PESTICIDE APPLICATION TRAINING

Category 7B

Stored Products Pest Control

Cooperative Extension Service Manhattan, Kansas Table of Contents Introduction 3 Stored-Product Insects 4 How Stored-Product Insects Multiply Internal Grain-Infesting Insects Other Stored-Product (External) Insects Monitoring for Stored-Product Insects 15 Monitoring Methods Cockroaches 19 Biology and Behavior Common Species Cockroach Control Food-Plant Pest Treatment Areas 24 Areas of Concern Forms of Pesticide Chemicals Grain Handling 28 Preharvest Preparation Harvest Operations Post-Harvest Operations Use of Sprays and Protectants Fumigation of Stored Products 32 Fumigants Preparation for Fumigation Respiratory Protection Devices Fumigant Application Post Fumigation Commodities/Pests to Consider for Fumigation Fumigation Methods for Stored Grain 39 General Fumigation of Structures, Facilities and Other Enclosures 41 Types of Fumigants 45 Threshold Limit Values Safe Use of Fumigants Safety Precautions Fumigation References Vertebrate Pests 51 Rodents Control Techniques Bird Damage Control

Directions for Using this Manual This is a self-teaching manual. At the end of each major section is a list of study questions to check your understanding of the subject matter. By each question in parenthesis is the page number on which the answer to that question can be found. This will help you in checking your answers. These study questions are representative of the type which are on the certification examination. By reading this manual and answering the study questions, you should be able to gain sufficient knowledge to pass the Kansas Commercial Pesticide Applicators Certification and/or Recertification examination. 1 2 Introduction ing seizure of products, fines and/or imprisonment of responsible parties. The control of pests in commodity A potential source of pests in food storage (farm and commercial) and products is the raw material(s) from food plants (food manufacturing, which the food is made. Not only processing and warehousing) requires may pests from this source be diffi- a high degree of professionalism cult to remove from the raw material, combined with experience and but they also may infest the process- knowledge. ing plant and equipment, as well as As indicated in this introduction, Pest management programs must products in the plant, transportation the control of pests in commodity utilize combinations of techniques vehicles or warehouse facilities. storage and/or food processing that are effective, economical and Contamination from pests in raw facilities requires a high degree of emphasize prevention of food product materials also may pass through the professionalism combined with contamination. These programs must processing system into finished food experience and knowledge. The be directed at immediate pest prob- products. following sections of this manual lems; at preventing future infestation Why Control provide valuable information for problems; and must respond to applying various pest management routine daily needs, yet be flexible to Stored-Product Pests? practices. meet emergency pest control situa- Control of stored-product pests is tions. Integrated pest management in necessary to prevent contamination/ stored-product pest control tends to adulteration of human foods. Persons emphasize the non-chemical aspects involved in commodity/food storage, of pest control with the judicious use handling and/or processing have the of pesticides. responsibility to prevent food adul- Unsatisfactory control of pests teration. Failure to do so can result in results in contaminated products that human illness and/or death, the can cause health, financial, legal and violation of laws, loss of good will aesthetic problems. Financial losses and resulting loss of revenue. can result from (a) presence of live or In recent years, regulations such as dead insects in products and con- those of the Food and Drug Adminis- tainers; (b) presence of odors, web- tration (FDA), the Environmental bing and frass in products and Protection Agency (EPA), and the containers; (c) loss in faith in the Federal Grain Inspection Service company by the consumer because (FGIS) of the U.S. Department of of these conditions; and (d) direct loss Agriculture (USDA) have been in weight resulting from insect feeding. modified to reflect an increased Persons applying pesticides emphasis on reducing the potential (chemical control measures) must be for pest adulteration of food products. knowledgeable about the chemicals, The Federal Food Drug and application technique and pesticide Cosmetic Act defines a food as regulations to avoid contamination adulterated “if it contains any filthy, of foods and/or legal problems putrid or decomposed substance, or resulting from misuse. if it is otherwise unfit for food (Sec. A variety of pests may be found in 402 (a) (3)), or if it has been prepared, stored commodities and food pro- packed, or held under unsanitary cessing facilities, depending upon conditions whereby it may have been geographic location, physical nature contaminated with filth or whereby it of the facility, and the type of food may have been rendered injurious to being processed. health (Sec 402 (a) (4)).” The filthy, Pests contaminate, damage and/or putrid or decomposed material may destroy stored raw materials and be a result of insects, rodents, birds, processed foods and must be con- or micro-organisms; otherwise unfit trolled to maintain the quality and for food may be the result of con- quantity of products. The presence or tamination by physical or chemical evidence of pests may result in actions contamination, such as glass, metal, by federal and state agencies includ- pesticides, etc. 3 Stored-Product Most stored product insects are Insects either beetles or moths. Both have Insects are important pests of complete metamorphosis, i.e., they cereal grains and stored food. Under have four distinct developmental optimum conditions many of the stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. species can complete their life cycles The larval stage is “worm-like” or in less than 30 to 35 days and lay “grub-like” and differs in appearance many eggs. This results in rapid from the adults. Often, people do not build-up of populations that con- associate the “worms” with the sume and contaminate various stored adults which produce them. Growth Figure 1 products. occurs in the larval stage and after transformation to the adult there is no further growth in size. (Figure 1). Beetles are characterized by rather hard, shell-like bodies with the forewings modified into covers (elytra) which overlay the back of the insect and protect the thin membra- nous flight wings (if present) folded 4TH 4THINSTAR INSTAR LARVA LARVA Larva develops inside kernel. Larva is underneath. The adults of most of the white,Larva wrinkled develops andinside legless. kernel. LarvaRequires is white, four stored-product beetles live and feed moltswrinkled and growthand legless. periods Requires before four molts trans- and growth 3RD3RD INSTAR INSTAR periods LARVALARVA forming to adult. Stage lasts 15 to 40 days. in the same food materials as the larvae. Both have chewing mouth- parts. A pictorial key (Figure 2) illustrates the differences in appear- ance of several species of stored- 2ND2ND INSTAR INSTAR LARVA product beetles. LARVA PUPAPUPA StageStage lasts 5 5 to to 15 15 days. days. Moths that infest cereal grains and stored products are similar to “millers” and have scales covering the wings and bodies. The larvae are 1ST1ST INSTAR LARVALARVA caterpillars which do not resemble

LARVALARVA the adults—they have chewing UsuallyUsually only only one one larva larva per kernel. kernel. mouthparts while adults may have TwoTwo larvae larvae may may live live in aa single single kernelkernel separated separated by by thethe crease.crease. coiled siphoning tubes suitable only Exit Exithole hole of ofadult adult from from wheat wheat kernel. kernel. EGGEGG for liquid food. Since liquids are AdultsAdults formed in in4 to 4 7to weeks 7 weeks after after eggs usually not available to them, adults Egg laidEgg in laidsmall in small cavity cavity cut cut into into areeggs laid. are laid. May May remain remain inside kernels kernels for kernel. kernel.Cavity Cavity filled filled and and concealed concealed severalfor severl days days after after beingbeing formed. formed. normally do not feed. Therefore, the with gelatinouswith gelatinous “egg-plug.” “egg-plug.” Eggs Eggs moths usually only live long enough hatch 5 hatchto 15 5 days.to 15 days. Each Each female female Adults may may live live 4 to 45 months.to 5 months. may laymay 300 lay to 300 400 to 400eggs. eggs. to mate and lay eggs.

RICERICE WEEVILWEEVIL SitophilusSitophilus oryzaoryza (L.)(L.) How Stored-Product Rice Weevils Weevils are reddish-brownare reddish-brown to black. toThey black. are 1/8 They inch long.are 1/8Two inchlight spotslong. are Two on each light front spots wing. are Body on is eachcylindrical. front Head wing. is prolonged Body isinto cylindrical. snout. Hind wings Head function is prolonged as flight wings.into snout. Hind wings function as flight wings. Insects Multiply Stored-product insects are small and often not noticed unless carefully Table 1. Number of offspring five months after 50 pairs of rice weevils were looked for. Fifty rice weevils can be placed in wheat. placed on the surface of a penny. GRAIN GRAIN TEMPERATURE (˚F) Stored-product beetles can survive in MOISTURE 60˚ 70˚ 80˚ 90˚ any part of a grain mass, in small accumulations of grain or grain 9%0000products in storage or processing 10% 0 0 326 413 facilities, and in “dead” areas in 11% 40 87 885 984 handling or processing equipment. 12% 58 4,827 9,661 2,223 Temperature and moisture content 13% 514 8,692 10,267 3,230 of the food source play an important 14% 951 10,745 13,551 3,934

4 Stored-Product part in the speed with which stored- 15 percent moisture content (mostly product insect populations increase. because molds and other micro- Insects Stored wheat frequently retains organisms take over at moisture summer heat so that temperatures in levels above this point). Lower limits some parts of the grain mass remains are 15˚C (60˚F) for reproduction and above 15˚C (60˚F) until October 9 percent moisture content. Stored- through January. In general, as grain product insects may survive by mass temperatures increase above acclimation below 15˚C (60˚F) but 15˚ C (60˚F), stored-product insects generally die without reproducing can survive and reproduce in grain during extended periods below this of lower moisture contents. Similarly, temperature. Many of the stored- high-moisture contents enable product insects produce a new stored-product insects to survive at generation every month when lower temperatures (See Tables 1 and temperature and moisture conditions 2). Similar temperatures and mois- are favorable. ture contents are favorable for stored- Stored-product insects may be product insects in food storage and found wherever there are grain or processing facilities. grain products. Sources of infestation Over extended periods, the upper on farms are seed grains, stored limits for survival and reproduction grains, animal feeds or feeders, grain of stored-product insects, are approx- handling equipment and small imately 38˚C (100˚F) and above accumulations at various locations. Figure 2

Pronotum with 66 teethteeth on on each each side. side. Beak Beak Pronotum without without teeth teeth on eachon each side. side. Pronotum without teethteeth onon each each side. side. Beak Beak absent. Species aboutabout 1/8 1/8 inch inch long. long. Beak absent. absent. is present. SpeciesSpecies isis aboutabout 1/81/8 inch inch long. long.

HeadHead back back of ofeye eye rounded. rounded. Head backback of of eye eye pointed. pointed. Each forefore wingwing with with 2 2 pale pale spots. Each fore wing dark.dark.Pronotum Pronotumspots. Pronotum with round with punctures. round withPronotum elongate with punctures. elongated SAW-TOOTHEDSAW-TOOTHED GRAIN GRAIN MERCHANTMERCHANT GRAIN GRAIN BEETLE BEETLE punctures. punctures. OryzaephilusOryzaephilus surinamensis surinamensis OryzaephilusOryzaephilus mercator mercator Small brownishbrownish species. species. Less Larger blackishblackish species. species. 1/4 to Lessthan 1/4 than inch 1/4 long. inch long. 3/41/4 inchto 3/4 long. inch long.

HeadHead visible visible from from above above 1/8 1/8 inch long or or more. more Head notHead visible hidden from underabove 1/8pronotum inch long or more. less than 1/8 inch long

GRANARY WEEVILWEEVIL Sitophilus granariusgranarius Male genital structure structure Male genital structure not grooved.grooved groovedgrooved. AntennalAntennal segments segments gradually gradually Antenna appearsappears to to be be enlargeenlarge towards towards tip. tip. clubbed.

RICE WEEVIL MAIZEMAIZE WEEVIL WEEVIL CONFUSEDCONFUSED FLOUR FLOUR REDRED FLOUR FLOUR BEETLE BEETLE Sitophilus oryzaeoryzae SitophilusSitophilus zeamais zeamais TriboliumTribolium confusum confusum TriboliumTribolium castaneum castaneum

ForeFore wing wing with with ForeFore wing withwith lines. lines. ForeFore wingwing is smooth. Flattened beetlesbeetles 1/41/4 toto 1/2 1/2 inch inch long. long. Convex beetles 1/2 1/2 inch inch long long or or roughenedroughened surface. surface. Pronotum is separated byby strongstrong more. Pronotum not not so so strongly strongly constriction from basesbases ofof wings.wings. separated fromfrom bases bases of of wings. wings.

LESSERLESSER GRAIN GRAIN BORER BORER CIGARETTECIGARETTE BEETLE RhyzoperthaRhyzopertha dominica dominica LasiodermaLasioderma serricorne serricorne CADELLE YELLOW MEAL WORM TenebroideasTenebroides mauritanicus mauritanicus Tenebrio molitor

DRUG-STORE BEETLE BEETLE Stegobium paniceumpaniceum

5 Stored-Product In grain elevators, receiving pits, moisture conditions within the Insects bucket elevator boots, and dead equipment providing an ideal spaces in other grain handling environment for stored-product equipment, as well as dust and insect development. spillage accumulations are common sources. Food processing facilities Internal Grain also provide a variety of potential Infesting Insects sources of infestation, including dead There are five species of insects that feed and develop internally in Table 2. Effects of grain temperature on egg laying, development, and kernels of cereal grains. Because of survivorship of the confused flour beetle. the difficulty of removing these Temperature(˚F) Eggs/Day Days to Hatch % Hatching internal forms, they are responsible 61 occasional — — for most of the insect fragments 63–64 1.2 39 27 found in finished cereal foods, e.g., 72 1.9 14 77 flour, corn meal, etc. Remember, 77 5.9 8.3 90 using fumigants to kill these internal 81 7.5 6.2 90 forms will not eliminate the frag- 90 10.1 4.3 92 ments in the processed product. 100+ All Components Decline There are three species of weevils (insects with the head elongated into a snout). They are very similar in spots in grain handling and process- appearance, behavior and develop- ing equipment, screenings from grain ment, but have some differences as cleaning, and product accumulations outlined in the following description in cracks and crevices in the facilities. (Figure 2): The presence of grain dust, fines, broken kernels and other dockage Rice Weevil—Sitophilus oryzae (L.) permits certain stored-product ■ Head is elongated into a snout, insects to survive adverse tempera- at the end of which are strong ture and moisture conditions. For teeth-like mandibles. instance, confused flour beetles were ■ Adults are about 3 millimeters not able to maintain themselves in (1⁄8 inch) long, dark brown with clean, low moisture (8 percent) two rather large, yellowish wheat, but they at least maintained spots on each wing cover. their populations when dockage was ■ Pits on the pronotum (top of added to the same grain. Clean grain, prothorax, just behind head) are therefore, is an important factor in nearly round and are close controlling infestations. together. Some stored-product insects, for ■ Usually found only in whole example the cadelle, can become cereal grains (wheat, corn, dormant and survive through sorghum, rice). Not a problem periods of low temperatures and low in flours, meals, etc. moisture that exceed one year in ■ Female chews a hole in the length. For these, thorough cleaning kernel, deposits an egg in it and of storage structures followed by seals the hole with a gelatinous residual insecticides is an important material. step in preventing infestation carry- ■ The white, legless, grub-like over from one batch of grain to the larva hatches from the egg after succeeding batch. a few days, feeds and completes Grain processing facilities are development to adult inside the generally heated during cold periods kernel. The adult chews its way of the year increasing the potential out of the kernel and continues for stored-product insect develop- to feed on the grain. ment on a year-round basis. In ■ The rice weevil may fly and addition, processing operations quite infest grain maturing in the often generate heat and increased field in warmer areas of the U.S.

6 Stored-Product ■ Adults live four to five months ■ Uniformly dark brown, about 1 and females lay 300 to 400 eggs. 3 millimeters ( ⁄8 inch) long. Insects Complete life cycle may be as ■ Adults are strong fliers. short as 27 days but averages ■ Usually only infests whole about 35 under favorable cereal grains. Eggs are placed conditions. among the kernels (not inside). Maize Weevil—Sitophilus zeamais Newly hatched larvae burrow (Motsch) into the kernels where they ■ Appearance and habits of the develop to the adult stage. The maize weevil are so similar to adult chews its way out of the those of the rice weevil that it is kernel, then continues to feed unnecessary for most people to on grain. ■ distinguish them. This insect During development the larvae usually is larger than the rice push “dust” out of the kernels. weevil but coloration and The dust has a sweetish, musty pronotal pits are similar. The odor and is composed of fecal two species may be distin- material and flour. Lesser grain guished by spatial arrangement borer infestations often can be of the pits and by differences in identified by this odor in the appearance of internal repro- grain storage. ■ ductive structures. Although usually found in ■ Although it can infest any of the whole grain, they are capable of common stored cereal grains, it completing development in is a stronger flier than the rice flours, meals or broken kernels. Figure 3 weevil and is the weevil species most commonly found in corn in the field in the south. It continues infestation in storage. Granary Weevil—Sitophilus granarius (L.) ■ Similar to the rice and maize weevils but is a uniform color and somewhat more shiny. The GROWNGROWN LARVA pits on the pronotum are Larva usuallyusually develop develops inside inside of kernel. of kernel. elliptical and not as closely

spaced as those of the above Young larva larva start start feeding feeding on flour on flour and then boreand theninto kernels bore into where kernels they complete where their two species. The adult is lifethey cycle. complete their life cycle. somewhat larger than the rice weevil usually, but similar in size to the maize weevil. PUPAPUPA ■ Does not fly so is dependent upon man for its distribution. Eggs hatchhatch 6 6 to to 14 14 days. days. ■ Infests whole cereal grains, only after harvest. ■ Eggs droppeddropped singly singly or orin in Life cycle averages about 40 days; batches into into loose loose grain. grain. 300 to 400 eggs per female. Damages grain grain by by hollowing hollowing out out insides ■ Unlike the rice and maize insidesleaving onlyleaving shells. only Much shells. loose Much flour looseproduced. flour produced. weevils, it has not been found in grain maturing in the field. Emerge as as adults adults 35 35 to to110 110 days days after after eggs eggs were laid. Lesser Grain Borer (Figure 3) ■ Small, cylindrical beetle with the head pointed downward LESSERLESSER GRAIN GRAIN BORER from under the prothorax. Head RhyzoperthaRhyzopertha dominicadominica (F.) Body isis black black to to brown brown and and cylindrical. cylindrical. 1/8 1/8inch inch long. long. Head Head turned turned down underdown thorax.under thorax.Adult armed Adult with armed powerful with jaws usually cannot be seen from thatpowerful can cut jaws into thatwood. can Adult cut intois a strong wood. flier. Adult Larvae is a strong and adults flier. are Larvae both destructive. and adults are both destructive. above.

7 Stored-Product Angoumois Grain Moth ■ Adults do not feed. They live Insects ■ Adult is tan or buff color, only a few days, lay 80 to similar in appearance to clothes 100 eggs per female, and moths and about 6.5 millimeters complete their life cycle in 1 ( ⁄4 inch) long. The hind wing 35 to 40 days. has a fringe of long hairs and the leading edge is extended at Other Stored-Product the tip to form a “pointing (External) Insects finger.” ■ Eggs are laid among kernels of Indian Meal Moth (Figure 4) ■ cereal grains. A few days later Adult moth is about 10 millime- 3 newly-hatched larvae enter the ters ( ⁄8 inch) long and dark, kernels where development to except for a conspicuous light adults is completed. band across the base of the ■ The mature larva prepares a wings (usually folded longitudi- thin escape “window” for the nally over the back). When at adult by chewing away all but a rest, a distinctive dark-light- thin outer layer of the grain dark sequence is visible. The covering. These “windows” are distal portion of the wings is a more conspicuous on corn dark “coppery” color. ■ kernels than on wheat. Larvae are caterpillars that web ■ Usually infests only whole food particles together with silk cereal grains. In bulks of small and often wander out of the grains and shelled corn, it food materials in search of infests only the top few inches. places to pupate. ■ In ear corn it may infest the Infest a variety of materials entire bulk. It is not a problem including cereal products, Figure 4 in flours, meals, etc. meals, feed, dried fruit, nuts and whole cereal grains. ■ A common pest in grain bins. It infests just the upper few inches of the grain mass but may be so LARVALARVA numerous that surfaces may be Larvae (caterpillars(caterpillars usually usually yellowish, yellowish, greenish greenish or pinkish. or pinkish.Spin large Spin amounts large ofamounts silk over of their silk food.over Stagetheir food.may last covered by a mat of silk web- Stage2 weeks may up lastto 2 2years. weeks Larvae up to is 2 theyears. destructive Larvae stage.is the destructive stage. bing. Early infestations are evidenced by several kernels webbed together in clumps. ■ A common kitchen and ware- house pest. ■ Adults do not feed and live

EEGGSGGS just a few days. Females lay Whitish and ovate.te. Laid on food in PUPA 200 eggs each. Life cycle aver- clusters of 12 to 30.0. Hatch Hatch 2 2to to 14 14 days. days. LarvaeLarvae usually usually come come to to the outside of thethe food-mass food-mass to to spin spin cocoons co and ages 35 to 40 days. pupate.pupate. Stage Stage may may last last 4 4 to 30 days. Red Flour Beetle—Tribolium castaneum Herbst Adults formed formed 4 to4 to6 w 6 weeks after ■ Adults are uniform reddish- eggs laid.laid. Adults Adults di diee after oviposition. brown, shiny, about 3 milli- 1 meters ( ⁄8 inch) long and somewhat flattened. ■ Both adults and larvae feed in a variety of materials: flour, meals, nuts, dried fruits and whole grain if moisture is sufficient INDIAN-MEAL MOTH (Plodia interpunctella Hbn.) and/or contains broken kernels. Basal half of front wings light colored; distal half dark. Hind wings lack distinctive markings and are more or less uniformly gray. 1/2 to 3/4 inch wing spread. ■ Adults can fly.

8 Stored-Product ■ Outer three antennal segments Flat Grain Beetle (Figure 7) of the adult are similar in size ■ Adults are flat, reddish-brown Insects and distinctly larger than the and among the smallest of the adjacent ones. stored-grain insects (2 milli- 1 ■ Adults live several months and meters or ⁄12 inch long). Anten- lay 400 to 500 eggs per female. nae are long and slender—the Complete life cycle averages female’s about half as long as 35 to 40 days. the body and the male’s two- Confused Flour Beetle (Figure 5) thirds as long. The prothorax of ■ Very similar in appearance and the female is nearly square; that behavior to red flour beetles. of the male narrows slightly ■ Antennal segments enlarge toward the posterior. ■ gradually toward the tip of the Both larvae and adults feed in antenna. grain, cereal products, nuts and ■ Do not fly. other stored products. They ■ Probably the most common may infest deadstock in mills. ■ flour mill insect, although it can They are common in grain, infest the same foods as the red often abundant in grain infested flour beetle. with other insects such as the weevils. They cannot develop Saw-toothed Grain Beetle (Figure 6) on completely sound kernels of ■ Adults are slender, flat, dark grain, but nearly all masses of brown and about 2.5 milli- grain include damaged kernels. Figure 5 1 meters ( ⁄10 inch) long. Each side of the prothorax (just behind head) bears 6 pointed, saw- tooth-like projections. ■ Both larvae and adults feed in cereal products, nuts, dried

fruits, meals and whole cereal When fully grown, theythey areare LARVALARVA grains. aboutabout 1/161/4 inch inch long. long. They They are are white, tinged with with yellow. yellow. Stage Stage ■ This species is a common lastslasts 2 weeks toto 22 months.months. kitchen and warehouse pest and

one of the most common insects Feed on flourflour oror otherother material material in Kansas farm-stored grain such asas graingrain dust dust and and the the broken broken surfaces ofof graingrain kernels. kernels. (although not as damaging as internal feeders). ■ When hatched,hatched, larvae larvae are are worm- worm- Small size, especially of newly- like, slender,slender, cylindrical, cylindrical, and and hatched larvae, permits penetra- wiry in appearance. tion of all but the tightest food PUPAPUPA packages. Naked. At firstfirst itit is is white, white, but but it ■ itgradually gradually changes changes to yellow,to yellow, then Adults live several months and EGGS thenbrown. brown. Shortly Shortly afterwards afterwards it lay up to 300 eggs per female. EggsEggs hatch hatch in in5 to5 to12 12 days. days. ittransforms transforms into into an anadult. adult. The life cycle may be completed in 25 days but the average is Eggs areare small,small, clear, clear, and and Stage lasts 1 to 2 weeks. sticky. They They are are laid laid on on sacks Stage lasts 1 to 2 weeks. longer. orsacks food, or or food, in cracks. or in cracks. Change to adults 1 to 4 Merchant Grain Beetle— months after eggs are laid. Oryzaephilus mercator (Fauv.) ■ Almost identical in appearance and habits to the saw-toothed grain beetle. ■ Infests the same foods as the CONFUSEDCONFUSED FLOUR BEETLE saw-toothed grain beetle, but is TriboliumTribolium confusum (Duv.) Beetles elongate. They are shiny, reddish-brown and about 1/7 inch long. Head and upper parts of thorax are better adapted to oilseeds and Beetlesdensely elongate. covered withThey minute are shiny, punctures reddish-brown and wing and covers about are1/7 ridgedinch long. lengthwise Head and and upper sparsely parts puncturedof thorax are between densely the coveredridges. They with minuteresemble punctures the Red and Flour wing Beetle. covers are ridged lenghtwise and sparsely punctured between the ridges. They oilseed products than the resemble the Red Flour beetle. former.

9 Stored-Product Insects

LarvaeLarvae become become full-grown full-grown inin 2 2 to to 10 weeks10 weeks when when they they areare aboutabout 1/8 1/8 inchinch long. long.

LARVALARVA ThisThis stage lasts lasts 2 to2 to10 10weeks. weeks. Larvae aree slender slender,, brown-headed, brown-headed, white, andsix-legged. six-legged.

Eggs hatchh in in 3 to3 to7 days. 7 days. PUPAPUPA StageStage lasts 66 to to 21 21 day days.

Eggsgs areare laid laid in in cracks cracks and and cre vicescrevices on oorr nearnear food. food. Each Each female female can canlay lay Emerge as as adults adults in as in short as short a time a 50 toto 300 eeggsggs in in her her lifetime. lifetime. timeas 24 toas 3024 days to 30 under days favorable under favorableconditions. Mayconditions. be 4 generations May be 4 generationsper year. per year.

SAW-TOOTHED GRAIN BEETLE Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) Slender and flat beetles 1/10 of an inch long. Color ranges from dark-brown to red. Sides of thorax have six saw-toothed projections. Adults almost never fly. Adults have been kept alive for over 3 years. Figure 6

Figure 7

LARVALARVA

Grown larvaee are areslender slender,, pale in pale in color, with blacka black head. head. They haveThey have slender, black,k, spine-lik spine-likee processes processes at at the tip ofe abdomen. the abdomen.

Larvae fond of them germof wheat. of Also wheat. Also feed on dead insects. PUPA PUPA When fully fully grown, grown, larvae larvae fo form cocoonsof a gelatinous of a substancegelatinous to substance to whichparticles food adhere. particles Pupae are adhere. f Pupae areof these formed cocoons. inside of these cocoons. Each female cany lay200 200eggs. eggs.

Eggs are small andwhite. white. Eggs Eggs are placed are placed Adult emerges emerges 5 to 5 9 to w 9 weeks in crevices on therain grain or dropped or dropped loosely loosely afterafter eggs eggs are are laid. laid. in flour or other rcerealeal products. products.

FLAT GRAIN BEETLE (Cryptolestes pusillus (Schonh.)) Beetles and larvae of this species resemble those of the Rusty Grain Beetle so much in behavior and appearance that distinction is rarely made between them by people in the grain industry. They are the smallest of the major grain pests (1/16 inch long). Beetles are reddish-brown with a flattened body. Males have an especially long, slender antennae.

10 Stored-Product ■ Larvae feed principally on the observed in infested foods as germ of kernels. larvae. Insects ■ Each female may lay 200 to ■ The life cycle may be completed 300 eggs. in 25 to 35 days, but often is ■ Their life cycle may be com- longer. pleted in as few as 22 days, but ■ Larvae are capable of living is somewhat longer. more than a year without food. ■ Rusty Grain Beetle—Cryptolestes Khapra beetle is illustrated ferrugineus (Steph.) (Figure 8). Sporadic accidental ■ Similar to the flat grain beetle, importations into the U.S. have except that antennae of males occurred in the past few years and females are the same but vigorous inspections and length, about half the length of quarantines have prevented the body. long-term establishment of this ■ The prothorax is slightly longer serious pest. than broad and tapers toward Black Carpet Beetle—Attagenus the posterior. This is more piceus (Oliv.) pronounced in the male. ■ Adults are similar in appear- ■ Habitats and biology are similar ance to the Trogoderma species to those of the flat grain beetle. but usually larger and uni- ■ Both species are common in formly black or dark brown. Kansas stored grain. No doubt Length is about 3 to 5 milli- 1 3 rusty grain beetles have often meters ( ⁄8 to ⁄16 inch). Figure 8 been reported as “flat grain beetles.” Dermestid Beetles Grain Dermestids (Trogoderma species) ■ Dark, oval beetles, from 2 to LARVALARVA LarvaeLarvae are about 1/6th inch long. Have typical cream and tan 1 1 3 millimeters ( ⁄12 to ⁄8 inch) in tancoloring coloring of Trogoderma of Trogoderma larvae. larvae. Older Older larvae larvae are repelledare by repelledlight. A typicalby light. infestation A typical isinfestation characterized is characterized by large numbers by length, with hairs on the wing largeof larvae numbers and their of larvae cast skins. and theirStage cast lasts skins. 27 days Stage at 90 lasts°F. (May 27stay days in larval at 90˚F stage (May for stayyears.) in larval stage for years.) covers (may be rubbed off, then As larvaervae growgrow older, older, they they feed feed on on whole whole PUPA beetle appears shiny) and rather grain or seeds.seeds. Are Are very very resistant resistant to to Pupation usually occurs on the top layer starvation,ation, maymay li liveve for for months months or or even even of food material. Stays in pupal stastageg an indistinct patterns of brown and years without food.food. average of 66 daysdays atat 90 90˚F.°F. black. Females are larger than Grainn damaged by by Khapra Khapra beetles beetles has has the the same appearanceappearance as as grain grain attack attackeded by by the the males. Lesserr grain Grain borer Borer.. ■ Larvae have long hairs and

thick tufts of smaller brown Adults usuallyusually mate mate immediately immediately o on emergence. Egg Egg laying laying starts starts severa severall days hairs on a few of the posterior later. Adult has not been observed t Youngg larv larvaeae feed feed largely largely on on damaged damaged later. Adult has not been observed to fly. segments and have a “ringed” kernels.ls. They areare aboutabout 1/16th 1/16th inch inch long. long. appearance. The width of the body is nearly uniform through- out its length. ■ EGGEGG Adult may livelive only only a afew few days days or or c can live Infestations are revealed by cast Adult ffemaleemale lays upup toto 126 126 e eggs.ggs. EggsEggs uplive to up several to several days. days. Entire Entire cycle cycl (egge to hatch inin 8 daysdays atat 9090˚F.°F. adult)to adult) varies varies from from 4 4to to 6 6 weeks weeks to to several “skins” of the larvae, which are years.several years. shed at each molt, and may be numerous on the surface of the food material, sacks and packages. ■ They infest many kinds of cereal products, meals and KHAPRA BEETLE Trogoderma granarium (Everts) sometimes grain. One of the most important cosmopolitan pests of stored grain. First discovered in the U.S. in Calif. in 1953. Thought to have been present since 1946. Adult is small (1/14th to 1/8th inch in length); females are often twice ■ Adults do not feed in the same the size of the males. Beetle is pale red-brown to dark brown or black; wing covers unicolorous or with indistinct red-brown markings. Hairs on top often rubbed off, giving the beetle a slick appearance. Khapra beetle hard to food materials as larvae and are distinguish from other species in its group. short-lived, so are not as readily 11 Stored-Product ■ The larvae are darker than the head points downward Insects Trogoderma larvae and have a under the hood-like pronotum. particularly long tuft of hairs at There are no striations (grooves) the posterior end. The body on the wing covers. Antennae narrows from front to back are rather long and slender with which gives it sort of a cigar segments resembling saw teeth. shape. It has a “ringed” appear- ■ Larvae are white and grub-like ance, as do the cast “skins” with long hairs. which are found on the surface ■ Have been found infesting a of the food medium or in folds, wide range of materials such as cracks or crevices in sacks, tobacco, spices, nuts, grain, packages, walls, etc. dried fish and meatmeal. ■ Infestations may occur in many ■ Adults feed little, if at all, and of the cereal products and grain live only a few days. Females as well as in carpets, woolens, etc. average 100 eggs each and Cigarette Beetle (Figure 9) complete life cycle in about ■ Small, reddish brown, oval, 35 days. hump-backed beetle about Drugstore Beetle—Stegobrium 1 2.5 millimeters ( ⁄10 inch) long. It paniceum (L.) Figure 9 is covered with fine hairs and ■ Similar to the cigarette beetle, but less oval with striations on wing covers and with a less hump-backed appearance. The outer three segments of the antennae are distinctly enlarged. ■ Although there are minor

Full-grown larve larvae about about 3/16 3/16inch long. inch Fine long. hairs differences in larval appearance onFine body hairs appear on bodylight brown appear on light mature brown larvae. on and habits, they are not consid- mature larvae. Larvaearvae mature mature in 30 in to 30 50 to days. 50 days. ered here. ■ This insect lays fewer eggs (75 per female) and has a slightly The newlyhatched hatched larvae larvae are tiny. are tiny. They longer life cycle (40 days) than are grayishrayish white white and and covered covered thinly with fine hairs.h fine hairs. the cigarette beetle. Cadelle (Figure 10) ■ Eggs hatchin in 6 to6 to10 10 days. days. Adult is a flattened, black, shiny beetle about 8 millimeters 1 ( ⁄3 inch) in length. The head and Eggs arepearly pearly white, white, elongate, elongate, and about prothorax are closely joined but 1/50 incht 1/50 in length. inch in length. Have Have waxy shells that are resistantells that to aredrying. resistant Are to fragile. appear separate from the rest of Are fragile. Pupal stage stage lasts lasts 7 to 7 18 to days 18 days dependingdepending on on weather. weather. the body giving the body a divided appearance. DuringDuring a a3 3 to to 4 4 week lifetime,lifetime, ■ The larva is white with black eacheach female female may may lay 7575 to to 100 100 eggs. Most eggs laid during first head and conspicuous black eggs.10 days. Most eggs laid during first TotalTotal lifelife cycle cycle (egg (egg to egg)to egg) takes takes 10 days. 5656 days in in summer. summer. plates on the first segment behind the head and at the tip of the abdomen, the latter bearing two horns. ■ In grain, especially in wooden structures, both larvae and adults burrow into the wood to pupate in cold weather or when no grain is in the bin. THE CIGARETTE BEETLE ■ Both larvae and adults feed on Lasioderma Serricorne (F.) The adult cigarette beetle is brown and less than 1/8 inch long. It is cosmopolitan in distribution, having been carried grain, flour and other grain around the world by commerce. Practically all injury to tobacco and many other stored products is caused by the feeding of the larvae. It is found occasionally attacking grains left long in storage in original sacks. products.

12 Stored-Product ■ The female lays about 1,000 Parasites and Predators eggs and the life cycle is com- On occasion, very tiny insects Insects pleted in a minimum of 70 days. (some wasp-like) may be found in Yellow Mealworm—Tenebrio large numbers associated with molitor L. infested grains. These are natural ■ Adults are shiny black or dark enemies (parasites/predators) of the brown and 14 to 20 millimeters grain infesting insects. In some 1 2 instances, application of ineffective ( ⁄2 to ⁄3 inch) in length. These beetles are the largest found in chemical treatments may destroy the stored products. parasites/predators allowing the ■ The larvae are honey-yellow damaging species to survive. Figure 10 and attain a length of 26 to 1 30 millimeters (1 to 1 ⁄4 inches). The body is heavily sclerotized and cylindrical and is similar in appearance to wireworms. ■ They feed on grain and grain Grown larvae characterized by by black black heads heads and and black black products, especially when it is forked tail pieces.pieces. TransformTransform toto pupae, pupae, usually usually in in a a out of condition. They may also chamber they havehave cutcut in in the the wooden wooden surfaces surfaces of of the the storage structure. infest meals, meatmeal, mill Larvae completelete thedevelopment development in 2in to 2 14to sweepings and other products. 14 months. Usuallyally molt molt 3 or 3 or4 times;4 times; may may have up itof larval 7 if larval period period is long. is long. Dark Mealworm—Tenebrio obscurus (F.) ■ Similar in size, appearance and habits to the yellow mealworm, Hatch 7 to 10 daysdays inin warmwarm weather. weather. except the adults are dull and pitchy black, not shiny. ■ Larvae are much darker than White eggs laidid inin clustersclusters in in the the food food material. the larvae of the yellow mealworm. Prepupal stagesstage lastslasts 77 toto 17 daysdays.. Pupal stage lasts 88 toto 2525 daysdays depending dependin on Insects Associated With High Females layy aboutabout 1,000 1,000 eggs eggs during during conditions, especiallyespecially temperature.temperatur lifetime. Moisture Conditions There are several other small beetles, i.e. the foreign grain beetle AdultsAdults may may live live up up to to 2 2 years. years. (Ahasverus advena Waltl), the hairy fungus beetle (Typhea stercorea (L.)), etc. which may be found in grain and grain products slightly high in moisture content. These insects CADELLE Tenebroides mauritanicus (L.) primarily feed on fungi developing in An elongated, oblong, and flattened beetle with a shiny-black or dark-brown body. It is one of the best these products and do not signifi- known, most destructive, largest (about 1/3 inch long), and longest lived insects that attack stored grain. cantly damage the products. Booklice (Liposceles spp.) and mites (Acarious spp.) (not true insects but close relatives) are microscopic in size and can be found under similar conditions (Figure 11).

13 Stored-Product Insects Questions 1. (3) In recent years, regulations by 6. (8) Larvae of the ___ web food what Federal government agency particles together. has increased emphasis on a. Rice weevil reducing pest adulteration of b. Angoumois grain moth food products? c. Granary weevil a. Health and Human Services d. Indian meal moth (HHS) b. Centers for Disease Control 7. (9) One of the most common (CDC) insects in Kansas farm-stored c. Food and Drug grain is the ___. Administration (FDA) a. Saw-toothed grain beetle d. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco b. Rice weevil and Firearms (BATF) c. Angoumois grain moth d. Pea weevil 2. (4) Adult beetles infesting stored products are characterized by: 8. (11) Vigorous inspections and a. rather hard shell-like bodies quarantines have prevented long- b. soft, very fragile bodies term infestations of this pest. c. transparent body walls a. Rusty grain beetle d. body covered with scales and b. Merchant grain beetle hairs c. Flat grain beetle d. Khapra beetle 3. (5) In general, stored grain mass temperatures above ___ allow 9. (12) The Drugstore beetle is insects to survive in lower similar in appearance to: moisture content. a. Yellow mealworm Booklouse a. 30˚F b. Cigarette beetle Liposceles b. 40˚F c. Dark mealworm c. 50˚F d. Khapra beetle d. 60˚F 10. (13) Ineffective chemical treat- 4. (6) The cadelle can become ments may destroy these insects dormant and survive low tem- and thereby allow the damaging perature and moisture conditions species to survive. for over: a. Syrphid flies a. 6 months b. Parasites b. 12 months c. Indian meal moth c. 18 months d. Merchant grain beetle d. 24 months

5. (7) This stored grain infesting weevil does not fly. a. Maize weevil b. Granary weevil c. Rice weevil d. Lesser grain weevil

Mite Acarious

Figure 11

14 Monitoring for localized increases in tempera- ture which can indicate the Stored-Product Stored-product insects cause presence of an insect infestation. significant losses of stored grains, Warehouse Storage of Insects processed foods, fibers and animal Processed Commodities products. In general, losses can be minimized when infestations are Pheromone/food attractant quickly identified and appropriate monitoring control measures implemented. Pheromones have been identified Numerous methods for detecting for many of the stored-product stored-product insects have been insects. Some synthesized lures have developed or are being investigated. been commercially developed and a The most promising technique that variety of trap designs are available. has been developed, and continues to Traps have been very effective for be refined, is monitoring populations monitoring commodities that have with insect pheromones and/or food few species of stored-product pests, attractants. e.g., tobacco. Pheromone/food The incorporation of monitoring attractant monitoring has the methods into existing stored-product advantage of: pest management programs can lead ■ continuous surveillance. to earlier detection of low level ■ targeting a defined area of infestations and pinpointing location facility. of infestations. Monitoring informa- ■ identification of an infested area. tion can be used to justify reduction ■ early detection of an infestation. in pesticide use or the need for ■ reduced need for time consum- intensified surveillance and pest ing product inspection. management procedures. Monitoring ■ providing a basis for minimum results also can serve as an indicator pesticide application. of how well integrated pest manage- Some definitions: ment (IPM) program components are ■ Food attractant—A natural functioning. food, food extract, or synthe- sized scent that will attract a Monitoring Methods select group of insects. In some Current monitoring methods for cases it is impregnated into an insect infestation vary and depend on artificial medium. the type of insect, commodity and/or ■ Lure—A small rubber or plastic storage. They include: device impregnated with or retaining a pheromone or food Bulk Commodity Storage attractant, designed to release ■ Observation of the commodity the attractant gradually over a surface and overspace for designated period of time, insects and/or evidence of their either passively or controlled. presence, i.e. webbing, ■ Pheromone—A chemical castskins, dust, odor, etc. compound produced by an ■ Examination of commodity organism that initiates a behav- samples obtained by various ioral activity in others of the means, i.e. probe sampling, same species. Such compounds turning of the commodity, etc. are synthesized for attracting ■ Probe (pitfall) traps inserted target insect species. into the surface of grain masses ■ Aggregation pheromone— and left for varying lengths of A communication chemical time have proven useful as a predominantly produced by means of early detection of live, males that attracts both sexes. free-living insects. Effective compounds have been ■ Temperature monitoring in synthesized for stored-product grain masses may detect

15 Monitoring for insect species with long-lived Pheromone and food Stored-Product adults (e.g. Tribolium, attractant lures (Table 3) Rhyzopertha) and species Pheromone lures have been Insects which need to feed to developed for several stored-product reproduce. insects. Lures developed for species ■ Sex attractant pheromone— with short-lived adults have proven A communication chemical more effective. The lure for the lesser usually produced by females to grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica) attract the opposite sex. Effec- also has produced good results. Food tive compounds have been attractant lures for stored-product synthesized for stored-product insects (predominantly an oil lure insect species with short-lived consisting of oat oil, wheat germ oil adults and adults that do not extracts and mineral oil) are used for need to feed to reproduce (e.g., species having long-lived adults and Plodia, Ephestia). some larvae. These lures may be used Table 3. Status of pheromones for stored-product insects. Codes: A = aggregation pheromone, F = food attractant, S = sex pheromone Duration of Lure Comm. Duration Genus Adult Stage Type Available of Lure Effectiveness Anagasta1 1–2 wks S Y 6–20 wks2 moderate–good (Mediterranean flour moth) Anthrenus 2–4 wks S&F Y3 4–8 wks good (carpet beetle) Attagenus 2–9 wks S&F Y3 4–8 wks good (black carpet beetle) Cadra1 (Raisin moth) 1–2 wks S Y 6–16 wks2 moderate Cryptolestes 3 mon–1 yr A N unknown N/A (flat grain beetle) Ephestia1 1–2 wks S Y 6–20 wks2 moderate–good Almond/Tobacco moth) Lasioderma 2–4 wks S Y 6–8 wks moderate–good (Cigarette beetle) Oryzaephilus 6 mon–3 yr A/F4 N/Y unknown poor5 (sawtoothed grain beetle) Plodia1 1–3 wks S Y 6–20 wks2 good (Indianmeal moth) Rhyzopertha 6 mon A Y 8 wks good (Lesser grain borer) Stegobium 2–5 wks S Y 4 wks unknown (Drugstore beetle) Tribolium (flour beetle) 6 mon–3 yr A&F Y 7–16 wks variable (poor–good) Trogoderma 2–4 wks S&F Y 6–26 wks good (warehouse/Khapra beetle) 1 Same lure for all species, separate lure for Cadra under development. 2 May be effective for up to 40 weeks based on USDA studies. 3 Trogoderma traps utilizing food attractants will catch larvae of both Attagenus and Anthrenus. Commercial sex lures have been marketed (1992) for carpet beetles, their effectiveness is not known. 4 Aggregation pheromone under development. 5 Food lure results have been erratic. Glue boards currently are almost as effective and more economical. Used with permission: Stored-product Pest Monitoring Methods. Technical Information Memorandum No. 27 Armed Forces Pest Management Board, June 1992. 16 Monitoring for with or without pheromones. In out grain elevators or warehouses are general, food attractant lures have a an effective way to monitor for moth Stored-Product smaller effective range than phero- adults and certain beetles. Lures mone lures. They can be used to containing pheromones for either enhance the effectiveness of phero- Indianmeal moth or lesser grain Insects mone traps for flour beetles borer placed in the center of a glue (Tribolium) and to attract coated surface within the trap attracts Trogoderma, Attagenus, and these species and traps them on the Anthrenus larvae. sticky surface. Multi-layered, corrugated paper Pheromone and food traps with pheromones and/or food attractant traps attractants are used to monitor for There are a variety of traps used to beetles and some larvae in ware- deploy pheromones and/or food house situations. The corrugations attractants. Bulk grain is most attract the insects by serving as effectively monitored with perforated harborage sites similar to crevices in plastic probe (pitfall) traps. Traps are floors and walls. Multiple entry usually placed in the grain near the points formed by the corrugations surface at cardinal points and in the provide tactile stimuli and air cham- center. They take advantage of the bers within the trap to provide normal movement and activity of circulation for the pheromones and/ grain-infesting insects and may or food attractants. Traps usually lie include a pheromone or food attrac- flat to prevent spillage of food tant lure. attractant, however, some may be Traps for flying insects (wing-, wall-mounted. A modified pitfall delta-, and diamond-traps) sus- trap for floor or shelf placement also pended at various locations through- has been designed.

17 Monitoring for Stored-Product Questions 1. (15) One of the promising tech- 3. (15) These pheromones are used Insects niques for stored products insect in warehouse storage of pro- pest management is: cessed commodities and they a. Monitoring attract both sexes of the species. b. Poison baits a. Repelling c. Spraying bin walls b. Sex d. Super cooling with CO2 c. Aggregation d. Reproduction 2. (15) Monitoring of bulk commod- ity storage for insects may 4. (17) Pheromone and food attrac- include such techniques as: tant traps may include: a. Observation of surface and a. Perforated plastic probes overspace b. Multi-layered corrugated b. Probe traps inserted into the paper surface c. Wing-, delta-, and diamond c. Temperature read-outs in the traps grain mass d. All the above d. All the above

18 Cockroaches most sanitary and well-organized buildings. Cockroaches can enter buildings in Cockroaches boxes and containers of all kinds. Cockroaches are among the oldest They also can enter around loose- of insects, as indicated by fossil fitting doors and windows, where remains, dating to 200 million years electrical lines or water and stream ago. This ability to survive the many pipes pass through walls, sometimes changing environments through time even in seasoned firewood and illustrates the capability of these through sewer lines. insects to adapt to wide ranges of Most cockroaches are nocturnal habitats and living conditions. and appear during daylight only Cockroaches may be direct carriers when disturbed or where there is a of disease. They also contaminate large population. They prefer warm, German Cockroach food and kitchen utensils with dark, moist shelters and often are excrement and salivary secretions found around food-handling areas; and leave an unpleasant odor. where pipes or electrical wiring pass Cockroaches sometimes produce along or through a wall; behind allergic reactions in humans. The window or door frames, loose allergy is due to cockroach parts baseboards or molding strips; or (proteins), not the odor. underside of tables, chairs and Biology and Behavior equipment. Cockroaches feed on a variety of Cockroaches develop by gradual plant and animal products, including metamorphosis through three life meat and grease, starchy foods, stages: egg, nymph and adult. Adult sweets, baked goods and other females produce small, bean-like unprotected kitchen goods. They also capsules or oothecae which contain feed on materials such as leather, the eggs. These capsules usually are American Cockroach wallpaper paste and book binding dropped at random near food or and sizing. glued to some surface by the female soon after they are formed. (The Common Species female German cockroach carries the There are about 55 species of capsule protruding from her body cockroaches in the United States, but until the eggs are ready to hatch.) only five species are routine prob- Brownbanded Cockroach Nymphs which hatch from the lems in buildings. Most of the other eggs and emerge from the ootheca species live outdoors and, therefore, resemble adult cockroaches, except escape notice; if brought into the that they are smaller and do not have building they either leave or die. fully developed wings. Their flat- Unfortunately, four species of tened bodies allow them to squeeze cockroaches favor the buildings of into crevices and long, spiny legs people as a home—reflecting the enable them to run rapidly. close relationship humans have had Nymphs molt several times before with cockroaches since moving into Oriental Cockroach becoming mature males and females. the first cave (Figure 12). As indicated in Table 4, the time required to complete the life cycle German Cockroach—Blatta varies from about 2 months to nearly germanica (L.) Figure 12 ■ Light brown and 13 to 16 3 years, depending on the species 1 5 and environmental conditions. Most millimeters ( ⁄2 to ⁄8 inch) long. ■ cockroaches are tropical or sub- The head shield is marked with tropical in origin and generally live two dark stripes that run outdoors. However, some species lengthwise. ■ have become well-adapted to living Adults are fully winged but with humans. Though it is true that rarely fly. ■ cockroaches prefer poor housekeep- Immature German cockroaches ing, they at times, infest even the are smaller and darker than adults and are wingless. 19 Cockroaches ■ The most prevalent household ■ Female usually drops her egg cockroach in Kansas and is capsule within a day after it is more active than other domestic formed. The capsule often is species. dropped near a food source or ■ Troublesome infestations can in locations where it can be develop rapidly after the intro- covered with miscellaneous duction of a few individuals. debris. Occasionally, the capsule ■ The only domestic species in is glued to some surface with which adult females carry the secretions from the female’s egg capsules protruding from mouth. their abdomens until the eggs ■ They thrive in commercial are ready to hatch. establishments and other ■ These cockroaches thrive in all buildings which provide types of buildings but are found favorable shelter and an ample most often in homes and food supply. They live mainly commercial food establishments. in dark, moist sites in base- ■ Usually enter homes with ments, steam tunnels and bottled drinks, potatoes, onions, sewers. dried pet food, grocery sacks, Brownbanded Cockroach—Supella corrugated cartons and even longipala (F.) furniture. ■ Light gold to glossy dark brown ■ Usually seek dark shelters near 1 and 13 to 16 millimeters ( ⁄2 to moisture and food. However, 5 ⁄8 inch) long with transverse they may sometimes be found yellow bands across the base of in other parts of the building. the wings and across the American Cockroach—Periplaneta abdomen. americana (L.) ■ Wings of adult males cover the ■ Largest of the common species, abdomen while the female’s growing to a length of 38 to wings are shorter. 1 51 millimeters (1 ⁄2 to 2 inches). ■ Yellow bands are more pro- Reddish-brown with a light nounced on nymphs than on yellow band around the edge of adults. the head shield. ■ These cockroaches are quite ■ Adults of both sexes have well- active. Adult males fly readily developed wings but seldom when disturbed. fly. However, they are capable ■ Female carries her egg capsule of gliding flights. for only a day or two before ■ Nymphal cockroaches are gluing it to protected surfaces small, brown and not fully such as the undersides of winged. furniture and equipment and

Table 4. Life-history of four common cockroaches in Kansas.

adults (days) adults

beginning with one female one with beginning

offspring possible per year per possible offspring Average longevity of longevity Average Approximate number Approximate

Average number of Average number of capsules produced per female Length of Life cycle (days) eggs per capsule German 37 7 60–250 140 35,300 American 15 58 320–1070 440 810 Brownbanded 16 10 140–380 110 680 Oriental 14 14 210–990 100 200 20 Cockroaches sometimes to ceilings in dark- and hollow spaces under ened rooms. concrete slabs. ■ Egg capsule remains in place ■ Activities restricted to the until hatching which may ground or below-ground levels require several weeks. in buildings. ■ Brownbanded cockroaches are Pennsylvania Wood Roach more likely to be found in ■ Not a normal building dwelling homes, apartments, hotels, species; but males are attracted motels, nursing homes and to lights and will invade build- hospitals than in restaurants, ings in the spring. grocery stores and other com- ■ In wooded areas, the Pennsyl- mercial establishments. vania wood roach is a definite, ■ Prefer starchy foods and appear but usually seasonal problem. to have lower water require- ments than other cockroaches. Cockroach Control ■ Nymphs and adults are fre- The control of cockroaches requires quently found on ceilings, much care and planning. Taking behind picture frames, in light precautions to prevent the invasion switches, in upper walls of of cockroaches into a building works cabinets and closets, on under- better than applying insecticides to sides of furniture and inside control an established population. upholstered furniture. Cleanliness and elimination of Oriental Cockroach—Blatta favorable breeding sites will greatly orientalus L. lessen the possibility of cockroach ■ Glossy dark brown to black. infestation, but these practices will ■ Females are nearly 38 milli- not always prevent infestation from 1 outside. Cockroaches can survive in meters (1 ⁄2 inches) long. ■ Male has wings which cover even the most sanitary environment part of the body. Female has once an infestation is established. rudimentary wings which are Because various combinations of reduced to mere lobes. cockroaches can occur in the same ■ Neither sex can fly; in fact, both building, it is essential to accurately are rather sluggish. identify the species present. This will ■ Nymphs are dark brown to permit use of control measures that black and have wing stubs take advantage of behavioral patterns which lack a definite venation. and life requirements for the particu- ■ Female usually carries egg lar species. For instance, for chemical capsule for about a day, then it control of the widely dispersed is dropped or attached to a brownbanded cockroach, chemicals protected surface near a food must be applied over greater areas supply. of a building than for control of the ■ Adults are more abundant in more restricted oriental or American the spring. cockroaches. ■ Nymphs and adults usually Non-chemical Control found near decaying organic Non-chemical measures include: matter. 1. Keeping tight-fitting windows ■ During warm, humid weather and doors; caulking cracks they inhabit lawns, compost in outside walls, sills and piles, flower beds and dumps. foundations. ■ In periods of drought or cool 2. Sealing all openings where weather, there is mass move- electrical lines or water, steam ment into buildings. and cooling pipes pass through ■ In buildings, they inhabit high walls and floors to slow the moisture areas such as sewers, movement of cockroaches into crawl spaces, drains, basements a building.

21 Cockroaches 3. Inspecting boxes and other roaches become numerous in the containers to avoid bringing home, use of chemicals inside will cockroaches into the building. provide short-term control. Locating, 4. Repairing plumbing leaks and treating or removing outside shelters sealing other moisture sources. can provide effective long-term 5. Keeping the premises clean by control. removing all food crumbs and To eliminate an established placing garbage and trash into infestation from a building, first containers with tight-fitting lids. remove as many routes of reinfesta- 6. Use roach traps (sticky traps) to tion as you can, then thoroughly monitor for cockroach activity. clean the building and apply an Chemical Control approved chemical concentrating on To effectively control cockroaches cracks, crevices and hiding places. with insecticides, it is necessary to The type of chemical selected and the inspect closely for their shelters and application method used will depend thoroughly treat these locations. on the location and nature of the Regardless of the insecticide or infestation. Chemicals have different formulation chosen, chemicals placed capabilities and pesticide selection in or near regular hiding places will should be based on the species of the provide much better control than insect, application technique, surfaces those placed where cockroaches to be treated and information on the move only occasionally. label. Present methods of insecticidal Each cockroach problem must be control generally provide temporary studied and control measures used in control within treated structures. accordance with the location, extent Since some cockroach species invade and nature of the infestation. With a buildings from outside, reinfestation range of chemicals, formulations and can occur once the insecticide has application techniques available, it is dissipated. To solve this problem, important to select the appropriate outdoor populations also must be combination to provide the desired controlled. For example, when wood control.

22 Cockroaches Questions

1. (19) The ___ cockroach carries the 5. (21) The ___ cockroach appears to egg capsule protruding from her have lower water requirements body until the eggs are ready to than the other cockroaches. hatch. a. German a. American b. American b. German c. Brownbanded c. Brownbanded d. Oriental d. Oriental 6. (21) Chemicals must be applied 2. (19) In the United States there are over a greater area of the build- about ___ species of cockroaches. ing to control the ___ cockroach. a. 28 a. German b. 40 b. American c. 55 c. Brownbanded d. 63 d. Subslab dwelling

3. (20) The largest adult of the 7. (22) Present methods of insecti- common cockroach species is the: cidal control of cockroaches a. German provide: b. American a. Temporary control c. Brownbanded b. Annual control d. Oriental c. Permanent control d. No control 4. (20) The ___ cockroach has e. All the above yellow transverse bands across the base of the wings and abdomen. a. German b. American c. Brownbanded d. Oriental

23 Food-Plant Pest ■ Use rodent, insect and bird Treatment Areas traps as necessary. Pests may enter storage or food Chemical Controls processing facilities in two ways: ■ Bait stations for rodents. (1) penetration through ineffective ■ Baits, fogs and sprays for pest-proofing of walls, doors, win- insects. dows and roofs, and (2) entry with ■ Chemical repellents or avicides commodities, ingredients or other for birds. raw materials and/or supplies. Receiving and Storage Areas Areas of Concern Non-chemical Controls Food plants have five areas ■ Visually inspect all vehicles, of activity where pests must be ingredients and materials to controlled: ensure that pests are not ■ Grounds, the building exterior brought into storage areas. and the area around the plant. ■ Store ingredients and materials ■ Receiving and storage area for far enough away from walls to incoming materials. permit access for inspection. ■ Processing area. ■ Use FIFO (first in-first out) ■ Packaging area. rotation of incoming materials. ■ Finished product warehouse ■ Use traps or other methods for and shipping area. rodents. Both chemical and non-chemical ■ Use air curtains at dock and controls are important in these areas. pedestrian doors to keep insects Non-chemical controls include out. both preventive maintenance and ■ Use monitoring methods to mechanical and physical measures. detect insects. Grounds and Building Exterior Chemical Controls Non-chemical Controls For insects: ■ Eliminate all exposed dirt ■ Space treatment with surfaces by paving all roadways nonresiduals. or parking areas and maintain- ■ Crack and crevice treatment ing well-kept lawns. This will with residuals. reduce contamination from dirt, ■ Spot treatments with residuals. microbes and other airborne ■ Periodic general treatment. particles. ■ Treatment of raw bulk com- ■ Provide good drainage to help modities with protectants on keep the area clean and dry. receipt and fumigants during ■ Place outside lighting away storage where applicable. from buildings and focus the For rodents: lights toward buildings. This ■ Bait stations, in non-food areas. helps keep night-flying insects away from doors and windows. Processing and Packaging Areas ■ Screen potential bird roosting Non-chemical Controls areas. ■ Place rodent traps near doors ■ Store equipment so it does not if situation warrants. become a place for pests to hide. ■ Screen all windows that can ■ Remove all litter, weeds and be opened. grass clippings. ■ Eliminate cracks, crevices and ■ Eliminate any waste that may other places where pests may accumulate near exhaust hide. systems. ■ Where possible, locate equip- ■ Rodent-proof and bird-proof ment off the floor and away loading docks, doors, walls, from walls for inspection and windows and roofs. cleaning.

24 Food-Plant Pest ■ Keep these areas clean and free Limitations of litter. ■ No lasting protection. Treatment Areas ■ Clean interiors and exteriors of ■ Good only for exposed pests. equipment regularly. ■ Hazardous if container is Chemical Controls punctured or overheated. ■ Usually cannot be used during For insects: food processing or when people ■ Space treatment with are present. nonresiduals. ■ Hazardous around open flames ■ Spot treatment and and sparks. nonresiduals. ■ Crack and crevice treatment Liquids—Sprays with residuals. Advantages ■ Contact treatment with ■ Usually provide a deposit on nonresiduals. surface. ■ Periodic general treatments. ■ Can easily be directed onto Finished Product and Shipping surface for treatment. ■ Areas Easy to store, transport and Use the same pest control methods handle. ■ in the finished products warehouse Adaptable for use in many as in the materials receipt and storage kinds of equipment. area. Limitations Vehicle inspection is essential to ■ May be hazardous to use prevent the finished products from around electrical outlets (water being placed in a pest-contaminated or oil sprays). carrier. Vehicle inspection is difficult, ■ May damage or stain wallpaper, particularly for boxcars and trucks varnish and many fabrics with false walls or end-liners. If (water or oil sprays). vehicles are dirty or infested, do ■ Require agitation during not use them. application (wettable powders). ■ Chemical Controls in Vehicles May be hazardous around open flame (oil sprays). Before loading, consider: ■ May damage or etch asphalt, ■ Space treatment. plastic tile or rubber products ■ Crack and crevice treatment. (oil sprays). After loading, use: ■ May make floors slippery (oil ■ General treatment—usually a sprays). solid fumigant—for in-transit ■ May damage living plants (oil control. sprays). Forms of Pesticide Chemicals Vapors Vapors are released by supple- Aerosols mentary heat or by inherent high Advantages vapor pressure to produce a gas. ■ Excellent for flying or exposed They usually are dispersed from insect pests. impregnated resin strips or ■ Disperse well if used correctly. vaporizers. ■ Convenient and easy to store. Advantages ■ Usually leave little surface ■ Easy to apply and safe to deposit. handle. ■ Store well during normal use ■ Can be used where fumigant period. tolerances may be exceeded. ■ Available for hand operations ■ Sealed building not as essential or can be installed as a timed as for fumigants. release system. ■ Effective against flying insects such as moths and flies.

25 Food-Plant Pest Limitations Baits ■ Treatment Areas Will not penetrate commodities Advantages in concentrations lethal to target ■ Often can control specific pests. pests. ■ Easily distributed. ■ Not effective against beetles. ■ Easily monitored and ■ Resin strips cannot be used recovered. in plant areas where food is ■ Used in small amounts. exposed. Limitations Dusts ■ Can be dangerous to nontarget Advantages animals. ■ Excellent for crack and crevice ■ Often not as attractive as treatments. natural food supply. ■ May be purchased ready to use. ■ Rodents must feed for 5 to ■ Usually require only simple 15 days on an anticoagulant and lightweight application rodenticide before it is lethal. equipment. ■ Rodents feeding on poison baits ■ Safe for use around electrical may die anywhere and go equipment. undetected, causing sanitation Limitations problems. ■ Drift easily. ■ Easily dislodged from treated surface (should not be applied on equipment or above food- contact surfaces). ■ Generally bulky to store.

26 Food-Plant Pest Questions Treatment Areas 1. (24) Areas of concern for pest 5. (25) An advantage of aerosols is control at food plants include: that: a. Exterior building and sur- a. They provide a long lasting rounding grounds surface deposit b. Receiving and storage areas b. They can be used in place of for incoming material fumigants c. Processing and packaging c. They are excellent for flying areas insects d. All the above d. They require agitation during mixing 2. (24) Non-chemical controls for exterior buildings and surround- 6. (25) An advantage of liquid ing grounds may include: sprays in food plants is that they: a. Providing good drainage of a. May be hazardous around rain water electrical equipment b. Screening of potential bird b. Usually provide a surface roosts deposit c. Eliminate waste from exhaust c. Can be used in place of systems fumigants d. All the above d. Are good only for exposed pests 3. (24) Chemical control techniques for receiving and storage areas of 7. (26) A limitation of dusts in food food plants may include: plants is that they: a. Space treatments a. Drift easily b. Crack and crevice treatments b. Are excellent for flying insects c. General treatments c. May damage asphalt and d. All the above plastic tile d. Can be used in place of 4. (25) The same pest control vapors methods can be used in the finished product and shipping as 8. (26) A disadvantage of baits in in the: food plants is that they: a. Exterior building and sur- a. Often control specific pests rounding grounds b. Are used in small amounts b. Receiving and storage area for c. Are easily distributed incoming materials d. Can be dangerous to non- c. Processing areas target animals d. Packaging areas

27 Grain Handling Harvest Operations During harvest, do the following: Pre-Harvest Preparation ■ Keep harvesting and conveying The following steps are necessary equipment properly adjusted to for proper storage in grain bins and minimize breakage which can elevators: open up otherwise sound grain ■ Bins and adjacent structures to invasion by a broader range should be thoroughly cleaned of stored grain pests. ■ of old grain, grain residues, Do not store the first few dust and any other material that bushels of grain passing may harbor stored grain insects through harvesting equipment. and be a source of infestation of This grain scours out hidden new grain. infestations attacking residual ■ Clean up spilled grain outside grain left over from the last of building such as along harvest. ■ railroad tracks and around Visually check incoming grain loading or unloading areas. for presence of stored grain ■ Properly dispose of above insects. Be alert for previously materials so they will not infest stored grain that may come in any stored grain or products as though it were “new grain.” ■ near the disposal site. If deemed necessary, incorpo- ■ Repair, replace, plug or other- rate a fumigant or grain wise correct conditions that protectant into newly received allow entrance of rodents, birds grain as it goes into storage. See or other pests into the buildings. section on Grain Protectants. ■ ■ Clean grounds of weeds, debris Regularly clean-up around and other materials that may dump pits and conveying provide shelter for insects, equipment. ■ rodents or birds. Store equip- Separate excess dockage and ment properly. fines from grain going to ■ Train personnel in recognition storage. Use distributors to of pests, safe use of pesticides, spread allowable dockage and overall safety and emergency fines throughout grain mass. ■ procedures. Separate dockage and fines ■ Install temperature monitors. from grain going to a dryer. ■ Apply residual insecticidal Do not recombine. ■ spray to interior walls and Use separate bins for “dry” and ceilings of adjacent structures “wet” grain. Splitting of wet (that have been thoroughly grain into “wet” and “very wet” cleaned). See that the insecticide may be necessary to do an gets into cracks, crevices and orderly job of keeping grain in out-of-the-way niches. See condition and making effective section on Residual Sprays. use of dryers and aeration ■ It may be necessary to fumigate equipment. ■ the empty structure to eliminate Watch for evidence of rodent hidden infestations such as or bird invasion when harvest those below perforated floors approaches completion. where cleaning is impractical. Post-Harvest Operations ■ Fumigate any grain that will Inspect grain thoroughly and remain in storage, if it has regularly for signs of insect infesta- insects, when new grain is being tion. Inspect every 2 months when accepted. grain temperatures are below 55 to 60˚F, and monthly when grain temperatures are warmer.

28 Grain Handling First, sample top-center of grain in ■ Check at regular intervals for the bin. Insert the probe or grain trier evidence of rodent, bird or pest horizontally about or less than invasion. Make regular inspec- 4 inches deep. Then take more tions of buildings and grounds surface probes around the bin about for possible access points. 1 foot from the walls. Finally, probe vertically at various locations in the Use of Sprays and bin to as great a depth as possible. Protectants Carefully sieve and examine each sample. Note all insects and the Residual Sprays presence of any damaged grain, The purpose is to kill insects that flour, or other signs of infestation. are located in cracks, crevices and Remember, the earlier the infestation other locations which will, if not is detected, the more damage can be controlled, infest newly stored grain. prevented. For approved pesticides, be sure to ■ Monitor all bins of stored grain refer to current recommendations by appropriate means. Temp- and actual product labels. Time erature increase may indicate application one to four weeks before insect activity. harvest or filling the bin. ■ Immediately inspect grain if Safety considerations: snow melts quickly from the ■ Personnel must have proper roof of unheated storage clothing and equipment so as to structures. Heating may be keep their exposure to pesti- caused by insect or mold cides at a minimum. growth. ■ Personnel exposed to the ■ Check “hot spots” for insect pesticides should thoroughly activity by using sampling wash hands, face and exposed probes. This may not be practi- skin after application is com- cal for deep bins. pleted or at the end of the day. ■ Use “turning” to break up hot ■ A filtered air supply should be spots due to mold or bacterial used by personnel in enclosed activity. Sample grain at bin spaces if pesticides are being or discharge for possible insect have recently been applied. infestation. ■ Be aware of accidental exposure ■ If insect infestation is found or of pets, livestock or people who suspected, use fumigants to may be in the vicinity of the control the infestation. See structure. section on “Fumigation of ■ Solvents may be equally or Stored Products.” more hazardous than the ■ Inspect transport equipment pesticide being used. before loading out grain for shipment. Railroad cars often Grain Protectants need cleaning to prevent Protectants are insecticides that are contamination of grain by other designed to remain on the grain as a materials with resulting down protective shield of toxic residues grading and financial loss. and are designed to be applied ■ Under some circumstances it directly to the grain. The purpose of may be desirable to fumigate these products is to prevent infesta- grain in rail cars while in transit tion of stored grain. They are not as or on sidings. See “Fumigation effective as fumigants in killing of Stored Products” and check stored grain insects which already current guidelines on the exist in the grain mass. Fumigants legality of this practice. penetrate into infested grain kernels ■ Have regular checks of pest bait but also diffuse out of grain and stations and/or traps. structure in a relatively short time leaving no protective residue. 29 Grain Handling For approved pesticides, refer to harvested grain is stored into the next current recommendations and actual calendar year and where storage of product labels. Time the application fall-harvested grain is expected to be for immediately after harvest as grain well into the next summer (at least). first enters storage or during transfer Safety considerations: Same as for from one bin to another. Protectants residual sprays above. are most appropriate where summer-

30 Grain Handling Questions

1. (28) Which statement applies to 4. (29) When monitoring grain in pre-harvest preparation for storage bins, you should: storage in grain bins and a. Be aware of grain tempera- elevators? ture increase a. If an insect infestation is b. “Turn” the grain break up found, fumigate. hot-spots caused by molds b. Immediately inspect grain if and/or bacterial growth snow melts quickly from c. Have regular checks of pest unheated roof. bait stations/or traps c. Bins and adjacent structures d. All the above should be thoroughly cleaned. d. Use separate bins for “dry” 5. (29) The purpose of residual and “wet” grain. sprays for stored grain is to: a. Control insects that are 2. (28) Install temperature monitors located in cracks and crevices in grain bins during the: in the bin a. Pre-harvest preparation of the b. Increase the moisture content bins of the grain b. Harvest operations of the c. Control the level of dust grain associated with stored grain c. Post-harvest operation after d. Protect the structural wood in storage the bin from insect attack d. Thirteenth week of storage 6. (29) Grain protectant spray 3. (28) When grain is in the storage applications are: bin, it should be inspected every a. Applied only to the bin wall 2 months when the grain tem- surfaces perature is below: b. Applied to the space above a. 55–60˚F the grain b. 65–70˚F c. Applied directly to the grain c. 75–80˚F d. Applied around the outside d. 85–90˚F base of the bin to protect it from rodents entering

31 Fumigation of ■ Control is temporary—no Stored Products residual action. ■ While this manual contains May damage some commodities considerable information, it is not all and/or equipment. inclusive. If information in this Selection of Fumigants manual conflicts with any pesticide When choosing a fumigant, label, the information on the label consider: must be considered correct. ■ Toxicity to the target pest. Fumigants ■ Volatility and ability to penetrate. Fumigants are defined as those ■ Corrosive, flammability and pesticides which by themselves or in explosive potential. combination with any other sub- ■ Warning properties and detec- stances are or become a gas or a tion methods. mixture of gases. Fumigants will kill ■ Effect on seed germination and or control a pest and also are toxic to finished product quality. humans. Various aerosol space ■ Residue tolerances. sprays (a suspension of liquid in air) ■ Availability. are not considered fumigants. ■ Ease of application. Fumigants penetrate cracks, ■ Cost. crevices and the commodity being treated. They must reach the target Fumigation Variables pests as gases to be effective. As soon Several factors can change the as a fumigant diffuses from the target efficiency of fumigants. Consider area, reinfestation can occur. Fumi- these when selecting a formulation gants must be applied in enclosed and dosage. areas; the gas released must reach a Temperature lethal concentration in all parts of the The fumigant may not kill the infested storage environment and the pests if the product or space being concentration must be held for a fumigated is below 10˚C (50˚F) or minimum amount of time to be above 46˚C (115˚F). The effect of effective. temperature varies according to the Advantages specific fumigant being used. ■ Toxic to many pests. Moisture ■ Can be applied by various As the moisture content of a methods. commodity increases, it becomes ■ Some may be applied without more difficult for a fumigant to disturbing the commodity. penetrate it. This makes fumigants ■ Penetrate structures, commodi- less effective on insects. For some ties and equipment. fumigants, this also increases the ■ Readily available and potential for residues exceeding legal economical. tolerances. Adequate moisture is ■ Quick acting. required for the generation of some ■ Only practical method for fumigants. infested commodities such as stored grain. Pests Susceptibility to fumigants Disadvantages depends on species, habitat and stage ■ Toxic to humans. of development. During some stages ■ Require trained applicators. of their life cycle, they are less sus- ■ Target area or commodity must ceptible than during others. Active be enclosed. insects are more susceptible than ■ May injure seed germination. sluggish, diapausing forms. ■ Temperature requirements may be hard to meet, especially in Structure northern climates. Consider the condition of the structure, the type of construction 32 Fumigation of and the product it contains. A when the treatment period is over. wooden structure, even when sealed Post-treatment gas concentration Stored Products well, will not retain fumigants as well levels must be determined and as metal, plastic, masonry or con- written records maintained to crete. Fumigation in vacuum cham- document that harmful levels have bers allows increased efficiency. dissipated. Grain cannot be legally Vacuum chambers must never be released back into commerce until used for phosphine. this step has been completed. Preparation for Premises Inspection Fumigation Once you decide to fumigate, make a serious on-site inspection. Planning You must ask yourself a number of Understand fully the facility and questions and make a number of commodity to be fumigated, includ- decisions. Frequently, the success or ing the: failure of the fumigation operation ■ Design of the structure, as well will depend upon what you learn, as adjacent and connecting what you decide and how you plan. structures both above and Some of these questions should below ground. include: ■ ■ Persons or animals expected to If the structure itself is not be at or near the area to be infested, could the infested fumigated. commodity be moved from ■ The commodity, its history the building and fumigated (previous fumigation, tempera- elsewhere? ■ ture, moisture), condition, and Assuming that removal of the intended purpose (seed or food infested commodity from the processing). building is not practical, can ■ Availability of emergency you fumigate the commodity shutoff stations for electricity, in place? ■ water and gas. Is there enough room between ■ Location of nearest telephone the commodity and walls or and numbers for fire or police partitions so you can seal the departments, hospitals and tarp to the floor. ■ physician. What is the volume of the Select a suitable fumigant. Under- commodity? ■ stand label directions, warnings and What is the volume of the antidotes. You should notify local building? ■ medical, fire and police authorities Can the structure itself be made and other security personnel about: reasonably airtight or will it be ■ Chemicals to be used. necessary to tarp the entire ■ Proposed date and time of use. building? ■ ■ Type of respiratory protection From what materials is the required. structure built? (Fumigants will ■ Fire hazard rating. pass through cinder block with ■ Name and phone number of no difficulty.) ■ person to contact in event of Are there broken windows that emergency. must be replaced? ■ Have alternate application and Are there cracks in the ceiling, protective equipment and replace- walls or floors that must be ment parts available. Display warn- sealed? ■ ing signs near points of entry and Are there floor drains or cable provide for security of buildings. conduits that will require Have necessary first aid equipment sealing? (There have been a available. Before treatment is started, number of fumigation failures develop plans to ventilate the area because floor drains under stacked commodities went 33 Fumigation of unnoticed. In one instance, the ■ Are there exhaust fans and Stored Products fumigant leaked into a tele- where are the fan switches? phone cable tunnel which led to ■ Are there windows and doors an occupied building. No loss that can be opened for cross of life occurred, but a number ventilation? of people were made ill.) ■ Does the building contain ■ How are you going to handle any high-priority items that air conditioning ducts and may have to be shipped within ventilation fans? a few hours notice? ■ Will interior partitions interfere ■ Is the structure to be fumigated with fumigant circulation? so located that your operations ■ Are the interior partitions gas may attract bystanders? (If so, tight so they can be relied upon you should consider asking for to keep the fumigant from police assistance to augment entering other parts of the your own guards.) structure? ■ Where is the nearest medical ■ Are there parts of the building facility? not under your control? ■ What is the telephone number ■ Can these other operations of the nearest poison control be shut down during the center? fumigation? ■ Once you are convinced that ■ What are the building contents? you have covered everything, ■ Can any of them be damaged prepare a checklist of things by the fumigant? to do and of materials needed. ■ Can such items be removed ■ Don’t rely upon your memory. during the fumigation? ■ If they cannot be removed, can The final three questions: they be otherwise protected? ■ Am I qualified to do this job? ■ Where are the electrical outlets? ■ What have I overlooked? ■ Of what voltage are they? ■ Is fumigation still the best ■ Will the circuits be live during method of controlling the pest fumigation? problem? ■ Can the outlets be used to operate your fumigant Respiratory Protection circulating fans? Devices ■ Look outside the building. If you tarp the entire structure, Gas Masks can you make a good, tight The respiratory protection devices ground seal? that furnish the minimum protection ■ Is there shrubbery next to the are the full-face gas masks. These are building that might be damaged equipped with canisters. The canister either by the fumigant or by must be suitable for protection your digging to make an air- against the fumigant being used. tight fumigation seal? The canisters contain chemicals that ■ Can this shrubbery be moved? absorb the fumigant, and also may ■ How far is it to the nearest contain a filter. building? The life of the canister is limited ■ Does that building have air and varies with the fumigant used conditioning? and the fumigant concentration, ■ Does it have air intakes that temperature and respiration rate. could draw the fumigant The maximum permissible limits inside—particularly during usually are stated on each canister. aeration? Do not exceed these maximum limits. ■ How are you going to aerate The canister color codes for the your structure after fumigation? various fumigants are:

34 Fumigation of Fumigant Color Code The disadvantages of air-line masks are that the fumigators must Chloropicrin Black Stored Products tow the air-line with them. The air- Methyl Bromide Black line can become caught or kinked Aluminum Yellow with which will shut off the air supply. Phosphide gray and The engine may fail. The air pump orange stripe must be located so that contaminated There are several reasons for using air is not pumped to the fumigator. devices other than full-face gas Air-line masks used in “immediately masks with chemical canisters for dangerous to life and health” (IDLH) respiratory protection. The canisters atmospheres must have an escape have limited life. Special canisters cylinder attached. must be available for each fumigant. The canisters provide no protection Self-Contained Breathing at abnormally high (over 2.0 percent) Apparatus fumigant concentrations. Refer to There are two types of these labeling and Occupational Safety devices. One is the air pack and Hazarad Association (OSHA) regula- the other is the oxygen breathing tions for additional guidance. They apparatus (OBA). provide no protection in spaces when Air Pack oxygen is deficient. With this device, the full-face General Suggestions on Canister mask is attached to a tank of air Use carried on the back of the fumigator. 1. Discard any canister that has This device gives the fumigator the been used for more than its mobility of the canister mask and suggested effective use time at does not tie him/her to an air pump. 2 percent gas concentration. Again, this does not protect against 2. Discard any canister whenever skin absorption of the fumigant. an odor of fumigant is detected With the popularity of SCUBA as coming through (the absorp- diving, it is not difficult to get the air tion material is not working). tanks refilled. Depending upon the 3. Discard canisters kept beyond size of the tank, the air supply will the expiration dates or more than last up to an hour. There usually is a two years after manufacture warning bell that warns the fumiga- (even if unused) unless instruc- tor when the air supply is running tion sheet specifically says low. The disadvantage of the air pack otherwise. is that the fumigator has to carry a 4. Do not use a canister-type gas heavy tank to complete the work. mask to enter a freshly fumigated OBA area. The concentration of The oxygen breathing apparatus is fumigant will overpower even similar to the air pack but instead of new absorbent material. a tank to carry, a special canister Air-line Masks generates the oxygen supply. The These devices have face pieces canister is lightweight and usually similar to the canister gas masks but is worn on the chest. To operate, the rather than a canister, the masks are fumigator places the canister into its attached to hoses which lead to an air place, tightens the connector and pump. The air then passes through blows into the air supply tube once a filter. One air pump can supply air or twice. The moisture from the for several air lines. This device breath activates the chemicals in the permits the fumigators to operate canister which then provide a supply within a space being fumigated for of oxygen. The supply is good for indefinite time (Note: There is no about one hour. protection against skin absorption There usually is a warning bell of some fumigants.) that can be set to warn the fumigator that the life of the canister is about to 35 Fumigation of expire. Care must be taken and Return to the storage area all Stored Products directions closely followed for the unused chemicals in clearly labeled, disposal of the oxygen-generating original containers. Dispose of empty canisters. containers correctly. Note: All respiratory protection Report to company-retained devices must be fit-tested to assure physician or to designated personnel proper protection of the person any indications of illness or physical using the device. discomfort, no matter how minor they seem. These symptoms and Physical Examinations signs may include dizziness, nausea, All new employees should have headaches and lack of coordination. a thorough physical examination Do not consume alcohol for before performing any fumigation 24 hours before or after a fumigation. duties. The examination should include a liver function test and a Post Fumigation respiratory capability test (or Before re-entry, use a suitable gas equivalents). detector as indicated on the label to All persons working with fumigants determine fumigant concentration. should have a complete physical Do not depend on odors. Some examination every six to 12 months, fumigant gases are odorless. Wear depending on the amount of exposure. correct respiratory equipment. Again, the examination should include Passive gas detection badges, liver function capability and respira- which resemble X-ray exposure tory capacity. badges, change color or shading to inform wearers that their exposure to Fumigant Application the fumigant may be reaching health- Always assign at least two persons threatening levels. to each fumigation. Everyone Turn on all ventilating or involved in the fumigation should aerating fans. know first aid and other emergency Check for gas concentrations in procedures, including personal areas that are expected to aerate decontamination. slowly. Prior to applying the fumigant Remove warning signs when the make sure that no one is within the gas concentration is within safe limits structure to be fumigated. This is for human exposure. particularly critical if the structure Remove and dispose of to be fumigated consists of several packaging and waste products adjoining rooms or spaces and/or of solid fumigants. is a multi-level structure. On those occasions when a fumi- Provide watchmen when appro- gated area must be entered, portable priate. Secure entrances by guards bottled air systems with full-face or locks. Current law requires mask are the safest choice. Absorp- placarding of structures undergoing tive filter masks can be used if steps fumigation. are taken to make absolutely certain Wording must meet posting that the filter cartridges are replaced requirements (including name, phone before they lose their effectiveness number of fumigator, etc.) and and if the fumigant concentration is warnings must appear in English and not high. The “buddy” system should Spanish. always be practiced; in grain bin Follow label directions exactly fumigation, one person outside the when applying a fumigant. Consider bin but within eyesight and hearing prevailing winds and other pertinent range prepared to give aid if it is weather factors such as temperature necessary. and humidity.

36 Fumigation of Commodities/Pests to Rice weevil Cigarette beetle* Stored Products Consider for Fumigation Granary weevil Most fumigation operations are Drugstore beetle* directed toward the control of insect Indian meal moth (larvae*) pests of stored grain, flour, meal, egg Cadelle* noodles, rice, spaghetti, spices, nuts Mediterranean flour moth and similar foods. Control of pests in Saw-toothed grain beetle a few packages of an item can be Spices accomplished by either heat or cold. Cigarette beetle* When large quantities are involved, Drugstore beetle* fumigation is the answer. Dermestids* If the infestation is light, the commodity may be used after Nuts and Dried Fruit fumigation. Even if the infestation is Indian meal moth (larvae*) so heavy that the commodity will Saw-toothed grain beetle have to be destroyed after fumiga- Cadelle* tion, fumigation may be warranted Flour beetles (Tribolium sp.) to prevent spread of the insects to Dried Peas and Beans uninfested items. Common bean weevil* Stored Grain Cowpea weevil* Granary weevil Tobacco Red flour beetle Cigarette beetle* Lesser grain borer* Drugstore beetle* Indian meal moth (larvae*) Dermestids* Saw-toothed grain beetle Dehydrated Foods Angoumois grain moth (soups, powdered milk) Flat grain beetle Indian meal moth (larvae*) Rice weevil Dermestids* Cadelle or flour worm* Flour and Flour Products *Pests which can penetrate paper or These include fry and cake mixes, plastic packaging. spaghetti, macaroni, noodles, etc. Flour beetles (Tribolium sp.)

37 Fumigation of Questions 6. (34) The respiratory device that Stored Products furnishes the minimum protec- tion is the: 1. (32) To be effective, fumigants a. Full-face gas masks must: b. Air-line masks a. Be applied in enclosed areas c. Air packs b. Reach a lethal concentration d. Oxygen breathing apparatus in all areas c. Be held at a lethal concentra- 7. (35) Use of ___ in “immediately tion for a minimum amount dangerous to life and health” of time (IDLH) atmospheres must have d. All the above an escape cylinder attached. a. air pack 2. (32) Several factors can change b. air-line masks the efficiency of fumigants: c. full-face gas masks a. Corrosive, flammability and d. OBA‘s explosive potential b. The temperature and mois- 8. (35) The air pack is an example of ture of the grain mass a type of: c. The fumigant availability and a. Air-line mask cost b. Full-face gas mask d. The ease of application and c. Self-contained breathing residue tolerance apparatus d. OBA 3. (33) Knowing and understanding the commodity, its history, 9. (36) Medical physical examina- condition and future use are tions of persons working with important when planning to ___ fumigants should include: for pest control. a. A hearing and taste test a. ship it to China b. A liver function and respira- b. fumigate it tory capability test c. store it c. A smell and flexibility test d. sell it quickly d. A sight and touch test 4. (33) Before a fumigated com- 10. (36) Before re-entering a fumi- modity can be legally released gated area, you should ___ to back into commerce, determine the fumigant a. it must pass a USDA concentration. inspection. a. release a canary in to the b. it must pass an EPA structure inspection. b. send an EPA inspector in to c. it must pass a Kansas the structure Department of Agriculture c. use a suitable gas detector as inspection. indicated on the label d. written records documenting d. send a lawyer in to the harmful levels of the fumigant structure have dissipated must be maintained. 11. (37) Fumigation of a heavy infestation may be warranted 5. (34) One of the final questions even though the commodity will you should ask before doing a still be destroyed because: fumigation is: a. Fumigation leaves no residue. a. What is the volume of the b. Fumigation will prevent the commodity? pest from spreading to b. What is the voltage of electri- uninfested items. cal outlets in the men’s room? c. Fumigation is less expensive c. What have I over looked? than spraying. d. Does the building have air 38 d. Fumigation can be carried out conditioning? over night in most cases. Fumigation restrictive. Other procedures may be used if they are safe, effective and Methods for Note: After June 30, 1986, the consistent with the fumigant and its traditional liquid grain fumigants labeling. Stored Grain (carbon tetrachloride, carbon disul- Fumigation of Farm Bins fide, ethylene dibromide, ethylene ■ Leakage is the most important dichloride, etc.) were no longer legal cause of failure in the fumiga- for use. tion of farm storages. Since General storages often are small, the leakage is high in proportion to There are several important factors the capacity. Most wooden common to all fumigant application structures are too porous and procedures. should be completely covered ■ All fumigants are restricted use by a gas-tight sheet for success- pesticides and as such, applica- ful fumigation. tors must be certified or under ■ Seal the bin as tightly as pos- the direct supervision of a sible, especially doors, eaves, certified applicator to obtain or hatches, vents, and aeration/ use them. auger ports. ■ A plan should be devised for ■ Surface of the grain should be application, aeration, moni- leveled and below the storage toring and disposal of the side walls. Fines should be fumigant so as to minimize uniformly distributed through- applicator exposure to the gas. out the grain mass. ■ Provision should be made for ■ Since solid forms (tablets or uniform distribution of the gas pellets) of phosphine are most throughout the storage space likely to be used, provision being fumigated. must be made to distribute the ■ The condition of the storage gas uniformly throughout the facility and the materials from grain mass. This may be accom- which it is constructed may plished (follow label directions) determine the feasibility of by: obtaining a safe, effective — probing tablets or pellets into fumigation, i.e. whether the the grain at regular intervals enclosure can be properly over the surface and to depths sealed to retain a toxic concen- of 5 to 7 feet (Figure 13). tration of gas long enough to — covering the surface of the kill target insects. grain with polyethylene ■ Follow all dosage, exposure, sheeting after applying the precautionary and safety fumigant from the surface will statements on the label and greatly reduce the leak rate. technical labeling. Placard — additionally, applying no fumigated structures, monitor more than 25 percent of the gas concentrations and use total dosage at the bottom if required respiratory protection. the bin is equipped with an ■ When applying fumigants from aeration system. Caution: within the space being fumi- Make sure the aeration duct gated, two trained individuals PVC Metal or plenum is dry before are required. Fumigant Probe adding fumigant tablets or The following suggestions are pellets to this space. Addition intended to provide general guide- of metallic phosphides to lines for typical fumigations. They Figure 13 water may result in a fire. are not intended to cover every type Seal the aeration opening of situation nor are they meant to be with 4 mil polyethylene.

39 Fumigation ■ Larger bins that are properly of this method see “Stored Methods for sealed (bolted or welded Product Management” available construction) may be fumigated from the Cooperative Extension by applying the solid phosphine Service, Oklahoma State Stored Grain tablets or pellets over the sur- University. face of the grain and recirculat- ■ If the grain can be moved from ing the fumigant through the one bin to another, uniform grain by means of a small fan distribution of the gas can be and duct system (closed loop obtained by adding the solid fumigation) as in Figure 14. Gas tablets or pellets to the grain as generated at the surface of the it is placed in storage. grain is taken from the over- space and introduced into the Fumigation of Flat Storages grain at the bottom of the bin Fumigation of flat storages with and distributed upward solid tablets or pellets to generate Figure 14 through the grain. For details phosphine may require considerable effort. Sufficient numbers of indi- viduals should be available to

1/12 HP Blower complete the application rapidly (Explosion 4” dia. enough to prevent excessive applica- Proof) tor exposure and minimum loss of gas from the storage. 4” dia. ■ Conduct fumigations during cooler periods and employ 1/12 HP other physical means and work TEFC 3” or 4” dia. 3” or 4” dia. Blower practices to prevent applicator exposure. 3” or 4” dia. ■ Seal any doors, vents, aeration ducts, cracks or other sources of leaks. ■ Seal Establish a plan for application Aeration of phosphine tablets or pellets Fan Seal Base Seal Base Seal Base to the grain to provide uniform Opening Opening Opening distribution of the gas in the grain mass. CLF systems for individual concrete silos. — Apply phosphine tablets or pellets to the grain by prob- ing at intervals along the Top View length and width of the flat storage. — Tablets or pellets may be deposited within the grain mass by intermittently drop- Side View ping them into the probe as it is withdrawn from the grain.

6” Suction Pipes Shut Off — Tarp the surface of the grain 1/4–1 HP Valve as it is treated to prevent Closed Loop (2 Places) Fumigation Manifold Pipes excessive loss of gas from the Blower to 3 Aeration 1/12–1/5 HP grain. Fans per Blower (2 Places) Closed Loop ■ Fumigation It is unlikely that flat storage 4” Pressure Pipes Blower structures would be sufficiently (2 Places) Seal well sealed to allow closed loop Seal Aeration Seal fumigation with phosphine or Aeration Fan Aeration recirculation with methyl Fan Fan bromide (See fumigation of Two CLF blowers with separate pipe manifolds on large welded steel or concrete tanks. vertical storages).

40 Fumigation Fumigation of Vertical prevent damage or excessive Storages bromide levels in the grain. Methods for ■ Concrete upright bins and other When fumigating silos in grain silos in which grain can be rapidly elevators, adjacent areas must be Structures and transferred provide the opportunity carefully monitored for the pres- to use automated systems of fumi- ence of hazardous levels of gas. gant application. — Gas levels in work areas Other Enclosures ■ Close and seal all openings to must not exceed 0.3 ppm for make the structure as airtight phosphine or 5 ppm for as possible. Prior to fumigation, methyl bromide. seal the bin discharge and the — Pockets of methyl bromide vents near the bin top which may accumulate in low areas connect to adjacent bins. (boot pits, etc.) because it is ■ Pellets or tablets may be applied heavier than air. continuously by an automatic Fumigation of Structures, dispenser or by hand as the grain is turned or loaded into Facilities and Other the bin. Enclosures — Application can be at various locations in the grain stream, Fumigation of Food i.e. conveying belt or con- Processing Plants and veyor to the bin, at entry to Warehouses the bin, or in the up leg of the Safe, effective fumigation of entire elevator by automatic structures requires extensive plan- dispenser. ning and preparation. This type of — Seal and placard the top treatment is primarily aimed at hatch of the bin when the disinfesting the structure and its fumigant application is equipment rather than destroying an complete. infestation in a commodity, such as ■ Phosphine also may be applied grain. using the “closed loop fumiga- ■ Check with appropriate tion” method. authorities to become familiar — Pellets or tablets are placed with local regulations regarding on the surface of the grain in fumigations. the bin using the headspace ■ Notify fire, police, medical and to generate the gas. other local authorities (as — The gas is then moved by duct required) of the fumigation. and fan to the bottom of the ■ Select a fumigant that will allow bin and up through the grain. effective treatment of the facility ■ Methyl bromide gas is best within the available time. applied by the recirculation — Using the labeling, calculate method in elevator silos. the dosage and exposure — Methyl bromide, compressed period based on the volume as a liquid in cylinders, is and tightness of the structure. released as a vapor into a fan — Note any physical and/or and duct system which chemical hazards related to includes the silo as part of the fumigant. the system. ■ Prepare the facility for fumiga- — The gas is recirculated tion by sealing the structure to through the grain for the prevent gas leakage. prescribed exposure period — Close and seal all external to allow uniform distribution openings, including win- of the gas throughout the dows, doors, exhaust ventila- grain mass. The gas is then tors, air intakes, drain pipes, exhausted from the grain to tunnels, etc.

41 Fumigation — Processing equipment within ■ Bulk commodities to which Methods for the structure, i.e. bucket phosphine producing tablets or elevators, conveyors, hop- pellets may be added directly pers, bins, spouts and other are fumigated essentially the Structures and pieces of equipment should same as flat storages with the be opened to allow fumigant transport vehicle acting as the Other Enclosures penetration. “storage structure.” ■ Establish a plan to minimize — Railcars and containers exposure of applicators during shipped piggyback by rail release of the fumigant and may be fumigated in transit. during aeration of the structure. — It is illegal to move fumi- Have personal protective gated trucks, trailers, vans, equipment available and be etc., over public roads until aware of the maximum expo- they have been aerated. sure levels for the fumigant ■ Processed food commodities being used. also may be fumigated in ■ Immediately prior to introduc- transport vehicles, with the ing the fumigant, check that all exception that residues of entrances are locked and tablets, pellets or other phos- placarded and that all personnel phine forms are not allowed in have left the facility. In some or on the processed products or instances, it may be necessary to their packaging. post watchmen or guards to — Various forms of packaging preclude persons from entering for aluminum and magne- the fumigated facility. sium phosphide are available ■ Apply the fumigant according to preclude or contain the to the label and technical dust residues that remain labeling. when phosphine gas is ■ Following the fumigation, generated. aerate the facility. — Only railcars and containers — Using gas detection equip- shipped piggyback may be ment, monitor the gas levels fumigated in transit. to assure proper aeration and ■ Consignees of railcars and that the facility is safe for containers fumigated in transit workers to enter. must be aware and trained for — Specific attention should be proper monitoring of gas given to ventilating enclosed concentrations in the vehicle and low areas in the facility and processed commodity at to assure that heavier than air time of receipt. gases have been removed. ■ Empty transport vehicles ■ Remove any fumigant residues occasionally may be fumigated and/or containers and the to assure they are not infested fumigation warning placards. before use to transport pro- cessed food products. Fumigation of Transport ■ All transport vehicles must be Vehicles properly placarded during Railcars, containers, trucks, vans, fumigation. and other transport vehicles, either ■ Shipboard, intransit ship or empty or loaded with commodities, shiphold fumigations are may, at times, require fumigation. governed by U.S. Coast Guard Very specific conditions apply to this Regulations. Both phosphine type of fumigation and it is sug- and methyl bromide are labeled gested that the labeling be referred to for use. for guidance. Some general guide- lines are as follows:

42 Fumigation Vault Fumigation be fumigated. Tarps may be specially Atmospheric and vacuum vaults made for fumigation, such as impreg- Methods for are chambers primarily designed for nated nylon, or they may be sheet fumigation of small lots of commodi- polyethylene. ties or materials. They can be small ■ Use of plastic sheeting to cover Structures and structures located well apart from commodities is one of the other facilities or special chambers easiest and least expensive Other Enclosures within a structure. Some are specially means for providing relatively built for fumigation, others are gas-tight enclosures for modified from other structures. fumigation. ■ Atmospheric vaults are simple — The volume of these enclo- gas-tight chambers that provide sures can vary widely from a constant volume space for a few cubic feet to covering fumigation with either methyl an entire storage structure. bromide or phosphine. — Plastic sheets may be sealed — Application of fumigant and together to provide sufficient aeration can be accomplished width of material to cover with minimum exposure for large stacks of commodity the applicator. and provide for adequate — Chambers should be sealing to the floor or other placarded when in use. surface. ■ Vacuum fumigation vaults are — If the base on which the specifically designed for fumi- commodity rests is of wood gation under reduced pressures. or other porous material, the — Vacuum vaults allow fumi- commodity should be gation of sensitive commodi- repositioned onto polyethyl- ties and other items with ene prior to being covered for reduced dosages and expo- fumigation. sure times. — The plastic covering of the — Application of the fumigant commodity must be sealed to and aeration usually are the floor. Use sand or water automated. After fumigation, snakes (plastic or fabric tubes release of the vacuum should filled with sand or plastic be followed by two changes tubes filled with water) or of air in the chamber. other means for sealing. — Limited uses of methyl ■ Method of fumigant application bromide are labeled for will vary depending on the vacuum fumigation. commodity and/or fumigant. Follow label directions. Tarpaulin Fumigation ■ Place warning placards at Tarpaulin fumigation involves the conspicuous points on the placement of a gas-tight material enclosure. over the commodity or structure to

43 Fumigation Methods for Stored Grain, Questions 1. (39) In the fumigation of farm 6. (41) Whole structure fumigation Structures and storage bins, ___ is the most is primarily aimed at: common cause of failure. a. controlling pests in packaged a. insufficient dosage of fumi- goods Other Enclosures gant is applied b. disinfesting the structure b. temperature of grain is too rather than the contents low c. controlling pests of stored c. the moisture of the grain is wheat too high d. controlling pests of stored d. leakage of gas from the bin corn

2. (39) Provisions to distribute gases 7. (42) It is legal to fumigate only uniformly throughout the grain ___ while in transit: mass include: a. trucks a. Probing tablets/pellets in to b. trailers grain at regular intervals c. railcars b. Covering the grain surface d. vans with a polyethylene sheeting after fumigant application 8. (43) Atmospheric vault fumiga- c. Apply no more than 25% of tion means that: the dosage at the bottom a. The fumigation is in a vault of the bin with aeration up high in the atmosphere equipment b. The atmosphere is pressur- d. All the above ized in the vault to control the pests 3. (40) When fumigating flat c. The atmosphere (air) is storages, you should: pumped out of the vault, a. Conduct fumigations during thereby suffocating the pests cool weather d. The fumigant is released in to b. Seal all sources of possible the vault at normal atmo- leaks spheric pressure c. Have a plan to provide uniform gas distribution 9. (43) Vacuum vault fumigation d. All the above means that: a. The vault is placed in a 4. (41) Vertical grain storage bins vacuum before the gas is and silos with rapid grain released transfer systems: b. The vault is designed for a. provide an opportunity fumigation under reduced for automated fumigant atmospheric pressure application c. The commodity is put in a b. can not be legally fumigated vacuum before going in to the c. can only utilize liquid vault fumigants d. The atmosphere (air) is d. can only be fumigated during pumped out of the vault, July thereby suffocating the pests

5. (41) Fumigant gas levels in work 10. (43) The fumigation technique areas must not exceed ___ ppm of covering the commodity or for phosphine. structure to be fumigated with a. 0.3 a gas-tight material is called: b. 0.7 a. Atmospheric fumigation c. 1.0 b. Vacuum fumigation d. 5.0 c. Tarpaulin fumigation 44 d. Transport fumigation Types of temperature and may ignite sponta- neously. Metals such as copper, brass Fumigants Aluminum and Magnesium and other copper alloys, and precious metals such as gold and silver are Phosphides subject to corrosion by phosphine. Properties: Various forms of Uses: READ THE LABEL. Tablets aluminum or magnesium phosphides usually are probed into grain in react with moisture to evolve phos- shallow storage structures. Pellets phine gas (PH3). Hydrogen phos- usually are introduced in grain by phide gas is highly toxic to insects, automatic applicators as grain flows burrowing pests, humans and other into vertical storage bins. Sachets and forms of animal life. In addition to various other forms of packaged it’s toxic properties, the gas will aluminum or magnesium phosphide corrode certain metals and may are used in other specialized types of ignite spontaneously in air at concen- fumigation. Refer to product techni- trations above it’s lower flammable cal labeling for specific applications limit of 1.8% (v/v). and uses. Tolerances have been set Phosphine easily penetrates into for residues on raw agricultural products, but being only slightly commodities and on processed cereal heavier than air (sp. gr: 1.214) can products. easily be moved by convection or other air currents. To maintain toxic Methyl Bromide (MB) concentration of the gas requires Properties: At normal tempera- tight sealing of the space being tures and pressures, methyl bromide fumigated. is an odorless, colorless gas. It is Tablets and pellets are formed by generally transported in cylinders adding paraffin and commonly include under pressure as a liquid. The gas is ammonium carbonate which liberates over three times heavier than air ammonia and carbon dioxide. These (sp. gr: 3.27). MB quickly and deeply gases are essentially non-flammable penetrates into grains and cereal and act as inert agents to reduce fire products under normal atmospheric hazards. Ammonia gas also serves as conditions and following fumigation a warning agent. the vapors dissipate rapidly. Human Hazards: Tablets, pellets Repeated or excessively high dosage or dust that are swallowed, or if fumigations of seeds or cereal gas is inhaled, are highly toxic to product may result in reduced humans. The maximum safe expo- viability of the seeds and cumulative sure limit (for 40 hours/week) is increase in inorganic bromide resi- 0.3 ppm (0.00003 percent) in air. dues in raw agricultural products Garlic odor warns of toxic concentra- and processed cereal products. tions but may not always be present Human Hazard: This gas is not as above 0.3 ppm. Gas detectors should toxic as some other fumigants, be used to ensure safe working however, because it lacks an odor it levels. Symptoms include fatigue, must be handled with extreme ringing in ears, nausea, pressure in caution. Liquid MB in contact with chest, intestinal pain, diarrhea and the skin will cause severe blisters. vomiting. PH3 apparently is not The maximum safe exposure limit is chronic and is not absorbed through 5 ppm. Acute and chronic symptoms the skin in appreciable amounts. may occur. Acute exposure causes Physical/Chemical Hazards: pulmonary injury and circulatory Aluminum and magnesium phos- failure. Chronic exposures result in phide tablets, pellets and dust will neurological symptoms (headache, rapidly release PH3 when exposed to incoordination, visual disturbances) moisture in the air, or to water or which are often irreversible. Delayed other liquids. High concentrations symptoms and lack of odor make this of gas may cause an increase in fumigant hazardous to use.

45 Types of The presence of MB gas can be Chloropicrin (CP) Fumigants detected by halide leak detectors but Properties: Commonly known as more reliably it is measured by “tear gas,” this clear liquid evolves detector tubes or thermal conductivity. an intense burning vapor. Because Physical/Chemical Hazards: of this property, chloropicrin has Methyl bromide in air is considered been used as a warning agent in non-flammable; however, liquid some MB formulations. It is one of methyl bromide in contact with the most toxic fumigants to insects. aluminum may result in spontaneous Even though “tear gas” is over five ignition. Certain commodities and a half times as heavy as air (iodized salt, sponge rubber, leather (sp. gr.: 5.676), when it was used goods, viscose rayons, photo chemi- as a grain fumigant it was absorbed cals, etc.) should not be exposed to by the grain and was not effective in MB. penetration to any depth in the bin. Uses: READ THE LABEL. MB Commodities tended to release the readily penetrates flour and milled absorbed gas slowly, making it products and has been used for this unpleasant to handle. purpose. However, because of Human Hazards: The “tear gas” potential residue problems this use effect of chloropicrin is helpful in has diminished. MB fumigation of preventing persons from staying in grain requires gas recirculation dangerous concentrations of the gas. systems which are not common in A concentration of 2.4g/m3 most farm and elevator facilities. (=240 ppm) can cause death from Grain processing facility fumigation acute pulmonary edema in one has constituted a major use of this minute. A concentration as low as gas, however, the declaration of MB 1 ppm in air causes an intense as an ozone depletor is changing this smarting pain in the eyes and the situation. Refer to technical labeling reaction is to leave the area immedi- for specific applications and uses. ately. Continued exposure may cause Tolerances have been set for inor- serious lung injury. The maximum ganic bromides on raw agricultural safe exposure limit is 0.1 ppm. and in processed cereal products. Physical/Chemical Hazards: Chloropicrin is a non-flammable TABLE 5. liquid that may be corrosive under Exposure to Fumigants certain conditions. Do not use water Threshold limit values (TLV’s) for workers Fumigant odors and to clean equipment or use magne- exposed to fumigants during a normal 8-hour detection sium, aluminum, or alkali metals work day or 40-hour work week* levels as containers. Uses: Chloropicrin is no longer Odor detection labeled for direct application to a b Substance ppm mg/m3 ppm Odor grains; however, it is effective in Phosphine 0.3 0.4 1 Garlic destroying infestation in full-floor Methyl bromide 5.0 60 — No odor aeration bottoms or empty grain bins. Chloropicrin 0.1 0.7 1–3 Strong, Biting Threshold Limit Values *Source—American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Threshold limit values (TLV’s) for Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances in Workroom Air Adopted fumigants are listed in Table 5. They by ACGIH for 1979; P.O. Box 1937, Cincinnati, Ohio 45201. The TLV’s in the refer to airborne concentrations of table should be used as guides in the control of health hazards and should not substances and represent conditions be used as fine lines between safe and dangerous concentrations. They are under which it is believed that nearly subject to variation and the latest documentation should be consulted for the all workers may be repeatedly most current values. V.K. Rowe, DowElanco Chemical Company, Research exposed day after day without Department. adverse effects. These TLV’s are aParts of vapor or gas per million parts of contaminated air by volume at 25°C based on time weighted average and 760 mm H.G. pressure. concentrations for a normal 8-hour bApproximate milligrams of substance per cubic meter of air. work day or 40-hour work week. 46 Types of Safe Use of Fumigants Symptoms of Fumigant Grain fumigants are commonly Poisoning Fumigants used around storage facilities in The following are symptoms of elevators, feed manufacturing, light exposure of chronic fumigant and food processing plants. Because poisoning: of this, there is a tendency for 1. Headache. employees who work with fumigants 2. Dizziness and equilibrium and fumigated materials to become disturbances. lax in their safety precautions. 3. Visual disturbances. ALL FUMIGANTS CAN BE 4. Irritation of respiratory tract LETHAL if they are used care- (leads to more “lung colds,” lessly or without adequate safety asthma attacks, and other lung precautions. and throat problems). Phosphine and chloropicrin are 5. Narcosis (desire to sleep, highly toxic; methyl bromide also drowsiness). is hazardous to humans. There are 6. Muscle cramps—especially in also physical hazards associated arms and legs. with fumigants. NOTE: The ingestion of alcoholic Humans can be poisoned by beverages (from 24 hours before to inhaling the gases of fumigants 24 hours after exposure) will inten- and by absorption through the skin sify the symptoms and effects of (depending on the fumigant). Most fumigant poisoning. commercial products have an unpleasant odor but the pure chemi- Safety Precautions cals can either be odorless or have a Warning Signs (Placards) sweet smell. Also, humans may become insensitive to the odor of a Warning signs must be posted on fumigant. doors and other means of access Continued intake of methyl before fumigants are used in any bromide, whether it be by inhalation, structure. The applicator must place skin contact or other means, results or post all entrances to the structure in damage to body organs and under fumigation with signs (Figure tissues. This damage is not readily 15) bearing in English and Spanish: ■ apparent to the individual, especially The signal word DANGER/ in the early stages, but it is irrevers- PELIGRO and the SKULL and ible and can proceed to a point where CROSSBONES symbol in red. ■ the person affected becomes unable The statement “Area and/or to continue working. Instances are commodity under fumigation, known where the effect has accumu- DO NOT ENTER/NO ENTER.” lated over a 20-year period leaving Table 6. the victims in unemployable condi- Fumigant Toxicity and Flammability tion and too old to switch to non- Toxicity to hazardous, lighter duty work. All workers in areas where fumi- Grain Flammability (Explosive gants are being used or where Fumigant insects Humans concentrations in air) fumigated commodities are being Phosphine High Very high Very (1.79%)* handled should be aware of the Methyl bromide Moderate Medium Nonflammable symptoms of light exposure to the fumigants. Such symptoms are Chloropicrin Very high Very high Nonflammable warnings that the concentration of *Phosphine reacts with copper and copper alloys giving severe corrosion. fumigants in the air is too high for Such metals should be protected from the gas. continued personnel safety.

47 Types of ■ The statement, “This sign may mine whether aeration is complete, Fumigants only be removed after the each fumigated commodity, structure commodity is completely or vehicle must be monitored and aerated (contains 0.3 ppm or shown to contain the designated safe less of hydrogen phosphide gas; level of gas or lower. 5.0 ppm or less of methyl bromide; 0.1 ppm or less of Security Guards chloropicrin). If incompletely Security guards may be necessary if aerated commodity is trans- the structure is at an exposed location ferred to a new site, the new site where the public (especially children) must also be placarded if it may attempt unauthorized entry. contains more than ______(the Security guards also may be needed if amount indicated for a specific plant operations do not permit the fumigant label). Workers must security of the fumigated area. not be exposed to more than Guards must have the authority to _____ (amount indicated for a refuse entry to anyone not wearing specific fumigant label).” protective equipment. They should ■ The date and time fumigation have suitable protective equipment begins and is completed. available if an emergency requires ■ Name of fumigant used. entry into the fumigated area. They ■ Name, address and telephone also should be trained in first aid number of the applicator. procedures for fumigant poisoning Warning signs must not be and have the appropriate materials removed until the treated commodity readily available. or structure is aerated to the desig- Precautions Figure 15 nated safe level for entry. To deter- Precautions include an accounting for all personnel known to be work- ing in the area, a room-by-room and floor-by-floor check to ascertain that no person has been overlooked and the use of a portable public address system (bull horn) in each space to DANGER warn anyone present of the imminent fumigation. If bells, whistles or other devices are used to give warning signals, all personnel must have been PELIGRO instructed as to the meaning of these signals. Doors, windows and other points AREA AND/OR COMMODITY UNDER FUMIGATION, DO NOT of access must be locked or otherwise ENTER/NO ENTRE secured against accidental or unau- This sign may only be removed after commodity is completely thorized entry into fumigated areas. aereated (contains 0.3 ppm or less phosphine gas). If incompletely Preferably there should be one aereated commodity is transformed to a new site, the new site person ultimately responsible for must also be placarded and workers must not be exposed to more evacuating all people, securing the than 0.3 ppm phosphine. affected area and restricting access until the area has been cleared of the FUMIGATION WITH fumigant. Notices of fumigated areas must be Brand Name: provided to night watchmen, janitors, maintenance crews and others who Fumigation Being Performed By Date of Fumigation Emergency Telephones have master keys and ready access into NAME: Date Applied , 19 Day: the fumigated area. None of these ADDRESS: AM PM Night: Do not open , 19 should enter a fumigated area except Before AM PM in an emergency, and then only with adequate protection. 48 Types of The following EPA statement is 4. Discuss emergency plans for required: handling all possible problems. Fumigants Fumigated areas must be 5. Locate a nearby telephone for use placarded on all entrances with signs in case of an emergency. containing at least the signal word 6. Have fumigant testing equip- “DANGER” and the skull & ment available and check it for crossbones and the words “Area proper operation. under fumigation, do not enter until 7. Have first aid materials ready completely aerated,” the date of and available. fumigation, name of the fumigant All areas, both those fumigated used, emergency telephone number and nearby connected buildings, to contact and the name and address must be thoroughly ventilated before of the fumigator. Do not remove any person is allowed to enter. warning signs until the fumigated Special attention must be given to area is completely aerated and safe basements and pits. Some gases are for entry, as indicated by a suitable heavier than air and tend to accumu- detector. late and remain in low places where Other prefumigation precautions they can be hazardous to any human are: or animal entering such places. 1. All possible sources of fire must be eliminated. Turn off all pilot lights, gas burners, oil burners Fumigation References and electrical equipment. There are a number of good references on fumigation and pests 2. If possible, provide for the start controlled by fumigation. For the most current information on fumigants of post-fumigation ventilation by and fumigation, refer to current labels and technical labelling for infor- controls outside of the fumigated mation on using specific fumigants effectively and safely. area. Bond, E. J. 1984. Manual of Fumigation for Insect Control. FAO Pant 3. If several floors or rooms are Production and Protection Paper 54. Rome: Food and Agriculture involved, rehearse the fumiga- Organization of the United Nations, 432 p. tion sequence so everyone knows This publication has a very through coverage of fumigants and where the others are and where fumigation. It is available from UNIPUB, Inc., 4611-F Assembly Drive, to exit the area. Lanham, MD 20706-4391 Krischik, V., G. Cuperus and D. Galliart 1995. Stored Product Man- agement. (Revised from Management of Grain, Bulk Commodities, and Bagged Products, 1991) Circular Number E-912, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. 242 p. There are several chapters devoted to stored-product insects and integrated pest management techniques (including Chemical Manage- ment, Practical Fumigation Techniques and Closed Loop Fumigation) in this publication. Mallis, A. 1982. Handbook of Pest Control. New York: Mac Nair- Dorland Company, 1101 p. This general publication has sections on stored-product pests and a good section on fumigation. Mills, R. and J. Pedersen 1990. A Flour Mill Sanitation Manual. St. Paul: Eagan Press. 164 p. Stored-product pests are discussed in relation to an integrated approach to pest management in a cereal food processing situation. Sauer, D. ed. 1992. Storage of Cereal Grains and Their Products. St. Paul: American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc. This publication has chapters describing stored-product pests and various aspects of their control, including fumigation.

49 Types of Fumigants Questions 1. (45) Aluminum and magnesium 6. (47) Symptoms of light exposure phosphides involve ___ gas to fumigants include: which is toxic to many forms of a. Headache animal life. b. Dizziness a. phosphine c. Irritation of a respiratory tract b. methyl bromide d. All the above c. carbon tetrachloride d. ethylene bromide 7. (48) Fumigant warning signs (placards) must not be removed 2. (45) The maximum safe exposure until: limit to methyl bromide gas is a. 1 hour after fumigant ___ ppm. application a. 2 b. 2 hours after fumigant b. 3 application c. 4 c. 3 hours after fumigant d. 5 application d. aeration is completed 3. (46) Methyl bromide liquid in contact with ___ may result in 8. (48) Security guards at fumiga- spontaneous ignition. tion jobs: a. iodized salt a. Must have authority to refuse b. photo chemicals entry to anyone c. aluminum b. Should have suitable protec- d. sponge rubber tive equipment available for emergencies 4. (46) Threshold limit values c. Should be trained in first aid (TLV‘s): d. All the above a. Represent the maximum toxic levels for the pests 9. (48) Precautions for fumigation b. Represent the minimum toxic include: level for most pests a. An accounting for all person- c. Represent the conditions nel known to be working in believed safe for nearly all the area workers b. A room-by-room check d. Represent the level of methyl to be sure nobody has been bromide that can be smelled overlooked by humans c. A public address system to warn anyone present 5. (47) Continual intake of ___ by d. All the above inhalation, skin contact or other means results in damaged body organs and tissues. a. carbon dioxide b. nitrogen c. chloropicrin d. methyl bromide

50 Vertebrate In fact, each year rodents and birds destroy or contaminate enor- Pests The term ADC refers to animal mous amounts of stored grain. One damage control. Animal damage rat eats about 50 pounds of grain per control is practiced as a field of special- year, wastes twice that much, and ization within the wildlife manage- contaminates much more. Even a ment profession. In Kansas, Kansas slight contamination of grain placed State University provides a headquar- in interstate shipment for food ters for governmental assistance and processing purposes causes contami- advice in animal damage problems nation of the entire car load. Rodents, either from the United States Depart- called commensal rodents, are the ment of Agriculture, Animal, Plant worst problem. These are the non- Health Inspection Service, Animal native Norway rat and house mouse. Damage Control (USDA-APHIS-ADC), Rarely, the roof rat can be found in Kansas Department of Wildlife and Kansas. There are 23 other field Parks and/or the Cooperative Exten- rodents that seldom, if ever, live sion Animal Science Animal Damage indoors. One of these field rodents, Control program. Because of the wide the deer mouse, will sometimes be variety of possible wild animal prob- found indoors, but generally in lems, changing land, and changing Kansas field rodents are not a prob- product registration, we encourage lem in stored grains. people confronted with a problem Birds eat and contaminate large of this nature to contact your local quantities of grain. Bird damage extension office for specific control, like commensal rodent information. control, is important from a health Wild animals generally are as well as economic standpoint. thought of as having value, whether Rodents measured by economic, recreational For the purposes of this discus- or aesthetic standards. However, the sion, commensal rodents are the activities of some wild animals can Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus), roof Figure 16 conflict with the endeavors of people.

House mouse Young Rat

Roof rat Norway rat

51 Vertebrate rat (Rattus rattus), and house mouse The first step is designed to put Pests (Mus musculus). Their major the rodents under maximum stress. discernable characteristics are shown A thorough cleaning of food, water in Figure 16. (in the case of rats) and harborage is Inspection for nuisance rats and very important and the degree in mice are an essential part of protect- which this first step is done will ing stored products from loss and determine the success or failure of contamination. Evidence of their the other four steps that follow. Good Figure 17 presence includes: housekeeping should always be practiced to keep food to the mini- (Blunt) mum and to limit places where (Pointed) rodents can hide and nest. But, before any control program is started, an effort should be made to clean all rooms within a building. Reduce harborage outside the building by Roof Rat eliminating weeds, refuse piles, 1 Norway Rat average length ⁄2 inch overgrown vegetation, and rubbish 3 average length ⁄4 inch piles. Place garbage and trash in garbage cans and industrial dumpsters with tight-fitting covers. Eliminate as much of the rodent’s Ridges water source as possible because rats need water daily and mice will drink free-standing water if available. (Pointed) However, mice can survive without free-standing water by obtaining moisture from their food. Most people place an overdependence House Mouse upon rodenticides when more 1 relevance should be placed on good average length ⁄4 inch American Cockroach housekeeping. (enlarged) The second step immediately follows the first and is the use of a toxic bait to get a rapid reduction in ■ seeing the animals, the rodent population. The use of a ■ rodent noises, rodenticide should be secondary to ■ rodent droppings, step one. ■ runways, Serious consideration must be ■ tracks, given to the use of rodenticides in ■ chewed or gnawed materials, food facilities. Another consideration and is the possible contamination of ■ odors. stored grains and cereal products by Rat and mouse feces are one of the rodenticides that could be moved best indications of their presences. from place to place by the rodents. Rat, mouse and larger cockroach In spite of these concerns, in a large droppings are shown in Figure 17. population of rodents, rodenticides should be considered. Control Techniques Tracking powders are dusts Refuse containers on racks eliminate a There is no simple, fool-proof way containing a rodenticide. This form of food source for rats. to control rodents in stored grain bait is effective, particularly for mice facilities. A five-step approach to because rodents often groom them- Figure 18 rodent control seems to work best. selves after running through the dust Step one should always be followed and lick their feet, thereby absorbing by two, three, four and five in that the toxicant. This method is not order. advisable in a food facility, because

52 Vertebrate of possible contamination. Rodents bait can be used. Place bait in safe, can carry powders throughout the secluded areas where rodents are Pests building. frequenting. Proper placement of bait It is the applicator’s responsibility is important. Put out bait at close to choose the right bait to fit the intervals. Underbaiting is one of the situation. The bait will need to be most common mistakes in rodent used safely and will need to be control. Use bait forms that are best accepted and consumed by the suited for the particular conditions rodents. Pre-baiting becomes impor- such as wax bait blocks for damp tant. Generally, in stored product areas, cereal bait where bait security areas, it is difficult to get rodents to is important, and tracking powders eat the baited rodenticides, because where competitive foods are abundant. of the high quality food they have Follow label directions and use become accustomed to. Therefore, tamper-proof bait stations. Store all the bait to be used should be placed rodenticides in dry, locked compart- without the toxicant added to test to ments and where chemical contami- see if the rodents will accept the bait. nation will not occur. If they do, then the rodenticide-laced

White painted band (12 inches wide) makes inspection of rodent signs easier and Permanent bait stations. reminds personnel not to store commodities near walls.

Figure 19 Figure 21

Concrete can be used to prevent rats from burrowing under Examples of commercially manufactured rodent bait stations. foundations.

Figure 20 Figure 22

53 Vertebrate The third step is the establishment buildings. Good baits for catching Pests of a continuous baiting program. mice with snap traps are: Incoming rodents will soon - bacon, re-establish the former rodent - peanut butter, numbers. This is especially true - gum drops, unless improved housekeeping - chocolate candy, practices are imposed. When bait is - fresh bread, or used, it should be used in bait boxes - apples. that are well marked and locked. Traps near a wall should be set at Fresh bait should be kept in constant right angles to the wall, with the supply in the stations. The stations trigger end toward the wall. It is an should be placed outdoors, next to advantage to change baits frequently. the building and near entry sites and Snap traps for rats can be unbaited indoors along the walls. Some good if the triggers are modified. This can rules to remember are: be accomplished by gluing a 11⁄2-inch ■ Use locked bait stations to square of cardboard securely to the protect against unsuspecting trap trigger. The expanded trigger people and other animals. trap must then be placed in the rat’s ■ Note location of all bait stations. normal path. Camouflaging with A trap trigger can be extended with a ■ Note the rate of bait straw or other material may help. piece of cardboard. consumption. Cage or live traps are used for ■ Pick up all dead rodents with catching rats. It is important to set gloved hands and destroy the out a sufficient number of traps. Figure 24 carcasses by burning. Usually no more than 20 percent of ■ Replace moldy, wet or caked the traps set in a single night may be bait with fresh bait. expected to catch rats. Because rats Norway rats burrow into the soil become “trap wise” in a short time, and these burrows can be fumigated trap locations need to be changed to kill the rats. Read and follow label frequently. instructions for using fumigants in Multiple catch traps, generally burrows, along foundations, and/or used to catch mice, need to be near the building infested with rats. checked on a regular basis. These sheet metal The fourth step is the use of traps. traps should be cleaned and tuned as Traps have a definite place in rodent they are subject to damage to the control activities. In food handling spring mechanism. Human odor is concrete buildings, traps often are recom- not a factor in trapping rodents. mended. Trapping often is necessary Glue boards have become popular Openings can be sealed with sheet in removing bait-shy rodents. The in rodent control over the recent metal, concrete, or similar materials. most common trap is a snap-trap years. Very sticky material is placed with a wooden base. Multiple-catch in plastic traps or on cardboard and Figure 25 traps are popular in food handling these are placed in the rodent’s

Single trap set with trigger The double set increases Double set placed parallel next to wall. your success. to the wall with triggers to the outside.

Figure 23 54 Vertebrate normal or forced pathways. Once Sparrow roosts in rural and urban entrapped, the rodent and glue sites cause: Pests boards are both discarded. ■ health, The fifth step is rodent proofing. ■ filth, Rodent proofing becomes nearly as ■ noise, and important as the first step. Each place ■ odor problems. presents a different situation for Their droppings damage and consideration. Remember that the deface equipment and vehicles. In exterior of the structure needs to be addition, sparrows compete for nest checked for all accessible entries for sites with native hole-nesting birds rodents. Those places must be such as bluebirds, flickers, wood- permanently closed or protected with peckers, and purple martins. screens or grating. The interior of the Pigeons may carry: building must have no dead spaces, ■ pigeon ornithosis (psittacossis), such as double walls, ceilings, sub- ■ Newcastle disease, floors, little used rooms, staircases, or ■ aspergillosis, boxed-in piping where rats might ■ pseudotuberculosis, find safe places to hide and/or nest. ■ pigeon coccidiosis, Rodent-proofing generally requires ■ toxoplasmosis, well-designed plans with solid ■ encephalitis, and construction using steel and concrete. ■ Salmonella typhimurium. Starling Curtain walls may be used to protect Except for the last three, these otherwise vulnerable foundations. diseases rarely infect humans, but Figure 26 Openings for pipes, wires, etc., may be serious if not diagnosed require permanent seals—usually promptly. Salmonella is found in metal or concrete. Ventilator screens about 2 percent of pigeon feces and should have holes no larger than 1⁄4 of is statistically the most frequent an inch in diameter. cause of salmonella food poisoning In spite of all precautions, some in humans. rats and mice may get into buildings. Histoplasmosis and cryptococosis If these rodents meet good house- are systematic fungus diseases that keeping restrictions, the rodents will may be contracted by cleaning up find themselves unwelcome. dusty bird manure. Bird ectopara- sites—bugs, fleas, tick and mites— Bird Damage Control frequently invade homes from bird The three kinds of birds that are nests in or on buildings and transmit involved in most damage near stored diseases by biting. Some bites cause House Sparrow product facilities are: welts and skin infection. ■ starlings, Bird droppings deface and acceler- ■ European sparrows, and ate deterioration of buildings and Figure 27 ■ Feral pigeons. automobiles and land on unwary None of these species are native pedestrians. Bird feces can contami- to North America and they compete nant grain destined for human with native species of birds. consumption. Nests may clog drain Starlings are black, light-speckled, pipes, interfere with awnings and robin-size birds with a chunky, make fire escapes hazardous. meadowlark shape. The bill of both European birds need shelter for sexes is yellow during the reproduc- cover, roosting and nesting. The kind tive cycle (January to June) and dark of shelter depends on the season, the at other times. Juveniles are pale species and the reason for seeking brown to grey. The tail is short, and shelter. When birds roost or nest in the wings have a triangular shape inappropriate places, denying access Pigeon when outstretched in flight. Starling to roost sites also will discourage flight is direct and swift, not rising feeding. and falling like many blackbirds. Figure 28

55 Vertebrate When birds nest in inappropriate In the spring, the brightly colored Pests places, be persistent about removing male sings to attract a mate and to nests; birds will keep trying to announce to other male birds of the reestablish them in the same place. same species the location of his A longer term solution is to exclude territorial space. After the pair builds birds from an area or make it less a nest, the male continues to defend comfortable. the territory while the female hatches The limitations of known animal eggs. This factor cannot be controlled damage control measures to control because space is determined by the large-scale bird problems, make it area of a yard or farmstead. necessary to understand population Food, water and shelter are control as a management technique. In elements that can be manipulated to good habitats abundant animal species manage birds in the yard or other recover quickly from the loss of indi- urban settings. Providing these viduals. Animal populations respond elements attracts birds; removing with increased birth and survival rates them keeps them away. All are and decreased emigration. These are essential, yet not all bird problems known as compensatory responses. can be eliminated by just taking away Increased immigration may follow one element. removals, and some animals learn to Variety is a key word in wildlife avoid control efforts. management. It often is necessary Rope Firecrackers The most effective way to control to use a variety of excluding and problem birds is to understand their repelling methods simultaneously Figure 29 daily requirements, and remove or to control nuisance birds. exclude these. This kind of manipula- Controlling Damage tion for purposes of increasing or decreasing numbers is an important Exclusion part of wildlife management. Some Structures. Where starlings are basic principles provide a back- a problem inside buildings or other ground for understanding how to structures, close all openings larger control problem birds effectively than 1 inch so they cannot enter. This and appropriately. is a permanent solution to problems To survive, all wild animals need inside the structure. Heavy plastic habitat, which is comprised of four (PVC, polyvinyl chloride) or rubber essential elements: space, food, strips hung in open doorways of shelter and water. Wildlife managers farm buildings have been successful manipulate these elements to attract in keeping birds out, while allowing Shell Crackers and maintain wildlife species and people, machinery, or livestock to control problem species. enter. One installation approach is to Figure 30 Space is the area needed by a wild hang 10-inch wide strips with about animal. Just as some people are 2-inch gaps between them. Such happy in a city apartment while strips also must protect feed bunkers. others need a sprawling ranch, some Where birds are roosting on a ledge, birds need more space than others. In place a board or metal covering over reference to wild animals, there are the ledge at a 45˚ angle. Porcupine two kinds of space: wires (metal protectors) also are ■ Home range—the entire area available for preventing roosting on that an animal uses to eat, sleep, ledges or roof beams. Netting also is and go about its daily activities; useful around buildings for covering ■ Territory—that portion of the windows or other openings. home range an animal defends Farm management practices are Automatic LP Gas or Carbide against intruders, usually where important in long-term starling Exploders it raises young. control. These practices limit food In most cases, the male bird and water available to starlings, thus establishes and defends the territory. making the environment less attrac- Figure 31 tive. The following practices used

56 Vertebrate singly, or preferably in combination, perching on the edge of the will reduce feed losses and the waterer. At the same time, keep Pests chances of disease transmission as the water level deep enough so well as the cost and labor of conven- they cannot stand in it. tional control measures: 9. Modify starling roost sites by 1. Clean up spilled grain. closing openings in buildings or 2. When storing grain, use bird- other structures so starlings proof facilities. cannot enter. 3. Use bird-proof livestock feeders. Frightening These include flip-top pig Frightening devices include feeders, lick wheels for liquid recorded distress or alarm calls, gas- cattle supplement, and auto- operated exploders, battery-operated matic-release feeders (magnetic alarms, pyrotechnics (e.g. shell- or electronic) for costly high- crackers, bird bombs), chemical protein rations. Avoid feeding on frightening agents (see Avitrol the ground because this is an below), lights (for roosting sites at open invitation to starlings. night), bright objects, and other 4. Where possible, feed livestock in noisemakers. Beating on tin sheets covered areas such as open sheds or barrels with clubs also scares because these areas are less birds. Some novel visual frightening attractive to starlings. devices with potential effectiveness 5. Use feed forms that starlings are eye-spot balloons, hawk kites, cannot swallow such as cubes or and mylar reflective tape. Ultrasonic 1 blocks greater than ⁄2 inch in dia- (high frequency, above khz) sounds 3 meter. Minimize use of ⁄16-inch do not frighten starlings and most pellets—starlings eat these six other birds because, like humans, times faster than granular meal. they do not hear these sounds. 6. When feeding protein supple- Harassing birds, throughout the ments with other rations, such evening as they land, can be effective as silage, mix them well to limit in dispersing bird roosts if done for starling access to the supplements. three to four consecutive evenings or 7. Where possible, adjust feeding until birds no longer return. Spraying schedules so that feed exposure birds with water from a hose or from to birds is minimized. For sprinklers mounted in the roost trees example, when feeding once per has helped in some situations. A day, such as in a limited energy combination of several scare tech- feeding program for gestating niques used together works better sows, delay the feeding until late than a single technique used alone. in the afternoon when foraging Varying the location, intensity, and by starlings is decreased. Feeding types of scare devices improves their cattle at night, where appropri- effectiveness. ate, is another possibility. Star- Two additional tips for successful lings prefer to feed early to frightening efforts: (1) begin early midday and in areas where feed before birds form a strong attach- is constantly available. Feeding ment to the site and (2) be persistent schedules that take these factors until the problem is solved. into account reduce problems. 8. Starlings are especially attracted Repellents to water. Drain or fill in unneces- Soft, sticky repellents are non-toxic sary water pools around live- materials used to discourage starlings stock operations. Where feasible, from roosting on ledges or roof livestock waterers can be made beams. Examples include Roost-No- unavailable or less attractive to More, Bird Tanglefoot and 4-The- starlings by controlling the water Birds. It often helps to first put level. Lower the water level so masking tape on the surface needing starlings cannot reach it when protection, then apply the repellent

57 Vertebrate onto the tape. This increases effec- where starlings are likely to congre- Pests tiveness on porous surfaces makes gate. Leave a few starlings in the trap removal, if desired, easier. Over time, as decoys; their feeding behavior and these materials lose their effective- calls attract other nearby starlings. ness and must be replaced. Decoy birds in the trap must be well Trapping watered (which may include a bird The wide-ranging movements bath) and fed. A well-maintained of starlings, the time necessary to decoy trap can capture 100 or more maintain and manage traps, and the starlings per day depending on size number of starlings that can be and location, time of year, and how captured compared to the total well the trap is maintained. Should number in an area, often make any non-target birds be captured, trapping an impractical control release them immediately. To kill method. However, trapping and captured starlings humanely, use removing starlings can be successful appropriate procedures such as carbon at locations where a static population dioxide exposure or cervical disloca- is causing damage or where other tion (quickly breaking the neck). techniques can’t be used. An example Shooting is using decoy traps to remove The number of starlings that can starlings from an orchard where they be killed by shooting is small in are damaging fruit crops. Decoy relation to the numbers of starlings traps for starlings should be at least usually involved in pest situations. 5 to 6 feet high to allow servicing and Therefore, shooting is not normally can be quite large (e.g. 10 feet wide × recommended. 30 feet long). A convenient size is If any toxic baits are to be used, 6 × 8 × 6 feet. If desired, the sides and contact a qualified person trained in top can be constructed in panels to bird control work for technical facilitate transportation and storage. assistance (e.g. contact USDA/ In addition, decoy traps can be set up APHIS/ADC) or the Cooperative on a farm wagon and moved to the Extension Service Animal Damage best places to catch starlings. To be Control office at Kansas State successful, the trap should be placed University.

58 Vertebrate Questions Pests 1. (51) Commensal rodents are non- 6. (55) There are three kinds of native and include the roof rat, birds that do the most damage house mouse, and ___. near stored product facilities. a. Norway rat Which of the following is NOT b. pack rat one of them? c. deer mouse a. Starlings d. field mouse b. European sparrows c. Crows 2. (52) When inspecting for nui- d. Feral pigeons sance rodents, evidence includes a. seeing and hearing rodents 7. (56) To survive, all wildlife needs b. rodent droppings and odor which of the following? c. rodent runways and tracks a. space d. all the above b. food and water c. shelter 3. (52) The second step in rodent d. all the above control is: a. a through cleaning of the area 8. (56) Which of the survival needs b. the use of rodenticides of birds can NOT be controlled? c. trapping a. space d. screening b. food c. water 4. (54) The fourth step in a rodent d. shelter control program is the a. establishment of a good 9. (57) Bird damage control can cleaning program include which of the following b. establishment of a pre-baiting techniques? program a. Exclusion c. establishment of a continuous b. Frightening baiting program c. Repellents d. establishment of a trapping d. All the above program 10. (58) Trapping birds to control 5. (55) In rodent proofing, vent damage can capture as many screens should have holes no starlings per day as ___: larger than ___ inch in diameter. a. 50 a. 1⁄8 b. 100 b. 1⁄4 c. 150 c. 1⁄2 d. 200 d. 1

59 60 Pages 28-29 Answers to Study 1. c 2. a 3. a 4. d 5. a 6. c Questions Pages 32-37 1. d 2. b 3. b 4. d 5. c 6. a Pages 3-13 7. b 8. c 9. b 10. c 11. b 1. c 2. a 3. d 4. b 5. b 6. d 7. a 8. d 9. b 10. b Pages 39-43 1. d 2. d 3. d 4. a 5. a Pages 15-17 6. b 7. c 8. d 9. b 10. c 1. a 2. d 3. c 4. d Pages 45-48 Pages 19-22 1. a 2. d 3. c 4. c 5. d 1. b 2. c 3. b 4. c 5. c 6. c 7. a 6. d 7. d 8. d 9. d Pages 24-26 Pages 51-58 1. d 2. d 3. d 4. b 5. c 1. a 2. d 3. b 4. d 5. b 6. b 7. a 8. d 6. c 7. d 8. a 9. d 10. b Donald C. Cress Extension Pesticide Coordinator AUTHORS: John R. Pedersen, Extension Specialist, Sanitation-Grain Storage/ Processing, Kansas State University Randall Higgins, Extension Specialist, Entomology, Kansas State University F. Robert Henderson (retired), Extension Specialist, Extension Wildlife Damage Control, Kansas State Uni- versity Charles Lee, Extension Specialist, Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: Appreciation is expressed to the following for cooperation in the Pesticide Applicator Training Program: Jeanne Fox, Ecological Specialist, Pesticide Use Section, Plant Health Division, Kansas Department of Agri- culture Gary Boutz, Administrator, Pesticide Use Section, Plant Health Division, Kansas Department of Agriculture H.P. Boles (retired), U.S. Grain Marketing Research Laboratory, Manhattan, Kansas, is acknowledged for the insect life cycle drawings in this manual.

Cooperative Extension Service, Kansas State University, Manhattan

S-16 October 1996 Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, as amended. Kansas State University, County Extension Councils, Extension Districts, and United States Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Richard D. Wootton, Associate Director. All educational programs and materials available without discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, or disability. File Code:Entomology 4, 11 AB 10-96—5M