH4 emissions from category 5 Full table in Excel

N2O emissions from LULUCF Total N2O emissions from category 5 Full table in Excel

GHG emissions from international bunker fuels

Aviation Total GHG (CO2 Equivalent) emissions from memo item/aviation Full table in Excel

Marine Total GHG (CO2 Equivalent) emissions from memo item/marine Full table in Excel

Secretariat Employment Most requested Procurement This site

History Vacancies Long-Term Finance Expression of Sitemap Executive Secretary Consultancy Fast-Start Finance Interest Disclaimer Secretariat Structure Fellowships Mitigation Procurement Plan Fraud Alert Contact Internships Finance Award Procedure Maps & Directions REDD Contact LULUCF Private Sector Initiative

http://unfccc.int/ghg_data/ghg_data_unfccc/time_series_annex_i/items/3814.php[1/7/2013 12:16:44 PM] GHG excluding LULUCF

GHGs excluding LULUCF, in Gg CO2 eq.

Change from base Base year year to latest reported (Convention) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 year (%) Australia 417,993 417,993 419,629 424,107 425,914 426,469 439,475 446,453 458,969 473,503 483,161 494,269 505,016 506,389 516,544 524,711 527,759 532,512 541,219 549,487 547,478 543,263 30.0 Austria 78,162 78,162 82,203 75,442 75,488 76,373 79,806 82,888 82,470 81,863 80,254 80,470 84,344 85,992 91,882 91,458 92,880 90,059 87,366 86,956 79,739 84,594 8.2 Belarus 139,179 139,179 131,653 122,009 107,625 91,740 82,850 84,918 86,739 84,959 81,485 79,174 77,225 76,796 78,570 82,904 84,182 88,052 87,319 90,607 87,887 89,444 -35.7 Belgium 143,281 143,281 145,280 143,980 143,041 148,725 150,529 154,488 145,960 151,531 145,335 146,154 145,455 144,463 146,488 147,434 143,623 138,839 133,927 136,686 125,187 132,459 -7.6 Bulgaria 128,556 114,451 92,125 85,391 82,938 80,360 81,700 81,119 77,574 71,606 63,987 63,067 65,870 62,731 67,818 66,655 66,538 67,581 71,097 68,796 59,189 61,704 -52.0 Canada 589,294 589,294 582,707 599,472 601,309 621,941 638,599 657,201 670,655 678,419 690,932 717,610 711,242 718,315 739,374 751,274 739,801 725,546 751,107 730,608 690,023 691,718 17.4 Croatia 31,469 31,469 24,761 23,106 23,150 22,218 23,039 23,597 24,980 25,100 26,376 26,094 27,288 28,333 29,907 29,957 30,244 30,747 32,408 31,049 29,056 28,597 -9.1 Czech Republic 196,323 196,323 182,443 165,882 159,734 149,713 150,972 155,026 152,119 145,137 136,789 146,230 146,042 141,891 144,960 146,837 146,735 148,859 149,259 144,073 135,101 139,523 -28.9 Denmark 69,972 69,972 80,495 74,422 76,588 80,519 77,196 90,137 80,616 76,757 74,027 69,504 71,159 70,466 75,333 69,535 65,201 73,091 68,511 65,024 62,094 62,625 -10.5 Estonia 40,721 40,721 37,555 27,496 21,320 21,964 20,122 20,779 20,391 18,876 17,521 17,228 17,623 17,008 18,911 19,251 18,581 18,038 21,155 19,732 16,425 20,542 -49.6 European Union (15) 4,249,345 4,249,345 4,265,017 4,175,952 4,108,814 4,106,273 4,149,302 4,233,359 4,170,935 4,189,682 4,129,009 4,139,239 4,182,628 4,156,371 4,209,475 4,211,849 4,180,337 4,142,044 4,083,320 3,999,054 3,719,154 3,797,613 -10.6 European Union (27) 5,583,135 5,583,135 5,485,202 5,282,937 5,183,736 5,158,456 5,212,624 5,321,346 5,227,497 5,184,982 5,075,095 5,078,135 5,131,258 5,086,055 5,172,271 5,177,932 5,148,712 5,132,293 5,078,976 4,974,387 4,609,880 4,720,878 -15.4 Finland 70,365 70,365 68,178 66,768 68,872 74,264 70,816 76,549 75,176 71,582 71,040 69,239 74,461 76,609 84,513 80,481 68,623 79,834 78,195 70,243 66,119 74,556 6.0 France 562,062 562,062 585,500 576,717 551,299 547,585 559,062 575,990 570,510 585,519 572,940 568,875 568,929 561,482 568,205 568,004 571,887 557,329 547,075 542,422 519,768 528,176 -6.0 Germany 1,246,138 1,246,138 1,200,387 1,150,559 1,141,417 1,121,784 1,117,435 1,136,356 1,100,231 1,074,379 1,040,060 1,038,999 1,053,763 1,032,628 1,030,810 1,019,243 997,277 998,895 976,992 975,967 911,802 936,544 -24.8 Greece 105,005 105,005 104,546 106,005 105,096 107,876 109,777 112,884 117,772 123,384 123,380 127,054 128,033 127,781 131,669 132,081 135,661 132,151 135,046 131,263 124,693 118,287 12.6 Hungary 114,756 97,310 89,706 80,528 80,769 80,417 78,819 80,974 79,189 78,689 78,955 77,270 79,168 76,940 79,961 79,120 79,625 77,916 75,769 73,406 66,983 67,785 -40.9 Iceland 3,501 3,501 3,341 3,246 3,308 3,240 3,274 3,362 3,511 3,634 3,871 3,845 3,814 3,853 3,830 3,881 3,819 4,345 4,574 4,959 4,700 4,542 29.7 Ireland 55,163 55,163 55,938 55,931 56,238 57,643 58,771 60,794 62,241 64,967 66,198 68,103 70,065 68,155 68,199 68,064 69,315 68,897 68,303 67,567 61,742 61,314 11.2 Italy 519,246 519,246 520,720 517,860 511,641 504,647 531,913 525,946 532,202 543,372 549,459 551,570 557,503 558,707 574,042 577,344 574,749 563,989 555,761 541,589 491,528 501,318 -3.5 Japan 1,266,716 1,266,716 1,280,977 1,295,315 1,288,772 1,359,997 1,337,539 1,351,442 1,344,803 1,302,274 1,323,365 1,341,922 1,317,096 1,349,145 1,352,975 1,348,896 1,351,504 1,333,587 1,365,258 1,281,258 1,207,380 1,257,982 -0.7 Latvia 26,556 26,556 24,614 19,784 15,947 13,988 12,602 12,625 12,069 11,546 10,760 10,238 10,810 10,758 10,963 11,127 11,247 11,663 12,176 11,724 10,962 12,077 -54.5 Liechtenstein 231 231 239 239 247 233 236 239 252 263 262 256 255 261 271 272 272 274 245 265 249 233 1.1 Lithuania 49,934 49,934 51,278 30,947 24,993 23,397 22,592 23,960 23,618 24,405 21,756 20,140 21,214 21,725 21,665 22,679 23,777 24,140 26,232 25,082 20,673 21,521 -56.9 Luxembourg 12,834 12,834 13,366 13,151 13,263 12,430 10,104 10,164 9,456 8,566 8,982 9,596 10,077 10,859 11,301 12,696 12,950 12,798 12,211 12,047 11,515 12,075 -5.9 Malta 2,036 2,036 2,215 2,331 2,337 2,459 2,439 2,498 2,499 2,519 2,615 2,602 2,724 2,759 2,948 2,930 3,027 3,019 3,126 3,094 3,016 3,035 49.1 Monaco 108 108 109 116 116 118 115 120 120 118 119 120 119 117 112 106 104 93 98 96 91 88 -18.7 Netherlands 212,020 212,020 216,594 215,278 220,216 220,186 223,386 231,431 224,795 225,656 213,576 213,201 215,053 214,371 215,414 216,825 210,964 206,960 205,519 204,569 198,931 210,053 -0.9 New Zealand 59,797 59,797 60,597 61,718 61,382 62,416 63,110 65,265 67,625 65,464 67,395 69,303 72,155 72,737 75,091 74,505 76,508 76,442 74,634 74,198 71,483 71,657 19.8 Norway 49,803 49,803 47,743 45,964 47,931 49,880 49,703 52,816 52,781 52,905 53,890 53,443 54,654 53,423 54,215 54,851 53,765 53,594 55,521 53,820 51,470 53,896 8.2 Poland 564,153 457,437 447,721 433,441 433,766 430,148 432,526 446,290 437,939 409,211 398,785 384,745 381,506 367,943 381,041 385,361 388,917 404,735 407,131 401,339 381,770 400,865 -28.9 Portugal 60,077 60,077 62,205 66,367 64,932 66,082 70,496 68,230 71,264 76,075 84,196 82,293 83,212 87,846 82,530 84,522 86,540 81,509 79,020 77,825 74,372 70,599 17.5 Romania 290,150 257,265 208,572 182,178 177,770 174,869 183,145 185,342 171,471 155,109 137,588 141,692 144,394 148,466 154,555 152,459 150,743 154,843 151,896 148,233 125,264 123,001 -57.6 Russian Federation 3,349,761 3,349,761 3,174,435 2,681,257 2,544,512 2,276,627 2,193,869 2,136,814 2,026,191 1,990,316 2,022,329 2,040,448 2,063,287 2,064,903 2,103,035 2,137,569 2,120,681 2,187,531 2,190,643 2,228,318 2,112,053 2,207,596 -34.1 Slovakia 71,775 71,775 63,712 58,237 53,595 51,423 53,220 53,120 53,230 52,564 51,411 49,339 52,351 51,808 52,431 51,810 51,213 51,040 48,870 50,078 44,191 45,982 -35.9 Slovenia 20,222 18,466 17,340 17,233 17,444 17,600 18,465 19,093 19,445 19,222 18,572 18,823 19,691 19,971 19,674 19,993 20,344 20,583 20,712 21,431 19,469 19,522 -3.5 Spain 282,821 282,821 290,513 297,898 286,196 302,646 314,266 306,830 328,570 338,713 366,716 380,831 381,623 398,186 405,150 421,168 435,428 427,227 436,327 403,819 366,266 355,898 25.8 Sweden 72,805 72,805 72,985 72,602 72,639 75,127 74,482 78,449 73,375 73,846 70,501 68,995 69,760 70,461 70,925 70,137 67,421 67,310 65,637 63,638 59,710 66,271 -9.0 Switzerland 53,057 53,057 54,726 54,442 51,657 50,800 51,269 52,091 51,232 52,510 52,772 51,884 52,831 51,915 52,948 53,607 54,398 53,993 52,038 53,798 52,461 54,247 2.2 Turkey 187,029 187,029 199,128 210,229 221,662 217,151 237,507 258,621 271,882 274,046 274,778 297,006 278,112 286,204 302,753 312,261 329,897 349,642 379,976 366,502 369,648 401,925 114.9 Ukraine 929,577 929,577 817,940 727,195 635,852 557,274 498,461 450,510 428,046 419,757 409,557 395,751 400,281 403,152 416,538 417,208 417,379 434,392 436,245 421,321 365,276 383,182 -58.8 United Kingdom 767,260 767,260 774,086 751,026 729,900 718,416 709,645 730,790 705,025 702,576 671,435 673,530 678,399 657,792 662,452 662,395 657,656 653,309 643,989 629,832 576,127 594,021 -22.6 United States 6,161,461 6,161,461 6,122,046 6,221,939 6,347,518 6,437,059 6,528,273 6,729,773 6,789,825 6,831,296 6,882,625 7,072,447 6,964,520 6,992,369 7,029,781 7,145,552 7,178,658 7,116,140 7,215,170 7,020,898 6,587,687 6,802,225 10.4

Copy of GHG total excluding LULUCF_2012 GHG excluding LULUCF

Data in Tg CO2 eq.

Change from base Base year year to latest reported (Convention) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 year (%) Australia 417.993 417.993 419.629 424.107 425.914 426.469 439.475 446.453 458.969 473.503 483.161 494.269 505.016 506.389 516.544 524.711 527.759 532.512 541.219 549.487 547.478 543.263 30.0 Austria 78.162 78.162 82.203 75.442 75.488 76.373 79.806 82.888 82.470 81.863 80.254 80.470 84.344 85.992 91.882 91.458 92.880 90.059 87.366 86.956 79.739 84.594 8.2 Belarus 139.179 139.179 131.653 122.009 107.625 91.740 82.850 84.918 86.739 84.959 81.485 79.174 77.225 76.796 78.570 82.904 84.182 88.052 87.319 90.607 87.887 89.444 -35.7 Belgium 143.281 143.281 145.280 143.980 143.041 148.725 150.529 154.488 145.960 151.531 145.335 146.154 145.455 144.463 146.488 147.434 143.623 138.839 133.927 136.686 125.187 132.459 -7.6 Bulgaria 128.556 114.451 92.125 85.391 82.938 80.360 81.700 81.119 77.574 71.606 63.987 63.067 65.870 62.731 67.818 66.655 66.538 67.581 71.097 68.796 59.189 61.704 -52.0 Canada 589.294 589.294 582.707 599.472 601.309 621.941 638.599 657.201 670.655 678.419 690.932 717.610 711.242 718.315 739.374 751.274 739.801 725.546 751.107 730.608 690.023 691.718 17.4 Croatia 31.469 31.469 24.761 23.106 23.150 22.218 23.039 23.597 24.980 25.100 26.376 26.094 27.288 28.333 29.907 29.957 30.244 30.747 32.408 31.049 29.056 28.597 -9.1 Czech Republic 196.323 196.323 182.443 165.882 159.734 149.713 150.972 155.026 152.119 145.137 136.789 146.230 146.042 141.891 144.960 146.837 146.735 148.859 149.259 144.073 135.101 139.523 -28.9 Denmark 69.972 69.972 80.495 74.422 76.588 80.519 77.196 90.137 80.616 76.757 74.027 69.504 71.159 70.466 75.333 69.535 65.201 73.091 68.511 65.024 62.094 62.625 -10.5 Estonia 40.721 40.721 37.555 27.496 21.320 21.964 20.122 20.779 20.391 18.876 17.521 17.228 17.623 17.008 18.911 19.251 18.581 18.038 21.155 19.732 16.425 20.542 -49.6 European Union (15) 4249.345 4249.345 4265.017 4175.952 4108.814 4106.273 4149.302 4233.359 4170.935 4189.682 4129.009 4139.239 4182.628 4156.371 4209.475 4211.849 4180.337 4142.044 4083.320 3999.054 3719.154 3797.613 -10.6 European Union (27) 5583.135 5583.135 5485.202 5282.937 5183.736 5158.456 5212.624 5321.346 5227.497 5184.982 5075.095 5078.135 5131.258 5086.055 5172.271 5177.932 5148.712 5132.293 5078.976 4974.387 4609.880 4720.878 -15.4 Finland 70.365 70.365 68.178 66.768 68.872 74.264 70.816 76.549 75.176 71.582 71.040 69.239 74.461 76.609 84.513 80.481 68.623 79.834 78.195 70.243 66.119 74.556 6.0 France 562.062 562.062 585.500 576.717 551.299 547.585 559.062 575.990 570.510 585.519 572.940 568.875 568.929 561.482 568.205 568.004 571.887 557.329 547.075 542.422 519.768 528.176 -6.0 Germany 1246.138 1246.138 1200.387 1150.559 1141.417 1121.784 1117.435 1136.356 1100.231 1074.379 1040.060 1038.999 1053.763 1032.628 1030.810 1019.243 997.277 998.895 976.992 975.967 911.802 936.544 -24.8 Greece 105.005 105.005 104.546 106.005 105.096 107.876 109.777 112.884 117.772 123.384 123.380 127.054 128.033 127.781 131.669 132.081 135.661 132.151 135.046 131.263 124.693 118.287 12.6 Hungary 114.756 97.310 89.706 80.528 80.769 80.417 78.819 80.974 79.189 78.689 78.955 77.270 79.168 76.940 79.961 79.120 79.625 77.916 75.769 73.406 66.983 67.785 -40.9 Iceland 3.501 3.501 3.341 3.246 3.308 3.240 3.274 3.362 3.511 3.634 3.871 3.845 3.814 3.853 3.830 3.881 3.819 4.345 4.574 4.959 4.700 4.542 29.7 Ireland 55.163 55.163 55.938 55.931 56.238 57.643 58.771 60.794 62.241 64.967 66.198 68.103 70.065 68.155 68.199 68.064 69.315 68.897 68.303 67.567 61.742 61.314 11.2 Italy 519.246 519.246 520.720 517.860 511.641 504.647 531.913 525.946 532.202 543.372 549.459 551.570 557.503 558.707 574.042 577.344 574.749 563.989 555.761 541.589 491.528 501.318 -3.5 Japan 1266.716 1266.716 1280.977 1295.315 1288.772 1359.997 1337.539 1351.442 1344.803 1302.274 1323.365 1341.922 1317.096 1349.145 1352.975 1348.896 1351.504 1333.587 1365.258 1281.258 1207.380 1257.982 -0.7 Latvia 26.556 26.556 24.614 19.784 15.947 13.988 12.602 12.625 12.069 11.546 10.760 10.238 10.810 10.758 10.963 11.127 11.247 11.663 12.176 11.724 10.962 12.077 -54.5 Liechtenstein 0.231 0.231 0.239 0.239 0.247 0.233 0.236 0.239 0.252 0.263 0.262 0.256 0.255 0.261 0.271 0.272 0.272 0.274 0.245 0.265 0.249 0.233 1.1 Lithuania 49.934 49.934 51.278 30.947 24.993 23.397 22.592 23.960 23.618 24.405 21.756 20.140 21.214 21.725 21.665 22.679 23.777 24.140 26.232 25.082 20.673 21.521 -56.9 Luxembourg 12.834 12.834 13.366 13.151 13.263 12.430 10.104 10.164 9.456 8.566 8.982 9.596 10.077 10.859 11.301 12.696 12.950 12.798 12.211 12.047 11.515 12.075 -5.9 Malta 2.036 2.036 2.215 2.331 2.337 2.459 2.439 2.498 2.499 2.519 2.615 2.602 2.724 2.759 2.948 2.930 3.027 3.019 3.126 3.094 3.016 3.035 49.1 Monaco 0.108 0.108 0.109 0.116 0.116 0.118 0.115 0.120 0.120 0.118 0.119 0.120 0.119 0.117 0.112 0.106 0.104 0.093 0.098 0.096 0.091 0.088 -18.7 Netherlands 212.020 212.020 216.594 215.278 220.216 220.186 223.386 231.431 224.795 225.656 213.576 213.201 215.053 214.371 215.414 216.825 210.964 206.960 205.519 204.569 198.931 210.053 -0.9 New Zealand 59.797 59.797 60.597 61.718 61.382 62.416 63.110 65.265 67.625 65.464 67.395 69.303 72.155 72.737 75.091 74.505 76.508 76.442 74.634 74.198 71.483 71.657 19.8 Norway 49.803 49.803 47.743 45.964 47.931 49.880 49.703 52.816 52.781 52.905 53.890 53.443 54.654 53.423 54.215 54.851 53.765 53.594 55.521 53.820 51.470 53.896 8.2 Poland 564.153 457.437 447.721 433.441 433.766 430.148 432.526 446.290 437.939 409.211 398.785 384.745 381.506 367.943 381.041 385.361 388.917 404.735 407.131 401.339 381.770 400.865 -28.9 Portugal 60.077 60.077 62.205 66.367 64.932 66.082 70.496 68.230 71.264 76.075 84.196 82.293 83.212 87.846 82.530 84.522 86.540 81.509 79.020 77.825 74.372 70.599 17.5 Romania 290.150 257.265 208.572 182.178 177.770 174.869 183.145 185.342 171.471 155.109 137.588 141.692 144.394 148.466 154.555 152.459 150.743 154.843 151.896 148.233 125.264 123.001 -57.6 Russian Federation 3349.761 3349.761 3174.435 2681.257 2544.512 2276.627 2193.869 2136.814 2026.191 1990.316 2022.329 2040.448 2063.287 2064.903 2103.035 2137.569 2120.681 2187.531 2190.643 2228.318 2112.053 2207.596 -34.1 Slovakia 71.775 71.775 63.712 58.237 53.595 51.423 53.220 53.120 53.230 52.564 51.411 49.339 52.351 51.808 52.431 51.810 51.213 51.040 48.870 50.078 44.191 45.982 -35.9 Slovenia 20.222 18.466 17.340 17.233 17.444 17.600 18.465 19.093 19.445 19.222 18.572 18.823 19.691 19.971 19.674 19.993 20.344 20.583 20.712 21.431 19.469 19.522 -3.5 Spain 282.821 282.821 290.513 297.898 286.196 302.646 314.266 306.830 328.570 338.713 366.716 380.831 381.623 398.186 405.150 421.168 435.428 427.227 436.327 403.819 366.266 355.898 25.8 Sweden 72.805 72.805 72.985 72.602 72.639 75.127 74.482 78.449 73.375 73.846 70.501 68.995 69.760 70.461 70.925 70.137 67.421 67.310 65.637 63.638 59.710 66.271 -9.0 Switzerland 53.057 53.057 54.726 54.442 51.657 50.800 51.269 52.091 51.232 52.510 52.772 51.884 52.831 51.915 52.948 53.607 54.398 53.993 52.038 53.798 52.461 54.247 2.2 Turkey 187.029 187.029 199.128 210.229 221.662 217.151 237.507 258.621 271.882 274.046 274.778 297.006 278.112 286.204 302.753 312.261 329.897 349.642 379.976 366.502 369.648 401.925 114.9 Ukraine 929.577 929.577 817.940 727.195 635.852 557.274 498.461 450.510 428.046 419.757 409.557 395.751 400.281 403.152 416.538 417.208 417.379 434.392 436.245 421.321 365.276 383.182 -58.8 United Kingdom 767.260 767.260 774.086 751.026 729.900 718.416 709.645 730.790 705.025 702.576 671.435 673.530 678.399 657.792 662.452 662.395 657.656 653.309 643.989 629.832 576.127 594.021 -22.6 United States 6161.461 6161.461 6122.046 6221.939 6347.518 6437.059 6528.273 6729.773 6789.825 6831.296 6882.625 7072.447 6964.520 6992.369 7029.781 7145.552 7178.658 7116.140 7215.170 7020.898 6587.687 6802.225 10.4

Copy of GHG total excluding LULUCF_2012 Climate Change Ecosystems Impacts & Adaptation

Ecosystems Impacts & Adaptation

Climate Impacts Adaptation Examples in Climate is an important environmental influence on ecosystems. Climate on Ecosystems Ecosystems changes and the impacts of climate change affect ecosystems in a variety

ON THIS PAGE

Changes in the Timing of Seasonal Threshold Effects Life-Cycle Events Pathogens, Parasites, and Disease Range Shifts Extinction Risks of ways. For instance, warming could Food Web Disruptions force species to migrate to higher latitudes or higher elevations where temperatures are more conducive to their survival.

Similarly, as sea level rises, saltwater intrusion into a freshwater system may force some key species to relocate or die, thus removing predators or prey that were critical in the existing Key Points food chain. • Climate change can alter where species live and how they interact, Climate change not only affects ecosystems and species directly, it also interacts with other which could fundamentally human stressors such as development. Although some stressors cause only minor impacts transform current ecosystems. when acting alone, their cumulative impact may lead to dramatic ecological changes. [1] For • Impacts on one species can ripple instance, climate change may exacerbate the stress that land development places on fragile through the food web and affect coastal areas. Additionally, recently logged forested areas may become vulnerable to erosion many organisms in an ecosystem. if climate change leads to increases in heavy rain storms. • Mountain and arctic ecosystems and species are particularly Changes in the Timing of Seasonal Life-Cycle Events sensitive to climate change. • Projected warming could greatly For many species, the climate where they live or spend part of the year influences key stages increase the rate of species extinctions, especially in sensitive of their annual life cycle, such as migration, blooming, and mating. As the climate has regions. warmed in recent decades, the timing of these events has changed in some parts of the country. Some examples are:

• Warmer springs have led to earlier nesting for 28 migratory bird species on the East Related Links Coast of the United States. [1] EPA: • Northeastern birds that winter in the southern United States are returning north in the • Ecosystems Services Research spring 13 days earlier than they did in the early 20th century. [4] • Climate Ready Estuaries • In a California study, 16 out of 23 butterfly species shifted their migration timing and arrived earlier. [4] Other: • IPCC Working Group II Changes like these can lead to mismatches in the timing of migration, breeding, and food availability. Growth and survival are reduced when migrants arrive at a location before or • NRC Ecological Impacts of Climate after food sources are present. [4] Change • USGCRP Synthesis Assessment Product 4.3: The effects of climate change on agriculture, land Range Shifts resources, water resources, and biodiversity in the United States As temperatures increase, the habitat ranges of many North American species are moving • UNEP Review of the Literature on northward in latitude and upward in elevation. While this means a range expansion for some the Links between Biodiversity and species, for others it means a range reduction or a movement into less hospitable habitat or Climate Change increased competition. Some species have nowhere to go because they are already at the • U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: northern or upper limit of their habitat. Landscape Conservation Cooperatives

For example, boreal forests are invading tundra, reducing habitat for the many unique species that depend on the tundra ecosystem, such as caribou, arctic fox, and snowy owl. Other observed changes in the United States include expanding oak-hickory forests, Terminology contracting maple-beech forests, and disappearing spruce-fir forests. As rivers and streams An ecosystem refers to the animals, warm, warmwater fish are expanding into areas previously inhabited by coldwater species. [5] plants, and microorganisms that live in Coldwater fish, including many highly valued trout species, are losing their habitats. As one place, as well as the environmental [5] waters warm, the area of feasible, cooler habitats to which species can migrate is reduced. conditions that support them. Range shifts disturb the current state of the ecosystem and can limit opportunities for fishing Ecosystem services include the and hunting. products and services provided by ecosystems, such as food, fuel, timber, See the Agriculture and Food Supply Impacts & Adaptation page for information about how water, clean air, and medicines. It also habitats of marine species have shifted northward as waters have warmed. includes less material benefits, such as regulation of local climate conditions and Food Web Disruptions aesthetic value or cultural identity. [2] An ecological threshold is the point at The impact of climate change on a particular species can ripple through a food web and which there is an abrupt change in an affect a wide range of other organisms. For example, the figure shows the complex nature ecosystem quality, property, or of the food web for polar bears. Declines in the duration and extent of sea ice in the Arctic phenomenon, or where small changes in leads to declines in the abundance of ice algae, which thrive in nutrient-rich pockets in the one or more external conditions produce ice. These algae are eaten by zooplankton, which are in turn eaten by Arctic cod, an large and persistent responses in an [3] important food source for many marine mammals, including seals. Seals are eaten by polar ecosystem. bears. Hence, declines in ice algae can contribute to declines in polar bear populations. [4] [5] A food web is made up of predators and [6] prey that interact in a habitat or ecosystem. Threshold Effects A stressor is a factor that reduces the health or productivity of an ecosystem In some cases, ecosystem change occurs rapidly and irreversibly because a threshold, or (i.e., causes stress). "tipping point," is passed.

One area of concern for The Pika thresholds is the Prairie Pothole Region in the north-central part of The American pika is a small, hamster- the United States. This ecosystem like animal that is a relative of the rabbit. The species is found in the western is a vast area of small, shallow United States in cold areas near lakes, known as "prairie potholes" mountaintops. The warming climate is or "playa lakes." These wetlands causing pika populations to die off at provide essential breeding habitat elevations below 7,000 feet. Of 25 pika for most North American populations studied in the Great Basin waterfowl species. The pothole between the Rocky Mountains and the region has experienced temporary Sierra Nevada, more than one third has droughts in the past. However, a disappeared in the past few decades. [5] permanently warmer, drier future may lead to a threshold change— a dramatic drop in the prairie View enlarged image potholes that host waterfowl The Arctic food web is complex. The loss of sea ice can populations and provide highly ultimately affect the entire food web, from algae and valued hunting and wildlife plankton to fish to mammals. Source: NOAA (2011) viewing opportunities. [3] Similarly, when coral reefs become stressed, they expel microorganisms that live within their tissues and are essential to their health. This is known as coral bleaching. As ocean temperatures warm and the acidity of the ocean increases, bleaching and coral die-offs are likely to become more frequent. Chronically stressed coral reefs are less likely to recover.

Pathogens, Parasites, and Disease

Climate change and shifts in ecological conditions could support the spread of pathogens, parasites, and diseases, with potentially serious effects on human health, agriculture, and fisheries. For example, the oyster parasite, Perkinsus marinus , is capable of causing large oyster die-offs. This parasite has extended its range northward from Chesapeake Bay to Maine, a 310-mile expansion tied to above-average winter temperatures. [8] For more information about climate change impacts on agriculture, visit the Agriculture and Food Climate change may be the leading factor Supply Impacts & Adaptation page. To learn more about climate change impacts on human decreasing the populations of the American pika ( Ochotona princeps ). health, visit the Health Impacts & Adaptation page. Source: National Parks Service (2012) Extinction Risks

Climate change, along with habitat destruction and pollution, is one of the important stressors Penguins and Climate that can contribute to species extinction. The IPCC estimates that 20-30% of the plant and Change: A Case of animal species evaluated so far in climate change studies are at risk of extinction if "Winners" and "Losers" temperatures reach levels projected to occur by the end of this century. [1] Projected rates of species extinctions are 10 times greater than recently observed global average rates and Even within a single ecosystem, there can 10,000 times greater than rates observed in the distant past (as recorded in fossils). [2] be winners and losers from climate Examples of species that are particularly climate sensitive and could be at risk of significant change. The Adélie and Chinstrap losses include animals that are adapted to mountain environments, such as the pika, animals penguins in Antarctica provide a good example. Over the past 25 years, the that are dependent on sea ice habitats, such as ringed seals, and cold-water fish, such as population of Adélie penguins decreased salmon in the Pacific Northwest. [5] by 22%, while the population of Chinstrap penguin increased by an estimated 400%. For information about how communities are adapting to the impacts of climate change on The two species depend on different ecosystems, visit the Ecosystems Adaptation section. habitats for survival: Adélies inhabit the winter ice pack, whereas Chinstraps References remain in open water. During the past 50 years, a 7-9°F increase in midwinter 1. Fischlin, A., G.F. Midgley, J.T. Price, R. Leemans, B. Gopal, C. Turley, M.D.A. Rounsevell, temperatures on the western Antarctic O.P. Dube, J. Tarazona, A.A. Velichko (2007). Ecosystems, their Properties, Goods, and Peninsula has led to a loss of sea ice and Services. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability . a shrinking habitat for Adélie penguins. [7] Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Parry, M.L., O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden, and C.E. Hanson (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.

2. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Biodiversity Synthesis (PDF). World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, USA.

3. CCSP (2009). Thresholds of Climate Change in Ecosystems . A report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. Fagre, D.B., Charles, C.W., Allen, C.D., Birkeland, C., Chapin, F.S. III, Groffman, P.M., Guntenspergen, G.R., Knapp, A.K., McGuire, A.D., Mulholland, P.J., Peters, D.P.C., Roby, D.D., and Sugihara, G. U.S. Geological Survey, Department of the Interior, Washington DC, USA.

4. CCSP (2008). The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture, Land Resources, Water Resources, and Biodiversity in the United States . A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. Backlund, P., A. Janetos, D. Schimel, J. Hatfield, K. Boote, P. Fay, L. Hahn, C. Izaurralde, B.A. Kimball, T. Mader, J. Morgan, D. Ort, W. Polley, A. Thomson, D. Wolfe, M. Ryan, S. Archer, R. Birdsey, C. Dahm, L. Heath, J. Hicke, D. Hollinger, T. Huxman, G. Okin, R. Oren, J. Randerson, W. Schlesinger, D. Lettenmaier, D. Major, L. Poff, S. Running, L. Hansen, D. Inouye, B.P. Kelly, L Meyerson, B. Peterson, and R. Shaw. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA.

5. USGCRP (2009). Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States . Karl, T.R., J.M. Melillo, and T.C. Peterson (eds.). United States Global Change Research Program. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA. 6. ACIA (2004). Impacts of a Warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessmenthttp://www.epa.gov/climatechange/impacts-adaptation . Arctic Climate Impact Assessment./ecosystems.html Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.

7. NRC (2008). Understanding and Responding to Climate Change: Highlights of National Academies Reports . National Research Council. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA.

8. NRC (2008). Ecological Impacts of Climate Change . National Research Council. The National Academy Press, Washington, DC, USA.

WCMS Last updated on Thursday, June 14, 2012 Climate Change Human Health Impacts & Adaptation climatechange/impacts-adaptation/health.html#adapt

Human Health Impacts & Adaptation

Climate Impacts Adaptation Examples in Weather and climate play a on Human Health Human Health significant role in people's health.

Changes in climate affect the average weather conditions that we are accustomed to. Warmer average temperatures will likely lead to hotter days and more frequent and longer heat waves. This could increase the number of heat-related illnesses and deaths. Increases in the frequency or severity

of extreme weather events such as ON THIS PAGE storms could increase the risk of dangerous flooding, high winds, and Impacts from Heat Waves Impacts from Climate-Sensitive other direct threats to people and Impacts from Extreme Weather Diseases property. Warmer temperatures Events Other Heath Linkages could increase the concentrations of Impacts from Reduced Air unhealthy air and water pollutants. Quality Changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme events could enhance the spread of some diseases. Key Points The impacts of climate change on • A warmer climate is expected to health will depend on many both increase the risk of heat- factors. These factors include the related illnesses and death and effectiveness of a community's worsen conditions for air quality. public health and safety systems • Climate change will likely increase to address or prepare for the risk the frequency and strength of and the behavior, age, gender, extreme events (such as floods, and economic status of droughts, and storms) that threaten individuals affected. Impacts will human safety and health. • Climate changes may allow some likely vary by region, the diseases to spread more easily. sensitivity of populations, the extent and length of exposure to climate change impacts, and society's ability to adapt to change.

Sun setting over a city on a hot day. Although the United States has Source: EPA (2010) well-developed public health Related Links systems (compared with those of EPA: many developing countries), • Climate Change Indicators in the climate change will still likely United States affect many Americans. In • Heat Island Effect addition, the impacts of climate • Excessive Heat Events Guidebook change on public health around • Global Change Research Program the globe could have important • Climate Change and Children's Health consequences for the United • Climate Change and Health Effects States. For example, more on Older Adults frequent and intense storms may • Assessment of the Impacts of require more disaster relief and Global Change on Regional U.S. Air declines in agriculture may Quality: A Synthesis of Climate increase food shortages. Change Impacts on Ground-Level Ozone Impacts from Heat • Our Nation's Air: Status and Trends Waves Through 2008 Other: Heat waves can lead to heat • CDC Climate Change and Public stroke and dehydration, and are Health the most common cause of • USGCRP Synthesis Assessment [1] [2] weather -related deaths. Product 4.6: Analyses of the Effects Excessive heat is more likely to of Global Change on Human Health impact populations in northern and Welfare and Human Systems latitudes where people are less • IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, prepared to cope with excessive Working Group II View enlarged image temperatures. Young children, • USGCRP, Global Climate Change The number of 100-degree days per older adults, people with medical Impacts in the United States: year is projected to increase. Human Health conditions, and the poor are more Source: USGCRP (2009) • NRC America's Climate Choices: vulnerable than others to heat- Adapting to the Impacts of Climate related illness. The share of the Change U.S. population composed of adults over age 65 is currently 12%, but is • National Institute of Environmental projected to grow to 21% by 2050, leading to a larger vulnerable Health Sciences: A Human Health [1] population. Perspective on Climate Change (PDF) Climate • World Health Organization, Climate change will Change and Human Health: Risks likely lead to and Responses more frequent, more severe, and longer heat waves in the summer (see 100-degree- days figure), as well as less severe cold spells in the winter. A recent assessment of the science suggests that increases in heat-related deaths due to climate change would outweigh decreases in deaths from cold-snaps. [1]

View enlarged image Urban areas are typically warmer than their rural surroundings. Climate change could lead to even warmer temperatures in cities. This would increase the demand for The "urban heat island" refers to the fact that the local electricity in the summer to run air conditioning, which in temperature in urban areas is a few degrees higher than turn would increase air pollution and greenhouse gas the surrounding area. Source: USGCRP (2009) emissions from power plants. The impacts of future heat waves could be especially severe in large metropolitan areas. For example, in Los Angeles, annual heat-related deaths are projected to increase two- to seven-fold by the end of the 21st century, depending on the future growth of greenhouse gas emissions. [1] Heat waves are also often accompanied by periods of stagnant air, leading to increases in air pollution and the associated health effects

Impacts from Extreme Weather Events Climate Change Affects The frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events is projected to Human Health and Welfare increase in some locations, as is the severity (wind speeds and rain) of tropical storms. [1] These extreme weather events could cause injuries and, In 2008, the U.S. Global Change in some cases, death. As with heat waves, the people most at risk include Research Program produced a report that young children, older adults, people with medical conditions, and the poor. analyzed the impacts of global climate Extreme events can also indirectly threaten human health in a number of change on human health and welfare. The ways. For example, extreme events can: report finds that: • Many of the expected health effects • Reduce are likely to fall mostly on the poor, the the very old, the very young, the availability disabled, and the uninsured. • Climate change will likely result in of fresh regional differences in U.S. impacts, food and due not only to a regional pattern of water. [2] changes in climate but also to • Interrupt regional variations in the distribution of sensitive populations and the ability of communities to adapt to climate changes. • Adaptation should begin now, starting with public health infrastructure. Individuals, Flooded streets in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina in communities, and government 2005. Source: FEMA (2005) agencies can take steps to moderate the impacts of climate communication, utility, and health care services. [2] change on human health. (To learn • Contribute to carbon monoxide poisoning from portable electric more, see the Health Adaptation generators used during and after storms. [2] section) • Increase stomach and intestinal illness among evacuees. [1] • Contribute to mental health impacts such as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [1]

Impacts from Reduced Air Quality

Despite significant improvements in U.S. air quality since the 1970s, as of 2008 more than 126 million Americans lived in counties that did not meet national air quality standards. [3]

Increases in Ozone

Scientists project that warmer temperatures from climate change will increase the frequency of days with unhealthy levels of ground-level ozone, a harmful air pollutant, and a component in smog. [2] [3] • Ground-level ozone can damage lung tissue and can reduce lung function and inflame airways. This can increase respiratory symptoms and aggravate asthma or other lung diseases. It is especially harmful to children, older adults, outdoor workers, and those with asthma and other chronic lung diseases. [4] • Ozone exposure also has been associated with increased susceptibility to respiratory infections, medication use, doctor visits, and emergency department visits and hospital admissions for individuals with lung disease. Some studies suggest that ozone may increase the risk of premature Smog in Los Angeles decreases visibility and can be mortality, and possibly even the development of harmful to human health. Source: California Air Resources asthma. [1] [2] [3] [5] Board (2011) • Ground-level ozone is formed when certain air pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, oxides of

nitrogen (also called NO X), and volatile organic compounds, are exposed to each other in sunlight. Ground-level ozone is one of the pollutants in smog. [2] [3] • Because warm, stagnant air tends to increase the formation of ozone, climate change is likely to increase levels of ground-level ozone in already- polluted areas of the United States and increase the number of days with poor air quality. [1] If emissions of air pollutants remain fixed at today's levels until 2050, warming from climate change alone could increase the number of Red Ozone Alert Days (when the air is unhealthy for everyone) by 68% in the 50 largest eastern U.S. cities. [1] (See Box below "EPA Report on Air Quality and Climate Change.") Ozone chemistry. Source: NASA (2012) Changes in Fine Particulate Matter

Particulate matter is the term for a category of extremely small particles and liquid droplets suspended in the atmosphere. Fine particles include particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers (about one ten-thousandth of an inch). These particles may be emitted directly or may be formed in the atmosphere from chemical reactions of gases such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and volatile organic compounds.

• Inhaling fine particles can lead to a broad range of adverse health effects, including premature mortality, aggravation of cardiovascular and respiratory disease, development of chronic lung disease, exacerbation of asthma, and decreased lung function growth in children. [6] • Sources of fine particle pollution include power plants, gasoline and diesel engines, wood combustion, high- temperature industrial processes such as smelters and steel mills, and forest fires. [6]

Due to the variety of sources and components of fine particulate matter, scientists do not yet know whether climate change will increase or decrease particulate matter concentrations across the United States. [7] [8] A lot of particulate matter is cleaned from the air by rainfall, so increases in precipitation could have a beneficial effect. At the same time, other climate-related changes in stagnant air episodes, wind patterns, emissions from vegetation and the chemistry of atmospheric pollutants will likely affect particulate matter levels. [2] Climate change will also affect particulates through changes in wildfires, which are expected to become more frequent and intense in a warmer climate. [7]

Changes in Allergens

Climate change may affect allergies and respiratory health. [4] The spring pollen season is already occurring earlier in the United States due to climate change. The length of the season may also have increased. In addition, climate change may facilitate the spread of ragweed, an invasive plant with very allergenic pollen. Tests on ragweed show that increasing carbon dioxide concentrations and temperatures would increase the amount and timing of ragweed pollen production. [1] [2] [9]

Impacts from Climate-Sensitive Diseases EPA Report on Air Quality Changes in climate may enhance the spread of some diseases. [1] Disease and Climate Change -causing agents, called pathogens, can be transmitted through food, water, and animals such as deer, birds, mice, and insects. Climate change Improving America's air quality is one of could affect all of these transmitters. EPA's top priorities. EPA's Global Change Research Program is investigating the Food-borne Diseases potential consequences of climate change on U.S. air quality. A recent interim • Higher air temperatures can increase cases of salmonella and other assessment finds that: bacteria-related food poisoning because bacteria grow more rapidly in • Climate change could increase warm environments. These diseases can cause gastrointestinal surface-level ozone concentrations distress and, in severe cases, death. [1] in areas where pollution levels are already high. • Flooding and heavy rainfall can cause overflows from sewage • Climate change could make U.S. air treatment plants into fresh water sources. Overflows could quality management more difficult. contaminate certain food crops with pathogen-containing feces. [1] • Policy makers should consider the potential impacts of climate change Water-borne Diseases on air quality when making air quality management decisions. • Heavy rainfall or flooding can increase water-borne parasites such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia that are sometimes found in drinking water. [1] These parasites can cause gastrointestinal distress and in severe cases, death. • Heavy rainfall events cause stormwater runoff that may contaminate water bodies used for recreation (such as lakes and beaches) with other bacteria. [9] The most common illness contracted from contamination at beaches is gastroenteritis, an inflammation of the stomach and the intestines that can cause symptoms such as vomiting, headaches, and fever. Other minor illnesses include ear, eye, nose, and throat infections. [2]

Animal-borne Diseases

• The geographic range of ticks that carry Lyme disease is limited by temperature. As air temperatures rise, the range of these ticks is likely to continue to expand northward. [9] Typical symptoms of Lyme disease include fever, headache, fatigue, and a characteristic skin rash. • In 2002, a new strain of West Nile virus, which can cause serious, life-altering disease, emerged in the United States. Higher temperatures are favorable to the survival of this new strain. [1]

The spread of climate-sensitive diseases will depend on both climate and non-climate factors. The United States has public health infrastructure and programs to monitor, manage, and prevent the spread of many diseases. The risks for climate-sensitive diseases can be much higher in poorer countries that have less capacity to prevent and treat illness. [9] For more information, please visit the International Impacts & Adaptation page. Other Heath Linkages

Other linkages exist between climate change and human health. For example, changes in temperature and precipitation, as well as droughts and floods, will likely affect agricultural yields and production. In some regions of the world, these impacts may compromise food security and threaten human health through malnutrition, the spread of infectious diseases, and food poisoning. The worst of these effects are projected to occur in developing countries, among vulnerable populations. [9] Declines in human health in other countries might affect the United Mosquitoes favor warm, wet climates and can spread States through trade, migration and immigration and have diseases such as West Nile virus. implications for national security. [1] [2]

Although the impacts of climate change have the potential to affect human health in the United States and around the world, there is a lot we can do to prepare for and adapt to these changes. Learn about how we can adapt to climate impacts on health.

References

1. USGCRP (2009). Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States . Karl, T.R., J.M. Melillo, and T.C. Peterson (eds.). United States Global Change Research Program. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA.

2. CCSP (2008). Analyses of the effects of global change on human health and welfare and human systems . A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. Gamble, J.L. (ed.), K.L. Ebi, F.G. Sussman, T.J. Wilbanks, (Authors). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA.

3. EPA (2010). Our Nation's Air: Status and Trends Through 2008 (PDF). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA -454/R -09-002.

4. NRC (2010). Adapting to the Impacts of Climate Change . National Research Council. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA.

5. EPA (2006). Air Quality Criteria for Ozone and Related Photochemical Oxidants (2006 Final) . U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA.

6. EPA (2009). Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter: Final Report . U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA.

7. NRC (2010). Advancing the Science of Climate Change . National Research Council. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA.

8. EPA (2009). Assessment of the Impacts of Global Change on Regional U.S. Air Quality: A Synthesis of Climate Change Impacts on Ground-Level Ozone (An Interim Report of the U.S. EPA Global Change Research Program) . U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA.

9. Confalonieri, U., B. Menne, R. Akhtar, K.L. Ebi, M. Hauengue, R.S. Kovats, B. Revich and A. Woodward (2007). Human health. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability . Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Parry, M.L., O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson,http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/impacts-adaptation (eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,/health.html United Kingdom.

WCMS Last updated on Thursday, June 14, 2012

n emissions inventory that identifies and quantifies a country's primary anthropogenic1 sources and sinks of greenhouse gases is essential for addressing climate change. This inventory adheres to both (1) a comprehensive A and detailed set of methodologies for estimating sources and sinks of anthropogenic greenhouse gases, and (2) a common and consistent mechanism that enables Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to compare the relative contribution of different emission sources and greenhouse gases to climate change.

In 1992, the United States signed and ratified the UNFCCC. As stated in Article 2 of the UNFCCC, “The ultimate objective of this Convention and any related legal instruments that the Conference of the Parties may adopt is to achieve, in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Convention, stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.”2

Parties to the Convention, by ratifying, “shall develop, periodically All material taken from the Inventory update, publish and make available…national inventories of anthropogenic of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not and Sinks: 1990–2009, U.S. controlled by the Montreal Protocol, using comparable methodologies…” 3 Environmental Protection Agency, The United States views the Inventory as an opportunity to fulfill these Office of Atmospheric Programs, commitments. EPA 430-R-11-005, April 2011. You may electronically download the full This chapter summarizes the latest information on U.S. anthropogenic inventory report from U.S. EPA’s greenhouse gas emission trends from 1990 through 2009. To ensure that the Global Climate Change web page at: U.S. emission inventory is comparable to those of other UNFCCC Parties, the www.epa.gov/climatechange/ emissions/usinventory.html. estimates presented here were calculated using methodologies consistent with those recommended in the Revised 1996 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC/UNEP/OECD/IEA 1997), the IPCC Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC 2000), and the IPCC Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (IPCC 2003). Additionally, the U.S. emission inventory has continued to incorporate new methodologies and data from the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC 2006). The structure of the inventory report is consistent

1 The term “anthropogenic”, in this context, refers to greenhouse gas emissions and removals that are a direct result of human activities or are the result of natural processes that have been affected by human activities (IPCC/UNEP/OECD/IEA 1997). 2 Article 2 of the Framework Convention on Climate Change published by the UNEP/WMO Information Unit on Climate Change. See . 3 Article 4(1)(a) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (also identified in Article 12). Subsequent decisions by the Conference of the Parties elaborated the role of Annex I Parties in preparing national inventories. See .

Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 1 with the UNFCCC guidelines for inventory reporting.4 For most source categories, the IPCC methodologies were expanded, resulting in a more comprehensive and detailed estimate of emissions.

Box ES-1: Methodological approach for estimating and reporting U.S. emissions and sinks

In following the UNFCCC requirement under Article 4.1 to develop and submit national greenhouse gas emissions inventories, the emissions and sinks presented in the inventory report are organized by source and sink categories and calculated using internationally-accepted methods provided by the IPCC.5 Additionally, the calculated emissions and sinks in a given year for the U.S. are presented in a common manner in line with the UNFCCC reporting guidelines for the reporting of inventories under this international agreement.6 The use of consistent methods to calculate emissions and sinks by all nations providing their inventories to the UNFCCC ensures that these reports are comparable. In this regard, U.S. emissions and sinks reported in this inventory report are comparable to emissions and sinks reported by other countries. Emissions and sinks provided in this inventory do not preclude alternative examinations, but rather this inventory report presents emissions and sinks in a common format consistent with how countries are to report inventories under the UNFCCC. The inventory report itself follows this standardized format, and provides an explanation of the IPCC methods used to calculate emissions and sinks, and the manner in which those calculations are conducted.

ES.1. Background Information

Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),

and ozone (O3). Several classes of halogenated substances that contain fluorine, chlorine, or bromine are also greenhouse gases, but they are, for the most part, solely a product of industrial activities. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are halocarbons that contain chlorine, while halocarbons that contain bromine are referred to as bromofluorocarbons (i.e., halons). As stratospheric ozone depleting substances, CFCs, HCFCs, and halons are covered under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. The UNFCCC defers to this earlier international treaty. Consequently, Parties to the UNFCCC are not required to include these gases in their national greenhouse gas emission inventories.7 Some other fluorine-containing halogenated substances—hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),

perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)—do not deplete stratospheric ozone but are potent greenhouse gases. These latter substances are addressed by the UNFCCC and accounted for in national greenhouse gas emission inventories.

There are also several gases that do not have a direct global warming effect but indirectly affect terrestrial and/or solar radiation absorption by influencing the formation or destruction of greenhouse gases, including tropospheric and stratospheric ozone. These gases include carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), and non-CH4 volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs). Aerosols, which are extremely small particles or liquid droplets, such as those produced by sulfur

dioxide (SO2) or elemental carbon emissions, can also affect the absorptive characteristics of the atmosphere.

Although the direct greenhouse gases CO2, CH4, and N2O occur naturally in the atmosphere, human activities have changed their atmospheric concentrations. From the pre-industrial era (i.e., ending about 1750) to 2005, concentrations of these greenhouse gases have increased globally by 36, 148, and 18 percent, respectively (IPCC 2007).

4 See < http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2006/sbsta/eng/09.pdf>. 5 See < http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/index.html>. 6 See < http://unfccc.int/national_reports/annex_i_ghg_inventories/national_inventories_submissions/items/5270.php>. 7 Emissions estimates of CFCs, HCFCs, halons and other ozone-depleting substances are included in the annexes of the inventory report for informational purposes.

2 Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 Beginning in the 1950s, the use of CFCs and other stratospheric ozone depleting substances (ODS) increased by nearly 10 percent per year until the mid-1980s, when international concern about ozone depletion led to the entry into force of the Montreal Protocol. Since then, the production of ODS is being phased out. In recent years, use of ODS substitutes such as HFCs and PFCs has grown as they begin to be phased in as replacements for CFCs and HCFCs. Accordingly, atmospheric concentrations of these substitutes have been growing (IPCC 2007).

Global Warming Potentials Gases in the atmosphere can contribute to the greenhouse effect both directly and indirectly. Direct effects occur when the gas itself absorbs radiation. Indirect radiative forcing occurs when chemical transformations of the substance produce other greenhouse gases, when a gas influences the atmospheric lifetimes of other gases, and/or when a gas affects atmospheric processes that alter the radiative balance of the earth (e.g., affect cloud formation or albedo).8 The IPCC developed the global warming potential (GWP) concept to compare the ability of each greenhouse gas to trap heat in the atmosphere relative to another gas.

The GWP of a greenhouse gas is defined as the ratio of the Table ES-1: Global Warming Potentials (100-Year Time Horizon) Used in the Inventory Report time-integrated radiative forcing from the instantaneous release of

1 kilogram (kg) of a trace substance relative to that of 1 kg of a Gas GWP

reference gas (IPCC 2001). Direct radiative effects occur when CO2 1

the gas itself is a greenhouse gas. The reference gas used is CO2, * CH4 21

and therefore GWP-weighted emissions are measured in teragrams N2O 310

9, 10 (or million metric tons) of CO2 equivalent (Tg CO2 Eq.). All HFC-23 11,700 gases in this Executive Summary are presented in units of Tg CO2 HFC-32 650

Eq. HFC-125 2,800

HFC-134a 1,300 The UNFCCC reporting guidelines for national inventories HFC-143a 3,800 were updated in 2006,11 but continue to require the use of GWPs HFC-152a 140 from the IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR) (IPCC 1996). HFC-227ea 2,900 This requirement ensures that current estimates of aggregate HFC-236fa 6,300 greenhouse gas emissions for 1990 to 2009 are consistent with HFC-4310mee 1,300 estimates developed prior to the publication of the IPCC Third CF4 6,500

Assessment Report (TAR) (IPCC 2001) and the IPCC Fourth C2F6 9,200

Assessment Report (AR4) (IPCC 2007). Therefore, to comply C4F10 7,000 with international reporting standards under the UNFCCC, official C6F14 7,400 emission estimates are reported by the United States using SAR SF6 23,900

GWP values. All estimates are provided throughout the inventory Source: IPCC (1996) * The CH GWP includes the direct effects and those indirect report in both CO2 equivalents and unweighted units. A 4 effects due to the production of tropospheric ozone and comparison of emission values using the SAR GWPs versus the stratospheric water vapor. The indirect effect due to the TAR and AR4 GWPs can be found in Chapter 1 and, in more production of CO2 is not included. detail, in Annex 6.1 of the inventory report. The GWP values used in the inventory report are listed below in Table ES-1.

8 Albedo is a measure of the earth’s reflectivity, and is defined as the fraction of the total solar radiation incident on a body that is reflected by it. 9 Carbon comprises 12/44ths of carbon dioxide by weight. 10 One teragram is equal to 1012 grams or one million metric tons. 11 See .

Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 3 Global warming potentials are not provided for CO, NOx, NMVOCs, SO2, and aerosols because there is no agreed-upon method to estimate the contribution of gases that are short-lived in the atmosphere, spatially variable, or have only indirect effects on radiative forcing (IPCC 1996).

ES.2. Recent Trends in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks

In 2009, total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions were 6,633.2 Figure ES-1 Tg or million metric tons CO Eq. While total U.S. emissions 2 U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Gas have increased by 7.3 percent from 1990 to 2009, emissions decreased from 2008 to 2009 by 6.1 percent (427.9 Tg CO2 Eq.). This decrease was primarily due to (1) a decrease in economic output resulting in a decrease in energy consumption across all sectors; and (2) a decrease in the carbon intensity of fuels used to generate electricity due to fuel switching as the price of coal increased, and the price of natural gas decreased significantly. Since 1990, U.S. emissions have increased at an average annual rate of 0.4 percent.

Figure ES-1 through Figure ES-3 illustrate the overall trends in total U.S. emissions by gas, annual changes, and absolute change since 1990.

Table ES-2 provides a detailed summary of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and sinks for 1990 through 2009.

Figure ES-2 Figure ES-3 Annual Percent Change in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Cumulative Change in Annual U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Emissions Relative to 1990

4 Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 Table ES-2: Recent Trends in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks (Tg or million metric tons CO2 Eq.)

Gas/Source 1990 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

CO2 5,099.7 5,975.0 6,113.8 6,021.1 6,120.0 5,921.4 5,505.2 Fossil Fuel Combustion 4,738.4 5,594.8 5,753.2 5,653.1 5,756.7 5,565.9 5,209.0 Electricity Generation 1,820.8 2,296.9 2,402.1 2,346.4 2,412.8 2,360.9 2,154.0 Transportation 1,485.9 1,809.5 1,896.6 1,878.1 1,894.0 1,789.9 1,719.7 Industrial 846.5 851.1 823.1 848.2 842.0 802.9 730.4 Residential 338.3 370.7 357.9 321.5 342.4 348.2 339.2 Commercial 219.0 230.8 223.5 208.6 219.4 224.2 224.0 U.S. Territories 27.9 35.9 50.0 50.3 46.1 39.8 41.7 Non-Energy Use of Fuels 118.6 144.9 143.4 145.6 137.2 141.0 123.4 Iron and Steel Production & Metallurgical Coke Production 99.5 85.9 65.9 68.8 71.0 66.0 41.9 Natural Gas Systems 37.6 29.9 29.9 30.8 31.1 32.8 32.2 Cement Production 33.3 40.4 45.2 45.8 44.5 40.5 29.0 Incineration of Waste 8.0 11.1 12.5 12.5 12.7 12.2 12.3 Ammonia Production and Urea Consumption 16.8 16.4 12.8 12.3 14.0 11.9 11.8 Lime Production 11.5 14.1 14.4 15.1 14.6 14.3 11.2 Cropland Remaining Cropland 7.1 7.5 7.9 7.9 8.2 8.7 7.8 Limestone and Dolomite Use 5.1 5.1 6.8 8.0 7.7 6.3 7.6 Soda Ash Production and Consumption 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.1 4.1 4.3 Aluminum Production 6.8 6.1 4.1 3.8 4.3 4.5 3.0 Petrochemical Production 3.3 4.5 4.2 3.8 3.9 3.4 2.7 Carbon Dioxide Consumption 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.7 1.9 1.8 1.8 Titanium Dioxide Production 1.2 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.5 Ferroalloy Production 2.2 1.9 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.5 Wetlands Remaining Wetlands 1.0 1.2 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 Phosphoric Acid Production 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 Zinc Production 0.7 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.0 Lead Production 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 Petroleum Systems 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Silicon Carbide Production and Consumption 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (Sink) a (861.5) (576.6) (1,056.5) (1,064.3) (1,060.9) (1,040.5) (1,015.1) Biomass – Wood b 215.2 218.1 206.9 203.8 203.3 198.4 183.8 International Bunker Fuels c 111.8 98.5 109.7 128.4 127.6 133.7 123.1 Biomass – Ethanol b 4.2 9.4 23.0 31.0 38.9 54.8 61.2

CH4 674.9 659.9 631.4 672.1 664.6 676.7 686.3 Natural Gas Systems 189.8 209.3 190.4 217.7 205.2 211.8 221.2 Enteric Fermentation 132.1 136.5 136.5 138.8 141.0 140.6 139.8 Landfills 147.4 111.7 112.5 111.7 111.3 115.9 117.5 Coal Mining 84.1 60.4 56.9 58.2 57.9 67.1 71.0 Manure Management 31.7 42.4 46.6 46.7 50.7 49.4 49.5 Petroleum Systems 35.4 31.5 29.4 29.4 30.0 30.2 30.9 Wastewater Treatment 23.5 25.2 24.3 24.5 24.4 24.5 24.5 Forest Land Remaining Forest Land 3.2 14.3 9.8 21.6 20.0 11.9 7.8 Rice Cultivation 7.1 7.5 6.8 5.9 6.2 7.2 7.3 Stationary Combustion 7.4 6.6 6.6 6.2 6.5 6.5 6.2 Abandoned Underground Coal Mines 6.0 7.4 5.5 5.5 5.6 5.9 5.5 Mobile Combustion 4.7 3.4 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.0 2.0 Composting 0.3 1.3 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.7 Petrochemical Production 0.9 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.8 Iron and Steel Production & Metallurgical Coke Production 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.4 Field Burning of Agricultural Residues 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 Ferroalloy Production + + + + + + +

Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 5 Table ES-2: Recent Trends in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks (Tg or million metric tons CO2 Eq.) (continued)

Gas/Source 1990 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Silicon Carbide Production and Consumption + + + + + + + Incineration of Waste + + + + + + + International Bunker Fuelsc 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1

N2O 315.2 341.0 322.9 326.4 325.1 310.8 295.6 Agricultural Soil Management 197.8 206.8 211.3 208.9 209.4 210.7 204.6 Mobile Combustion 43.9 53.2 36.9 33.6 30.3 26.1 23.9 Manure Management 14.5 17.1 17.3 18.0 18.1 17.9 17.9 Nitric Acid Production 17.7 19.4 16.5 16.2 19.2 16.4 14.6 Stationary Combustion 12.8 14.6 14.7 14.4 14.6 14.2 12.8 Forest Land Remaining Forest Land 2.7 12.1 8.4 18.0 16.7 10.1 6.7 Wastewater Treatment 3.7 4.5 4.8 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.0

N2O from Product Uses 4.4 4.9 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 Adipic Acid Production 15.8 5.5 5.0 4.3 3.7 2.0 1.9 Composting 0.4 1.4 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.8 Settlements Remaining Settlements 1.0 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.5 Incineration of Waste 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 Field Burning of Agricultural Residues 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Wetlands Remaining Wetlands + + + + + + + International Bunker Fuels c 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 HFCs 36.9 103.2 120.2 123.5 129.5 129.4 125.7 Substitution of Ozone Depleting Substances d 0.3 74.3 104.2 109.4 112.3 115.5 120.0 HCFC-22 Production 36.4 28.6 15.8 13.8 17.0 13.6 5.4 Semiconductor Manufacture 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 PFCs 20.8 13.5 6.2 6.0 7.5 6.6 5.6 Semiconductor Manufacture 2.2 4.9 3.2 3.5 3.7 4.0 4.0 Aluminum Production 18.5 8.6 3.0 2.5 3.8 2.7 1.6

SF6 34.4 20.1 19.0 17.9 16.7 16.1 14.8 Electrical Transmission and Distribution 28.4 16.0 15.1 14.1 13.2 13.3 12.8 Magnesium Production and Processing 5.4 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.6 1.9 1.1 Semiconductor Manufacture 0.5 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.9 1.0 Total 6,181.8 7,112.7 7,213.5 7,166.9 7,263.4 7,061.1 6,633.2 Net Emissions (Sources and Sinks) 5,320.3 6,536.1 6,157.1 6,102.6 6,202.5 6,020.7 5,618.2

+ Does not exceed 0.05 Tg CO2 Eq. a Parentheses indicate negative values or sequestration. The net CO2 flux total includes both emissions and sequestration, and constitutes a net sink in the United States. Sinks are only included in net emissions total. b Emissions from Wood Biomass and Ethanol Consumption are not included specifically in summing energy sector totals. Net carbon fluxes from changes in biogenic carbon reservoirs are accounted for in the estimates for Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry. c Emissions from International Bunker Fuels are not included in totals. d Small amounts of PFC emissions also result from this source. Note: Totals may not sum due to independent rounding.

Figure ES-4 illustrates the relative contribution of the direct greenhouse gases to total U.S. emissions in 2009. The primary greenhouse gas emitted by human activities in the United States was CO2, representing approximately 83.0 percent of total greenhouse gas emissions. The largest source of CO2, and of overall greenhouse gas emissions, was fossil fuel combustion. Methane emissions, which have increased by 1.7 percent since 1990, resulted primarily from natural gas systems, enteric fermentation associated with domestic livestock, and decomposition of wastes in landfills. Agricultural soil management and mobile source fuel combustion were the major sources of N2O emissions. Ozone depleting substance substitute emissions and emissions of HFC-23 during the production of HCFC-22 were the primary contributors to aggregate HFC emissions. PFC emissions resulted as a byproduct of primary aluminum production and from semiconductor manufacturing, while electrical transmission and distribution systems accounted for most SF6 emissions.

6 Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009

Overall, from 1990 to 2009, total emissions of CO2 and Figure ES-4 CH4 increased by 405.5 Tg CO2 Eq. (8.0 percent) and 11.4 Tg 2009 Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Gas CO2 Eq. (1.7 percent), respectively. Conversely, N2O emissions (percents based on Tg CO2 Eq.) decreased by 19.6 Tg CO2 Eq. (6.2 percent). During the same period, aggregate weighted emissions of HFCs, PFCs, and SF6

rose by 54.1 Tg CO2 Eq. (58.8 percent). From 1990 to 2009,

HFCs increased by 88.8 Tg CO2 Eq. (240.41 percent), PFCs decreased by 15.1 Tg CO2 Eq. (73.0 percent), and SF6 decreased

by 19.5 Tg CO2 Eq. (56.8 percent). Despite being emitted in smaller quantities relative to the other principal greenhouse gases, emissions of HFCs, PFCs, and SF6 are significant because many of these gases have extremely high global warming

potentials and, in the cases of PFCs and SF6, long atmospheric lifetimes. Conversely, U.S. greenhouse gas emissions were partly offset by carbon sequestration in forests, trees in urban areas, agricultural soils, and landfilled yard trimmings and food scraps, which, in aggregate, offset 15.3 percent of total emissions in 2009. The following sections describe each gas’ contribution to total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in more detail.

Carbon Dioxide Emissions

The global carbon cycle is made up of large carbon flows and reservoirs. Billions of tons of carbon in the form of CO2 are absorbed by oceans and living biomass (i.e., sinks) and are emitted to the atmosphere annually through natural processes (i.e., sources). When in equilibrium, carbon fluxes among these various reservoirs are roughly balanced. Since the Industrial

Revolution (i.e., about 1750), global atmospheric concentrations of CO2 have risen about 36 percent (IPCC 2007), principally due to the combustion of fossil fuels. Within the United States, fossil fuel combustion accounted for 94.6 percent of CO2

emissions in 2009. Globally, approximately 30,313 Tg of CO2 were added to the atmosphere through the combustion of fossil fuels in 2009, of which the United States accounted for about 18 percent.12 Changes in land use and forestry practices

can also emit CO2 (e.g., through conversion of forest land to agricultural or urban use) or can act as a sink for CO2 (e.g., through net additions to forest biomass). In addition to fossil-fuel combustion, several other sources emit significant quantities of CO2. These sources include, but are not limited to non-energy use of fuels, iron and steel production and cement production (Figure ES-5).

As the largest source of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, CO2 from fossil fuel combustion has accounted for approximately 78 percent of GWP-weighted emissions since 1990, growing slowly from 77 percent of total GWP-weighted

emissions in 1990 to 79 percent in 2009. Emissions of CO2 from fossil fuel combustion increased at an average annual rate of 0.4 percent from 1990 to 2009. The fundamental factors influencing this trend include: (1) a generally growing domestic economy over the last 20 years, and (2) overall growth in emissions from electricity generation and transportation activities.

Between 1990 and 2009, CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion increased from 4,738.4 Tg CO2 Eq. to 5,209.0 Tg CO2 Eq.—a 9.9 percent total increase over the twenty-year period. From 2008 to 2009, these emissions decreased by 356.9 Tg

CO2 Eq. (6.4 percent), the largest decrease in any year over the twenty-year period.

12 Global CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion were taken from Energy Information Administration International Energy Statistics 2010 EIA (2010a).

Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 7

Historically, changes in emissions from fossil fuel combustion have been the dominant factor affecting U.S. Figure ES-5 emission trends. Changes in CO emissions from fossil 2 2009 Sources of CO2 Emissions fuel combustion are influenced by many long-term and short-term factors, including population and economic growth, energy price fluctuations, technological changes, and seasonal temperatures. In the short term, the overall consumption of fossil fuels in the United States fluctuates primarily in response to changes in general economic conditions, energy prices, weather, and the availability of non-fossil alternatives. For example, in a year with increased consumption of goods and services, low fuel prices, severe summer and winter weather conditions, nuclear plant closures, and lower precipitation feeding hydroelectric dams, there would likely be proportionally greater fossil fuel consumption than a year with poor economic performance, high fuel prices, mild temperatures, and increased output from nuclear and hydroelectric plants. In the long term, energy consumption patterns respond to changes that affect the scale of consumption (e.g., population, number of cars, and size of houses), the efficiency with which energy is used in equipment (e.g., cars, power plants, steel mills, and light bulbs) and behavioral choices (e.g., walking, bicycling, or telecommuting to work instead of driving).

The five major fuel consuming sectors contributing to CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion are electricity generation, transportation, industrial, residential, and commercial. Carbon dioxide emissions are produced by the electricity generation sector as they consume fossil fuel to provide electricity to one of the other four sectors, or “end-use” sectors. For the discussion below, electricity generation emissions have been distributed to each end-use sector on the basis of each sector’s share of aggregate electricity consumption. This method of distributing emissions assumes that each end-use sector consumes electricity that is generated from the national average mix of fuels according to their carbon intensity. Emissions from electricity generation are also addressed separately after the end-use sectors have been discussed.

Note that emissions from U.S. territories are calculated separately due to a lack of specific consumption data for the individual end-use sectors.

Figure ES-6, Figure ES-7, and Table ES-3 summarize CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion by end-use sector.

8 Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 Figure ES-6 Figure ES-7

2009 CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion by 2009 End-Use Sector Emissions of CO2, CH4, and N2O Sector and Fuel Type from Fossil Fuel Combustion

Note: Electricity generation also includes emissions of less than 0.5 Tg CO2 Eq. from geothermal-based electricity generation.

Table ES-3: CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion by Fuel Consuming End-Use Sector (Tg or million metric tons CO2 Eq.)

End-Use Sector 1990 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Transportation 1,489.0 1,813.0 1,901.3 1,882.6 1,899.0 1,794.6 1,724.1 Combustion 1,485.9 1,809.5 1,896.6 1,878.1 1,894.0 1,789.9 1,719.7 Electricity 3.0 3.4 4.7 4.5 5.0 4.7 4.4 Industrial 1,533.2 1,640.8 1,560.0 1,560.2 1,572.0 1,517.7 1,333.7 Combustion 846.5 851.1 823.1 848.2 842.0 802.9 730.4 Electricity 686.7 789.8 737.0 712.0 730.0 714.8 603.3 Residential 931.4 1,133.1 1,214.7 1,152.4 1,198.5 1,182.2 1,123.8 Combustion 338.3 370.7 357.9 321.5 342.4 348.2 339.2 Electricity 593.0 762.4 856.7 830.8 856.1 834.0 784.6 Commercial 757.0 972.1 1,027.2 1,007.6 1,041.1 1,031.6 985.7 Combustion 219.0 230.8 223.5 208.6 219.4 224.2 224.0 Electricity 538.0 741.3 803.7 799.0 821.7 807.4 761.7 U.S. Territories a 27.9 35.9 50.0 50.3 46.1 39.8 41.7 Total 4,738.4 5,594.8 5,753.2 5,653.1 5,756.7 5,565.9 5,209.0 Electricity Generation 1,820.8 2,296.9 2,402.1 2,346.4 2,412.8 2,360.9 2,154.0 a Fuel consumption by U.S. territories (i.e., American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Wake Island, and other U.S. Pacific Islands) is included in the inventory report. Note: Totals may not sum due to independent rounding. Combustion-related emissions from electricity generation are allocated based on aggregate national electricity consumption by each end-use sector.

Transportation End-Use Sector. Transportation activities (excluding international bunker fuels) accounted for 33 13 percent of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion in 2009. Virtually all of the energy consumed in this end-use sector came from petroleum products. Nearly 65 percent of the emissions resulted from gasoline consumption for personal vehicle use. The remaining emissions came from other transportation activities, including the combustion of diesel fuel in heavy-

13 If emissions from international bunker fuels are included, the transportation end-use sector accounted for 35 percent of U.S. emissions from fossil fuel combustion in 2009.

Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 9 duty vehicles and jet fuel in aircraft. From 1990 to 2009, transportation emissions rose by 16 percent due, in large part, to increased demand for travel and the stagnation of fuel efficiency across the U.S. vehicle fleet. The number of vehicle miles traveled by light-duty motor vehicles (passenger cars and light-duty trucks) increased 39 percent from 1990 to 2009, as a result of a confluence of factors including population growth, economic growth, urban sprawl, and low fuel prices over much of this period.

Industrial End-Use Sector. Industrial CO2 emissions, resulting both directly from the combustion of fossil fuels and

indirectly from the generation of electricity that is consumed by industry, accounted for 26 percent of CO2 from fossil fuel combustion in 2009. Approximately 55 percent of these emissions resulted from direct fossil fuel combustion to produce steam and/or heat for industrial processes. The remaining emissions resulted from consuming electricity for motors, electric furnaces, ovens, lighting, and other applications. In contrast to the other end-use sectors, emissions from industry have steadily declined since 1990. This decline is due to structural changes in the U.S. economy (i.e., shifts from a manufacturing- based to a service-based economy), fuel switching, and efficiency improvements.

Residential and Commercial End-Use Sectors. The residential and commercial end-use sectors accounted for 22 and 19 percent, respectively, of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion in 2009. Both sectors relied heavily on electricity for meeting energy demands, with 70 and 77 percent, respectively, of their emissions attributable to electricity consumption for lighting, heating, cooling, and operating appliances. The remaining emissions were due to the consumption of natural gas and petroleum for heating and cooking. Emissions from these end-use sectors have increased 25 percent since 1990, due to increasing electricity consumption for lighting, heating, air conditioning, and operating appliances.

Electricity Generation. The United States relies on electricity to meet a significant portion of its energy demands.

Electricity generators consumed 36 percent of U.S. energy from fossil fuels and emitted 41 percent of the CO2 from fossil fuel combustion in 2009. The type of fuel combusted by electricity generators has a significant effect on their emissions. For example, some electricity is generated with low CO2 emitting energy technologies, particularly non-fossil options such as nuclear, hydroelectric, or geothermal energy. However, electricity generators rely on coal for over half of their total energy requirements and accounted for 95 percent of all coal consumed for energy in the United States in 2009. Consequently,

changes in electricity demand have a significant impact on coal consumption and associated CO2 emissions.

Other significant CO2 trends included the following:

• Carbon dioxide emissions from non-energy use of fossil fuels have increased 4.7 Tg CO2 Eq. (4.0 percent) from

1990 through 2009. Emissions from non-energy uses of fossil fuels were 123.4 Tg CO2 Eq. in 2009, which

constituted 2.2 percent of total national CO2 emissions, approximately the same proportion as in 1990.

• Carbon dioxide emissions from iron and steel production and metallurgical coke production decreased by 24.1 Tg

CO2 Eq. (36.6 percent) from 2008 to 2009, continuing a trend of decreasing emissions from 1990 through 2009 of

57.9 percent (57.7 Tg CO2 Eq.). This decline is due to the restructuring of the industry, technological improvements, and increased scrap utilization.

• In 2009, CO2 emissions from cement production decreased by 11.5 Tg CO2 Eq. (28.4 percent) from 2008. After decreasing in 1991 by two percent from 1990 levels, cement production emissions grew every year through 2006; emissions decreased in the last three years. Overall, from 1990 to 2009, emissions from cement production

decreased by 12.8 percent, a decrease of 4.3 Tg CO2 Eq.

• Net CO2 uptake from Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry increased by 153.5 Tg CO2 Eq. (17.8 percent) from 1990 through 2009. This increase was primarily due to an increase in the rate of net carbon accumulation in forest carbon stocks, particularly in aboveground and belowground tree biomass, and harvested wood pools. Annual

10 Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 carbon accumulation in landfilled yard trimmings and food scraps slowed over this period, while the rate of carbon accumulation in urban trees increased.

Methane Emissions

Methane (CH4) is more than 20 times as effective as CO2 at Figure ES-8 trapping heat in the atmosphere (IPCC 1996). Over the last two 2009 Sources of CH4 Emissions

hundred and fifty years, the concentration of CH4 in the atmosphere increased by 148 percent (IPCC 2007).

Anthropogenic sources of CH4 include natural gas and petroleum systems, agricultural activities, landfills, coal mining, wastewater treatment, stationary and mobile combustion, and certain industrial processes (see Figure ES-8).

Some significant trends in U.S. emissions of CH4 include the following:

• In 2009, CH4 emissions from coal mining were 71.0 Tg

CO2 Eq., a 3.9 Tg CO2 Eq. (5.8 percent) increase over 2008 emission levels. The overall decline of 13.0 Tg

CO2 Eq. (15.5 percent) from 1990 results from the mining of less gassy coal from underground mines and

the increased use of CH4 collected from degasification systems.

• Natural gas systems were the largest anthropogenic

source category of CH4 emissions in the United States

in 2009 with 221.2 Tg CO2 Eq. of CH4 emitted into the

atmosphere. Those emissions have increased by 31.4 Tg CO2 Eq. (16.6 percent) since 1990. Methane emissions from this source increased 4 percent from 2008 to 2009 due to an increase in production and production wells.

• Enteric Fermentation is the second largest anthropogenic source of CH4 emissions in the United States. In 2009,

enteric fermentation CH4 emissions were 139.8 Tg CO2 Eq. (20 percent of total CH4 emissions), which represents an

increase of 7.7 Tg CO2 Eq. (5.8 percent) since 1990.

• Methane emissions from manure management increased by 55.9 percent since 1990, from 31.7 Tg CO2 Eq. in 1990

to 49.5 Tg CO2 Eq. in 2009. The majority of this increase was from swine and dairy cow manure, since the general

trend in manure management is one of increasing use of liquid systems, which tends to produce greater CH4 emissions. The increase in liquid systems is the combined result of a shift to larger facilities, and to facilities in the West and Southwest, all of which tend to use liquid systems. Also, new regulations limiting the application of manure nutrients have shifted manure management practices at smaller dairies from daily spread to manure managed and stored on site.

• Landfills are the third largest anthropogenic source of CH4 emissions in the United States, accounting for 17 percent

of total CH4 emissions (117.5 Tg CO2 Eq.) in 2009. From 1990 to 2009, CH4 emissions from landfills decreased by

29.9 Tg CO2 Eq. (20 percent), with small increases occurring in some interim years. This downward trend in overall

Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 11 emissions is the result of increases in the amount of landfill gas collected and combusted,14 which has more than

offset the additional CH4 emissions resulting from an increase in the amount of municipal solid waste landfilled.

Nitrous Oxide Emissions Nitrous oxide is produced by biological processes that Figure ES-9 occur in soil and water and by a variety of anthropogenic activities in the agricultural, energy-related, industrial, and 2009 Sources of N2O Emissions

waste management fields. While total N2O emissions are much lower than CO2 emissions, N2O is approximately 300 times

more powerful than CO2 at trapping heat in the atmosphere (IPCC 1996). Since 1750, the global atmospheric concentration of N2O has risen by approximately 18 percent (IPCC 2007).

The main anthropogenic activities producing N2O in the United States are agricultural soil management, fuel combustion in motor vehicles, manure management, nitric acid production and stationary fuel combustion, (see Figure ES-9).

Some significant trends in U.S. emissions of N2O include the following:

• In 2009, N2O emissions from mobile combustion were

23.9 Tg CO2 Eq. (approximately 8.1 percent of U.S.

N2O emissions). From 1990 to 2009, N2O emissions from mobile combustion decreased by 45.6 percent. However, from 1990 to 1998 emissions increased by 25.6

percent, due to control technologies that reduced NOx emissions while increasing N2O emissions. Since 1998,

newer control technologies have led to an overall decline in N2O from this source.

• Nitrous oxide emissions from adipic acid production were 1.9 Tg CO2 Eq. in 2009, and have decreased significantly since 1996 from the widespread installation of pollution control measures. Emissions from adipic acid production have decreased by 87.7 percent since 1990, and emissions from adipic acid production have remained consistently lower than pre-1996 levels since 1998.

• Agricultural soils accounted for approximately 69.2 percent of N2O emissions in the United States in 2009.

Estimated emissions from this source in 2009 were 204.6 Tg CO2 Eq. Annual N2O emissions from agricultural soils fluctuated between 1990 and 2009, although overall emissions were 3.4 percent higher in 2009 than in 1990.

14 The CO2 produced from combusted landfill CH4 at landfills is not counted in national inventories as it is considered part of the natural C cycle of decomposition.

12 Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 HFC, PFC, and SF6 Emissions HFCs and PFCs are families of synthetic chemicals that are used as alternatives to ODS, which are being phased out under Figure ES-10 the Montreal Protocol and Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. 2009 Sources of HFCs, PFCs, and SF6 Emissions HFCs and PFCs do not deplete the stratospheric ozone layer, and are therefore acceptable alternatives under the Montreal Protocol.

These compounds, however, along with SF6, are potent greenhouse gases. In addition to having high global warming

potentials, SF6 and PFCs have extremely long atmospheric lifetimes, resulting in their essentially irreversible accumulation in the atmosphere once emitted. Sulfur hexafluoride is the most potent greenhouse gas the IPCC has evaluated (IPCC 1996).

Other emissive sources of these gases include electrical transmission and distribution systems, HCFC-22 production, semiconductor manufacturing, aluminum production, and magnesium production and processing (see Figure ES-10).

Some significant trends in U.S. HFC, PFC, and SF6 emissions include the following:

• Emissions resulting from the substitution of ODS (e.g., CFCs) have been consistently increasing, from small

amounts in 1990 to 120.0 Tg CO2 Eq. in 2009. Emissions from ODS substitutes are both the largest and the fastest

growing source of HFC, PFC, and SF6 emissions. These emissions have been increasing as phase-outs required under the Montreal Protocol come into effect, especially after 1994, when full market penetration was made for the first generation of new technologies featuring ODS substitutes.

• HFC emissions from the production of HCFC-22 decreased by 85.2 percent (31.0 Tg CO2 Eq.) from 1990 through 2009, due to a steady decline in the emission rate of HFC-23 (i.e., the amount of HFC-23 emitted per kilogram of HCFC-22 manufactured) and the use of thermal oxidation at some plants to reduce HFC-23 emissions.

• Sulfur hexafluoride emissions from electric power transmission and distribution systems decreased by 54.8 percent

(15.6 Tg CO2 Eq.) from 1990 to 2009, primarily because of higher purchase prices for SF6 and efforts by industry to reduce emissions.

• PFC emissions from aluminum production decreased by 91.5 percent (17.0 Tg CO2 Eq.) from 1990 to 2009, due to both industry emission reduction efforts and lower domestic aluminum production.

Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 13 ES.3. Overview of Sector Emissions and Trends

In accordance with the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for Figure ES-11 National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC/UNEP/OECD/IEA U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks by 1997), and the 2003 UNFCCC Guidelines on Reporting and Chapter/IPCC Sector

Review (UNFCCC 2003), Figure ES-11 and Table ES-4 aggregate emissions and sinks by these chapters. Emissions of all gases can be summed from each source category from IPCC guidance. Over the twenty-year period of 1990 to 2009, total emissions in the Energy and Agriculture sectors grew by 463.3

Tg CO2 Eq. (9 percent), and 35.7 Tg CO2 Eq. (9 percent), respectively. Emissions decreased in the Industrial Processes, Waste, and Solvent and Other Product Use sectors by 32.9 Tg

CO2 Eq. (10 percent), 24.7 Tg CO2 Eq. (14 percent) and less

than 0.1 Tg CO2 Eq. (0.4 percent), respectively. Over the same period, estimates of net C sequestration in the Land Use, Land- Use Change, and Forestry sector (magnitude of emissions plus

CO2 flux from all LULUCF source categories) increased by Note: Relatively smaller amounts of GWP-weighted emissions are also 143.5 Tg CO2 Eq. (17 percent). emitted from the Solvent and Other Product Use Sectors.

Table ES-4: Recent Trends in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks by Chapter/IPCC Sector (Tg or million metric tons CO2 Eq.)

Chapter/IPCC Sector 1990 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Energy 5,287.8 6,168.0 6,282.8 6,210.2 6,290.7 6,116.6 5,751.1 Industrial Processes 315.8 348.8 334.1 339.4 350.9 331.7 282.9 Solvent and Other Product Use 4.4 4.9 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 Agriculture 383.6 410.6 418.8 418.8 425.8 426.3 419.3 Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (Emissions) 15.0 36.3 28.6 49.8 47.5 33.2 25.0 Waste 175.2 143.9 144.9 144.4 144.1 149.0 150.5 Total Emissions 6,181.8 7,112.7 7,213.5 7,166.9 7,263.4 7,061.1 6,633.2

Net CO2 Flux from Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (Sinks)a (861.5) (576.6) (1,056.5) (1,064.3) (1,060.9) (1,040.5) (1,015.1) Net Emissions (Sources and Sinks) 5,320.3 6,536.1 6,157.1 6,102.6 6,202.5 6,020.7 5,618.2 a The net CO2 flux total includes both emissions and sequestration, and constitutes a sink in the United States. Sinks are only included in net emissions total. Note: Totals may not sum due to independent rounding. Parentheses indicate negative values or sequestration.

14 Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 Energy The Energy chapter contains emissions of all greenhouse Figure ES-12 gases resulting from stationary and mobile energy activities 2009 U.S. Energy Consumption by Energy Source including fuel combustion and fugitive fuel emissions. Energy- related activities, primarily fossil fuel combustion, accounted for the vast majority of U.S. CO2 emissions for the period of 1990 through 2009. In 2009, approximately 83 percent of the energy consumed in the United States (on a Btu basis) was produced through the combustion of fossil fuels. The remaining 17 percent came from other energy sources such as hydropower, biomass, nuclear, wind, and solar energy (see Figure ES-12).

Energy-related activities are also responsible for CH4 and N2O emissions (49 percent and 13 percent of total U.S. emissions of each gas, respectively). Overall, emission sources in the Energy chapter account for a combined 87 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2009.

Industrial Processes The Industrial Processes chapter contains byproduct or fugitive emissions of greenhouse gases from industrial processes not directly related to energy activities such as fossil fuel combustion. For example, industrial processes can chemically transform raw materials, which often release waste gases such as CO2, CH4, and N2O. These processes include iron and steel production and metallurgical coke production, cement production, ammonia production and urea consumption, lime production, limestone and dolomite use (e.g., flux stone, flue gas desulfurization, and glass manufacturing), soda ash production and consumption, titanium dioxide production, phosphoric acid production, ferroalloy production, CO2 consumption, silicon carbide production and consumption, aluminum production, petrochemical production, nitric acid production, adipic acid production, lead production, and zinc production. Additionally, emissions from industrial processes

release HFCs, PFCs, and SF6. Overall, emission sources in the Industrial Process chapter account for 4 percent of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2009.

Solvent and Other Product Use The Solvent and Other Product Use chapter contains greenhouse gas emissions that are produced as a byproduct of

various solvent and other product uses. In the United States, emissions from N2O from product uses, the only source of greenhouse gas emissions from this sector, accounted for about 0.1 percent of total U.S. anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions on a carbon equivalent basis in 2009.

Agriculture The Agriculture chapter contains anthropogenic emissions from agricultural activities (except fuel combustion, which is

addressed in the Energy chapter, and agricultural CO2 fluxes, which are addressed in the Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry Chapter). Agricultural activities contribute directly to emissions of greenhouse gases through a variety of processes, including the following source categories: enteric fermentation in domestic livestock, livestock manure management, rice cultivation, agricultural soil management, and field burning of agricultural residues. CH4 and N2O were the primary greenhouse gases emitted by agricultural activities. Methane emissions from enteric fermentation and manure management represented 20 percent and 7 percent of total CH4 emissions from anthropogenic activities, respectively, in 2009.

Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 15 Agricultural soil management activities such as fertilizer application and other cropping practices were the largest source of

U.S. N2O emissions in 2009, accounting for 69 percent. In 2009, emission sources accounted for in the Agriculture chapter were responsible for 6.3 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.

Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry

The Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry chapter contains emissions of CH4 and N2O, and emissions and removals

of CO2 from forest management, other land-use activities, and land-use change. Forest management practices, tree planting in urban areas, the management of agricultural soils, and the landfilling of yard trimmings and food scraps resulted in a net uptake (sequestration) of C in the United States. Forests (including vegetation, soils, and harvested wood) accounted for 85

percent of total 2009 net CO2 flux, urban trees accounted for 9 percent, mineral and organic soil carbon stock changes accounted for 4 percent, and landfilled yard trimmings and food scraps accounted for 1 percent of the total net flux in 2009. The net forest sequestration is a result of net forest growth and increasing forest area, as well as a net accumulation of carbon stocks in harvested wood pools. The net sequestration in urban forests is a result of net tree growth in these areas. In agricultural soils, mineral and organic soils sequester approximately 5.5 times as much C as is emitted from these soils through liming and urea fertilization. The mineral soil C sequestration is largely due to the conversion of cropland to permanent pastures and hay production, a reduction in summer fallow areas in semi-arid areas, an increase in the adoption of conservation tillage practices, and an increase in the amounts of organic fertilizers (i.e., manure and sewage sludge) applied to agriculture lands. The landfilled yard trimmings and food scraps net sequestration is due to the long-term accumulation of yard trimming carbon and food scraps in landfills.

Land use, land-use change, and forestry activities in 2009 resulted in a net C sequestration of 1,015.1 Tg CO2 Eq. (Table

ES-5). This represents an offset of 18 percent of total U.S. CO2 emissions, or 15 percent of total greenhouse gas emissions in 2009. Between 1990 and 2009, total land use, land-use change, and forestry net C flux resulted in a 17.8 percent increase in

CO2 sequestration, primarily due to an increase in the rate of net C accumulation in forest C stocks, particularly in aboveground and belowground tree biomass, and harvested wood pools. Annual C accumulation in landfilled yard trimmings and food scraps slowed over this period, while the rate of annual C accumulation increased in urban trees.

Table ES-5: Net CO2 Flux from Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (Tg or million metric tons CO2 Eq.)

Sink Category 1990 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Forest Land Remaining Forest Land (681.1) (378.3) (911.5) (917.5) (911.9) (891.0) (863.1) Cropland Remaining Cropland (29.4) (30.2) (18.3) (19.1) (19.7) (18.1) (17.4) Land Converted to Cropland 2.2 2.4 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 Grassland Remaining Grassland (52.2) (52.6) (8.9) (8.8) (8.6) (8.5) (8.3) Land Converted to Grassland (19.8) (27.2) (24.4) (24.2) (24.0) (23.8) (23.6) Settlements Remaining Settlements (57.1) (77.5) (87.8) (89.8) (91.9) (93.9) (95.9) Other (Landfilled Yard Trimmings and Food Scraps) (24.2) (13.2) (11.5) (11.0) (10.9) (11.2) (12.6) Total (861.5) (576.6) (1,056.5) (1,064.3) (1,060.9) (1,040.5) (1,015.1) Note: Totals may not sum due to independent rounding. Parentheses indicate net sequestration.

Emissions from Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry are shown in Table ES-6. The application of crushed limestone and dolomite to managed land (i.e., liming of agricultural soils) and urea fertilization resulted in CO2 emissions of

7.8 Tg CO2 Eq. in 2009, an increase of 11 percent relative to 1990. The application of synthetic fertilizers to forest and settlement soils in 2009 resulted in direct N2O emissions of 1.9 Tg CO2 Eq. Direct N2O emissions from fertilizer application to forest soils have increased by 455 percent since 1990, but still account for a relatively small portion of overall emissions.

Additionally, direct N2O emissions from fertilizer application to settlement soils increased by 55 percent since 1990. Forest

16 Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 fires resulted in CH4 emissions of 7.8 Tg CO2 Eq., and in N2O emissions of 6.4 Tg CO2 Eq. in 2009. Carbon dioxide and

N2O emissions from peatlands totaled 1.1 Tg CO2 Eq. and less than 0.01 Tg CO2 Eq. in 2009, respectively.

Table ES-6: Emissions from Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (Tg or million metric tons CO2 Eq.)

Source Category 1990 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

CO2 8.1 8.8 8.9 8.8 9.2 9.6 8.9 Cropland Remaining Cropland: Liming of Agricultural Soils 4.7 4.3 4.3 4.2 4.5 5.0 4.2 Cropland Remaining Cropland: Urea Fertilization 2.4 3.2 3.5 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.6 Wetlands Remaining Wetlands: Peatlands Remaining Peatlands 1.0 1.2 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1

CH4 3.2 14.3 9.8 21.6 20.0 11.9 7.8 Forest Land Remaining Forest Land: Forest Fires 3.2 14.3 9.8 21.6 20.0 11.9 7.8

N2O 3.7 13.2 9.8 19.5 18.3 11.6 8.3 Forest Land Remaining Forest Land: Forest Fires 2.6 11.7 8.0 17.6 16.3 9.8 6.4 Forest Land Remaining Forest Land: Forest Soils 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 Settlements Remaining Settlements: Settlement Soils 1.0 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.5 Wetlands Remaining Wetlands: Peatlands Remaining Peatlands + + + + + + + Total 15.0 36.3 28.6 49.8 47.5 33.2 25.0

+ Less than 0.05 Tg CO2 Eq. Note: Totals may not sum due to independent rounding.

Waste The Waste chapter contains emissions from waste management activities (except incineration of waste, which is addressed in the Energy chapter). Landfills were the largest source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in the Waste 15 chapter, accounting for just over 78 percent of this chapter’s emissions, and 17 percent of total U.S. CH4 emissions.

Additionally, wastewater treatment accounts for 20 percent of Waste emissions, 4 percent of U.S. CH4 emissions, and 2

percent of U.S. N2O emissions. Emissions of CH4 and N2O from composting are also accounted for in this chapter;

generating emissions of 1.7 Tg CO2 Eq. and 1.8 Tg CO2 Eq., respectively. Overall, emission sources accounted for in the Waste chapter generated 2.3 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2009.

ES.4. Other Information

Emissions by Economic Sector Throughout the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks report, emission estimates are grouped into six sectors (i.e., chapters) defined by the IPCC: Energy; Industrial Processes; Solvent Use; Agriculture; Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry; and Waste. While it is important to use this characterization for consistency with UNFCCC reporting guidelines, it is also useful to allocate emissions into more commonly used sectoral categories. This section reports emissions by the following economic sectors: Residential, Commercial, Industry, Transportation, Electricity Generation, Agriculture, and U.S. Territories.

Table ES-7 summarizes emissions from each of these sectors, and Figure ES-13 shows the trend in emissions by sector from 1990 to 2009.

15 Landfills also store carbon, due to incomplete degradation of organic materials such as wood products and yard trimmings, as described in the Land-Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry chapter of the inventory report.

Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 17

Table ES-7: U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Allocated to Economic Sectors (Tg or million metric tons CO2 Eq.)

Implied Sectors 1990 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Electric Power Industry 1,868.9 2,337.6 2,444.6 2,388.2 2,454.0 2,400.7 2,193.0 Transportation 1,545.2 1,932.3 2,017.4 1,994.4 2,003.8 1,890.7 1,812.4 Industry 1,564.4 1,544.0 1,441.9 1,497.3 1,483.0 1,446.9 1,322.7 Agriculture 429.0 485.1 493.2 516.7 520.7 503.9 490.0 Commercial 395.5 381.4 387.2 375.2 389.6 403.5 409.5 Residential 345.1 386.2 371.0 335.8 358.9 367.1 360.1 U.S. Territories 33.7 46.0 58.2 59.3 53.5 48.4 45.5 Total Emissions 6,181.8 7,112.7 7,213.5 7,166.9 7,263.4 7,061.1 6,633.2 Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (Sinks) (861.5) (576.6) (1,056.5) (1,064.3) (1,060.9) (1,040.5) (1,015.1) Net Emissions (Sources and Sinks) 5,320.3 6,536.1 6,157.1 6,102.6 6,202.5 6,020.7 5,618.2

Note: Totals may not sum due to independent rounding. Emissions include CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, and SF6. See Table 2-12 of the inventory report for more detailed data.

Figure ES-13 Using this categorization, emissions from electricity Emissions Allocated to Economic Sectors generation accounted for the largest portion (33 percent) of

U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2009. Transportation activities, in aggregate, accounted for the second largest portion (27 percent), while emissions from industry accounted for the third largest portion (20 percent) of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2009. In contrast to electricity generation and transportation, emissions from industry have in general declined over the past decade. The long-term decline in these emissions has been due to structural changes in the U.S. economy (i.e., shifts from a manufacturing-based to a service- based economy), fuel switching, and energy efficiency improvements. The remaining 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions were contributed by, in order of importance, the agriculture, commercial, and residential sectors, plus emissions Note: Does not include U.S. Territories. from U.S. territories. Activities related to agriculture accounted for 7 percent of U.S. emissions; unlike other economic sectors, agricultural sector emissions were dominated by N2O emissions from agricultural soil management and

CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation. The commercial sector accounted for 6 percent of emissions while the residential sector accounted for 5 percent of emissions and U.S. territories accounted for 1 percent of emissions; emissions from these sectors primarily consisted of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion.

Carbon dioxide was also emitted and sequestered by a variety of activities related to forest management practices, tree planting in urban areas, the management of agricultural soils, and landfilling of yard trimmings.

Electricity is ultimately consumed in the economic sectors described above. Table ES-8 presents greenhouse gas emissions from economic sectors with emissions related to electricity generation distributed into end-use categories (i.e., emissions from electricity generation are allocated to the economic sectors in which the electricity is consumed). To distribute electricity emissions among end-use sectors, emissions from the source categories assigned to electricity generation were allocated to the residential, commercial, industry, transportation, and agriculture economic sectors according to retail

18 Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 16 sales of electricity. These source categories include CO2 from fossil fuel combustion and the use of limestone and dolomite for flue gas desulfurization, CO2 and N2O from incineration of waste, CH4 and N2O from stationary sources, and SF6 from electrical transmission and distribution systems.

Table ES-8: U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Economic Sector with Electricity-Related Emissions Distributed (Tg or million metric tons CO2 Eq.)

Implied Sectors 1990 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Industry 2,238.3 2,314.4 2,162.5 2,194.6 2,192.9 2,146.5 1,910.9 Transportation 1,548.3 1,935.8 2,022.2 1,999.0 2,008.9 1,895.5 1,816.9 Commercial 947.7 1,135.8 1,205.1 1,188.5 1,225.3 1,224.5 1,184.9 Residential 953.8 1,162.2 1,242.9 1,181.5 1,229.6 1,215.1 1,158.9 Agriculture 460.0 518.4 522.7 544.1 553.2 531.1 516.0 U.S. Territories 33.7 46.0 58.2 59.3 53.5 48.4 45.5 Total Emissions 6,181.8 7,112.7 7,213.5 7,166.9 7,263.4 7,061.1 6,633.2 Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (Sinks) (861.5) (576.6) (1,056.5) (1,064.3) (1,060.9) (1,040.5) (1,015.1) Net Emissions (Sources and Sinks) 5,320.3 6,536.1 6,157.1 6,102.6 6,202.5 6,020.7 5,618.2 See Table 2-14 of the inventory report for more detailed data.

When emissions from electricity are distributed among Figure ES-14 these sectors, industrial activities account for the largest share U.S. Emissions with Electricity Distributed to of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions (29 percent) in 2009. Economic Sectors

Transportation is the second largest contributor to total U.S. emissions (28 percent). The commercial and residential sectors contributed the next largest shares of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2009. Emissions from these sectors increase substantially when emissions from electricity are included, due to their relatively large share of electricity consumption (e.g., lighting, appliances, etc.). In all sectors except agriculture, CO2 accounts for more than 80 percent of greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from the combustion of fossil fuels. Figure ES-14 shows the trend in these emissions by sector from 1990 to 2009.

Note: Does not include U.S. Territories.

16 Emissions were not distributed to U.S. territories, since the electricity generation sector only includes emissions related to the generation of electricity in the 50 states and the District of Columbia.

Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 19

Box ES-2: Recent Trends in Various U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions-Related Data

Total emissions can be compared to other economic and social indices to highlight changes over time. These comparisons include: (1) emissions per unit of aggregate energy consumption, because energy-related activities are the largest sources of emissions; (2) emissions per unit of fossil fuel consumption, because almost all energy-related emissions involve the combustion of fossil fuels; (3) emissions per unit of electricity consumption, because the electric power industry—utilities and nonutilities combined—was the largest source of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2009; (4) emissions per unit of total gross domestic product as a measure of national economic activity; and (5) emissions per capita.

Table ES-9 provides data on various statistics related to U.S. greenhouse gas emissions normalized to 1990 as a baseline year. Greenhouse gas emissions in the United States have grown at an average annual rate of 0.4 percent since 1990. This rate is slightly slower than that for total energy and for fossil fuel consumption, and much slower than that for electricity consumption, overall gross domestic product and national population (see Figure ES-15).

Table ES-9: Recent Trends in Various U.S. Data (Index 1990 = 100) Growth Variable 1990 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Ratea GDP b 100 140 157 162 165 165 160 2.5% Electricity Consumption c 100 127 134 135 138 138 132 1.5% Fossil Fuel Consumption c 100 117 119 117 119 116 108 0.5% Energy Consumption c 100 116 118 118 120 118 112 0.6% Population d 100 113 118 120 121 122 123 1.1% Greenhouse Gas Emissions e 100 115 117 116 117 114 107 0.4% a Average annual growth rate b Gross Domestic Product in chained 2005 dollars (BEA 2010) c Energy content-weighted values (EIA 2010b) d U.S. Census Bureau (2010) e GWP-weighted values

Figure ES-15

U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Per Capita and Per Dollar of Gross Domestic Product

Source: BEA (2010), U.S. Census Bureau (2010), and emission estimates in the inventory report.

20 Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 Indirect Greenhouse Gases (CO, NOx, NMVOCs, and SO2) 17 The reporting requirements of the UNFCCC request that information be provided on indirect greenhouse gases, which include CO, NOx, NMVOCs, and SO2. These gases do not have a direct global warming effect, but indirectly affect terrestrial radiation absorption by influencing the formation and destruction of tropospheric and stratospheric ozone, or, in the case of SO2, by affecting the absorptive characteristics of the atmosphere. Additionally, some of these gases may react with other chemical compounds in the atmosphere to form compounds that are greenhouse gases.

Since 1970, the United States has published estimates of annual emissions of CO, NOx, NMVOCs, and SO2 (EPA 2010, EPA 2009),18 which are regulated under the Clean Air Act. Table ES-10 shows that fuel combustion accounts for the majority of emissions of these indirect greenhouse gases. Industrial processes—such as the manufacture of chemical and allied products, metals processing, and industrial uses of solvents—are also significant sources of CO, NOx, and NMVOCs.

Table ES-10: Emissions of NOx, CO, NMVOCs, and SO2 (Gg)

Gas/Activity 1990 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

NOx 21,707 19,116 15,900 15,039 14,380 13,547 11,468 Mobile Fossil Fuel Combustion 10,862 10,199 9,012 8,488 7,965 7,441 6,206 Stationary Fossil Fuel Combustion 10,023 8,053 5,858 5,545 5,432 5,148 4,159 Industrial Processes 591 626 569 553 537 520 568 Oil and Gas Activities 139 111 321 319 318 318 393 Incineration of Waste 82 114 129 121 114 106 128 Agricultural Burning 8 8 6 7 8 8 8 Solvent Use 1 3 3 4 4 4 3 Waste 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 CO 130,038 92,243 70,809 67,238 63,625 60,039 51,452 Mobile Fossil Fuel Combustion 119,360 83,559 62,692 58,972 55,253 51,533 43,355 Stationary Fossil Fuel Combustion 5,000 4,340 4,649 4,695 4,744 4,792 4,543 Industrial Processes 4,125 2,216 1,555 1,597 1,640 1,682 1,549 Incineration of Waste 978 1,670 1,403 1,412 1,421 1,430 1,403 Agricultural Burning 268 259 184 233 237 270 247 Oil and Gas Activities 302 146 318 319 320 322 345 Waste 1 8 7 7 7 7 7 Solvent Use 5 45 2 2 2 2 2 NMVOCs 20,930 15,227 13,761 13,594 13,423 13,254 9,313 Mobile Fossil Fuel Combustion 10,932 7,229 6,330 6,037 5,742 5,447 4,151 Solvent Use 5,216 4,384 3,851 3,846 3,839 3,834 2,583 Industrial Processes 2,422 1,773 1,997 1,933 1,869 1,804 1,322 Stationary Fossil Fuel Combustion 912 1,077 716 918 1,120 1,321 424 Oil and Gas Activities 554 388 510 510 509 509 599 Incineration of Waste 222 257 241 238 234 230 159 Waste 673 119 114 113 111 109 76 Agricultural Burning NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

SO2 20,935 14,830 13,466 12,388 11,799 10,368 8,599 Stationary Fossil Fuel Combustion 18,407 12,849 11,541 10,612 10,172 8,891 7,167 Industrial Processes 1,307 1,031 831 818 807 795 798 Mobile Fossil Fuel Combustion 793 632 889 750 611 472 455 Oil and Gas Activities 390 287 181 182 184 187 154 Incineration of Waste 38 29 24 24 24 23 24 Waste 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 Solvent Use 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Agricultural Burning NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA (Not Available) Note: Totals may not sum due to independent rounding. Source: (EPA 2010, EPA 2009) except for estimates from field burning of agricultural residues.

17 See . 18 NOx and CO emission estimates from field burning of agricultural residues were estimated separately, and therefore not taken from EPA (2008).

Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 21 Key Categories The 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC 2006) defines a key category as a “[source or sink category] that is prioritized within the national inventory system because its estimate has a significant influence on a country’s total inventory of direct greenhouse gases in terms of the absolute level of emissions, the trend in emissions, or both.”19 By definition, key categories are sources or sinks that have the greatest contribution to the absolute overall level of national emissions in any of the years covered by the time series. In addition, when an entire time series of emission estimates is prepared, a thorough investigation of key categories must also account for the influence of trends of individual source and sink categories. Finally, a qualitative evaluation of key categories should be performed, in order to capture any key categories that were not identified in either of the quantitative analyses.

Figure ES-16 2009 Key Categories

Note: For a complete discussion of the key category analysis, see Annex 1 of the inventory report. Darker bars indicate a Tier 1 level assessment key category. Lighter bars indicate a Tier 2 level assessment key category.

Figure ES-16 presents 2009 emission estimates for the key categories as defined by a level analysis (i.e., the contribution of each source or sink category to the total inventory level). The UNFCCC reporting guidelines request that key category analyses be reported at an appropriate level of disaggregation, which may lead to source and sink category names which differ from those used elsewhere in the inventory report. For more information regarding key categories, see section 1.5 and Annex 1.

19 See Chapter 7 “Methodological Choice and Recalculation” in IPCC (2000). .

22 Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009

Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QA/QC) The United States seeks to continually improve the quality, transparency, and credibility of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks. To assist in these efforts, the United States implemented a systematic approach to QA/QC. While QA/QC has always been an integral part of the U.S. national system for inventory development, the procedures followed for the current inventory have been formalized in accordance with the QA/QC plan and the UNFCCC reporting guidelines.

Uncertainty Analysis of Emission Estimates While the current U.S. emissions inventory provides a solid foundation for the development of a more detailed and comprehensive national inventory, there are uncertainties associated with the emission estimates. Some of the current estimates, such as those for CO2 emissions from energy-related activities and cement processing, are considered to have low uncertainties. For some other categories of emissions, however, a lack of data or an incomplete understanding of how emissions are generated increases the uncertainty associated with the estimates presented. Acquiring a better understanding of the uncertainty associated with inventory estimates is an important step in helping to prioritize future work and improve the overall quality of the inventory report. Recognizing the benefit of conducting an uncertainty analysis, the UNFCCC reporting guidelines follow the recommendations of the IPCC Good Practice Guidance (IPCC 2000) and require that countries provide single estimates of uncertainty for source and sink categories.

Currently, a qualitative discussion of uncertainty is presented for all source and sink categories. Within the discussion of each emission source, specific factors affecting the uncertainty surrounding the estimates are discussed. Most sources also contain a quantitative uncertainty assessment, in accordance with UNFCCC reporting guidelines.

Box ES-3: Recalculations of Inventory Estimates

Each year, emission and sink estimates are recalculated and revised for all years in the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, as attempts are made to improve both the analyses themselves, through the use of better methods or data, and the overall usefulness of the inventory report. In this effort, the United States follows the 2006 IPCC Guidelines (IPCC 2006), which states, “Both methodological changes and refinements over time are an essential part of improving inventory quality. It is good practice to change or refine methods” when: available data have changed; the previously used method is not consistent with the IPCC guidelines for that category; a category has become key; the previously used method is insufficient to reflect mitigation activities in a transparent manner; the capacity for inventory preparation has increased; new inventory methods become available; and for correction of errors.” In general, recalculations are made to the U.S. greenhouse gas emission estimates either to incorporate new methodologies or, most commonly, to update recent historical data.

In each inventory report, the results of all methodology changes and historical data updates are presented in the "Recalculations and Improvements" chapter; detailed descriptions of each recalculation are contained within each source's description contained in the report, if applicable. In general, when methodological changes have been implemented, the entire time series (in the case of the most recent inventory report, 1990 through 2009) has been recalculated to reflect the change, per the 2006 IPCC Guidelines (IPCC 2006). Changes in historical data are generally the result of changes in statistical data supplied by other agencies. References for the data are provided for additional information.

Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009 23 References

BEA (2010) 2009 Comprehensive Revision of the National Income and Product Accounts: Current-dollar and "real" GDP, 1929–2009. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC. July 29, 2010. Available online at < http://www.bea.gov/national/index.htm#gdp >. EIA (2010) Supplemental Tables on Petroleum Product detail. Monthly Energy Review, September 2010, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC. DOE/EIA-0035(2009/09). EIA (2009) International Energy Annual 2007. Energy Information Administration (EIA), U.S. Department of Energy. Washington, DC. Updated October 2008. Available online at . EPA (2010) “2009 Average annual emissions, all criteria pollutants in MS Excel.” National Emissions Inventory (NEI) Air Pollutant Emissions Trends Data. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. EPA (2009) “1970 - 2008 Average annual emissions, all criteria pollutants in MS Excel.” National Emissions Inventory (NEI) Air Pollutant Emissions Trends Data. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. Available online at IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. S. Solomon , D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, United Kingdom 996 pp. IPCC (2006) 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. The National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, H.S. Eggleston, L. Buendia, K. Miwa, T. Ngara, and K. Tanabe (eds.). Hayama, Kanagawa, Japan. IPCC (2003) Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry. National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, J. Penman, et al. (eds.). Available online at . August 13, 2004. IPCC (2001) Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, J.T. Houghton, Y. Ding, D.J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P.J. van der Linden, X. Dai, C.A. Johnson, and K. Maskell (eds.). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, United Kingdom. IPCC (2000) Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. , National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Montreal. May 2000. IPCC-XVI/Doc. 10 (1.IV.2000). IPCC (1996) Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, J.T. Houghton, L.G. Meira Filho, B.A. Callander, N. Harris, A. Kattenberg, and K. Maskell. (eds.). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, United Kingdom. IPCC/UNEP/OECD/IEA (1997) Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, United Nations Environment Programme, Organization for Economic Co- Operation and Development, International Energy Agency. Paris, France. UNFCCC (2003) National Communications: Greenhouse Gas Inventories from Parties included in Annex I to the Convention, UNFCCC Guidelines on Reporting and Review. Conference of the Parties, Eighth Session, New Delhi. (FCCC/CP/2002/8). March 28, 2003. U.S. Census Bureau (2010) U.S. Census Bureau International Database (IDB). Available online at . August 15, 2010.

24 Executive Summary of the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009

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