EnvironmentAsia 13(2) 2020 1-14 DOI 10.14456/ea.2020.26 EnvironmentAsia ISSN 1906-1714; ONLINE ISSN: 2586-8861 The international journal by the Thai Society of Higher Education Institutes on Environment

Lessons Learned from Countermeasures against Air Pollution in Turenjai Doolgindachbaporn 1* and Okamoto Shin’ichi 2

1 Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University, Thailand 2 Professor Emeritus, Tokyo University of Information Sciences

*Corresponding author: [email protected] Received: January 3, 2020; Revised: February 11, 2020; Accepted: March 12, 2020

Abstract This paper provides a discussion of environmental issues associated with air pollution and countermeasures in developed countries, especially in Japan. In the air quality administration, there are environmental standards and emission standards. In Japan, environmental standards are considered administrative goals and there is no legal enforcement in itself. On the other hand, emissions standards are enforceable, penalties apply to people and companies that do not comply. There are two ways to manage the environment. One is a mandatory system and the other is self-management. If voluntary activities can realize a good environment, total cost including social expenses can be expected to be smaller than so called command- and-control system such as regulatory measures by the administration. In free markets where price competition is intense, there is a serious hurdle to voluntarily adopt such measures. However, it seems desirable to see the attitude of actively working as an industry. Keywords: Air quality; Air pollution; Regulation; Air quality management

1. Introduction enacted as a law centered on the legal After World War II, a rapid system to comprehensively promote industrial restoration caused the pollution control measures. Since then, severe pollution problems. In order to the “Air pollution control law”, and solve such pollution problems, starting other regulations were strengthened with the enactment of industrial systematically and comprehensively. pollution prevention ordinance in In addition, the necessity of a unified Tokyo in 1959, and other prefectures administrative agency for environmental such as Kanagawa and set conservation became recognized, up similar ordinances. From the and the environment agency was 1960s, heavy industrialization was established in 1971 to comprehensively strongly promoted, and with this promote environmental administration accompanying air and water pollution including pollution control and nature became increasingly intensified, so- conservation. In the reorganization called asthma and Minamata of the central government ministry disease were caused and became in 2001, the environment agency serious as a social problem. In 1967, was upgraded to the Ministry of the “Basic Pollution Control Law” was Environment (MOE).

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2. Air quality standard and emission of 1 the Fukushima nuclear power control plant, ambient monitoring and some limited matters concerning radioactive The purpose of the air pollution substances became the jurisdiction of control law is to regulate the smoke and the MOE. Regarding these atmospheric soot caused by business activities and pollutants, there are limitations on the to protect public health with respect emission quantity or the concentration to air pollution. As shown in Table 1, in the exhaust gas, respectively, which substances subject to the regulation of the are referred to as emission standards. air pollution control law are classified into Apart from these regulations, there are “Smoke”, “Dust”, “Automobile exhaust environmental standards as administrative gas”, and “Specific substance” depending goals set by the government based on on the generation type (JEMAI editing the Basic environment law. In Japan, committee, 2018). Radioactive substances the environmental standards do not released into the atmosphere had been directly produce a legal effect, but are regulated by the other laws, and they considered as administrative goals, for were not included in the environmental which measures such as emission control matter in Japan. However, after accident and other regulations are taken.

Table 1. A system for regulation and control by the air pollution control law

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3. Regulation for stationary sources measures, and concentrations in the ambient air also dropped substantially in proportion to Based on the air pollution control law, the reduction of emission levels (Shiozawa et emission standards for the facilities to generate al., 1990). The remarkable SO2 air pollution in soot and smoke (nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur many industrial areas was almost solved by the oxides (SOx), dust, etc.) were established to 1980s as shown in Figure 1. The achievement provide appropriate regulations. In addition, in rate of SO2 environmental standard was 99.5% areas where a good atmospheric environment in 1986, and it reached 100% in 2016. Similar is difficult to be ensured by only the emission measures were also taken for the nitrogen standard of the individual facility unit, the total oxides and dust problems. By implementing amount of NOx and SOx is regulated by the these measures, NO2 and PM10 achievement business unit of the factory. rate of environmental standards for 2016 has

As for SOx the regulation for individual reached 100%. facility commenced in 1968 and was In Japan, a majority of thermal power plants subsequently strengthened several times. From using or are equipped with flue 1974, the total pollution load control which is gas denitration equipment, an electrostatic similar to the state implementation planning in precipitator and flue gas desulfurization the United States was also implemented in some equipment. Here, Table 2 shows the cleanliness designated areas where control measures to only of flue gas from thermal power plants compared individual facility were deemed insufficient to with overseas. The biggest reason why large- meet environmental standards. scale environmental measures had become Concerning the preventive measures possible at such power plants was in Japan’s for SOx, development of a supply system of unique electricity tariff system. Japan is an low sulfur content oil and installation of flue island country and is not connected to foreign gas desulfurization equipment were main countries by power transmission lines. Electric technology. In 1987 there were a total of 43 power companies could monopolize the area, heavy oil desulfurization units throughout Japan and the electricity rates were also authorized with a total processing capacity of 214,000 by the government. In this case, the cost related kL/day. There were also about 1800 flue gas to environmental measures was also approved. desulfurization units throughout Japan in 1987 Therefore, although the achievement was due to with a total processing capacity of 170 × 105 the efforts of the power company, it can be said 3 Nm /hr. SOx emissions had dropped sharply that the biggest contribution was the patience of from 1970 with the implementation of these the people who tolerated high electricity rates.

Figure 1. Trend of SO2 annual mean concentrations in Japan

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Table 2. Comparison of air pollutant emissions per generation of electricity in 2012

(Source: JEMAI Editing committee, 2018, P.533)

Technical problems of the desulfurization is also in progress. For example, Act on the Hydrodesulfurization is a method of prevention of disaster in petroleum industrial producing low-sulfur fuel by decomposing complexes and other petroleum facilities was sulfur compounds in feedstock oil into enacted. hydrocarbons and hydrogen sulfide. Sulfur compounds are reacted with hydrogen under Emergency measures for stationary sources high temperature (350 - 450 °C), high pressure The air pollution control law stipulates the (15MPa) and catalyst. It can be applied to following: that is to say, the prefectural governor kerosene and light oil in the same way as heavy must monitor the situation of air pollution in oil. There are direct desulfurization and indirect article 22. In the case of article 23, when air desulfurization for hydrodesulfurization of pollution becomes significant and serious health heavy oil. Direct desulfurization is a method hazards are expected, the governor is required to of hydrodesulfurizing atmospheric-distillation take appropriate measures against the Baien (soot residual oil. Atmospheric-distillation residual and smoke) emitters. The enforcement ordinance oil contains polycyclic aromatic sulfur of the Air pollution control law stipulates the compounds that are difficult to be desulfurized. standards for emergency situations in article 23 In addition, it contains asphaltenes and heavy of this law. A summary of the criteria shown metal organic compounds such as vanadium in Appendix 5 of article 11 of the enforcement and nickel which cause a decrease in catalytic ordinance is shown in table 3. activity. Therefore, in direct desulfurization, Kawasaki City was one of the most operating conditions such as pressure and polluted areas in Japan. There were a lot of reaction temperature are severe, and the life steel mills, refineries, and thermal power of the catalyst is short. Indirect desulfurization plants in the coastal area, and there were is a method of hydrodesulfurizing only the many asthma patients. For this reason, the vacuum-distillation gas oil that has been city had built a comprehensive monitoring separated in advance. However, since the network system that connects the seven heavy oil is prepared together with the standard air pollution monitoring stations vacuum-distillation residual oil which is and the major 42 plants in the city, and began not desulfurized, the sulfur content is higher operations in earnest since 1972. There were than that of the direct desulfurization. In 42 large factories, which covered almost Japan, both are used, and the total production 95% of sulfur oxide emissions in the city. capacities are almost half. A total of 272 source monitoring devices The desulfurization unit is one of the most such as oil flow meters, flue dangerous unit among refineries because it densitometer, and gas flow meters and so on uses highly flammable hydrogen in a high- have been arranged in these 42 plants in order temperature and high-pressure atmosphere to provide an immediate understanding of the and produces highly toxic hydrogen sulfide. emissions for all factories. Some prefectures Therefore, its operation requires high and major cities such as Kawasaki have technology and all safety measures. Even so, established agreements with major factories many cases of accidents have been reported to and determined measures to be taken when date, and the development of safety measures warnings or alerts are issued. In general,

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Table 3. Standards for the warning of sulfur oxides (Appendix 5 of article 11 of the enforcement ordinance of the Air pollution control law)

they have reduced sulfur oxide emissions “The law on pollution health damage by about 10 - 20% by suspending the compensation (Public health law) is a operation of low-importance facilities law that stipulates payment for medical and/or switching to high-quality fuels. In expenses and compensation for lost Kawasaki city, where a warning was issued profits for persons certified as polluted on May 26, 1973, we can see how the patients in designated areas. This law emissions have decreased from one hour was enforced in 1974. The total amount after the issuance, as shown in Figure 2. of levies of the public health law had Since then, further measures have been become too large, as shown in Figure 4. taken, and warnings or alerts for sulfur For this reason, it was revised by a strong oxides have not been issued for more than request of the industry in 1987, such as 30 years. However, similar warnings for terminating new patient certifications, photochemical have been issued but the same compensation was continued occasionally, even recently. for already certified patients. There are many air pollution monitoring Park (2007) considered the stations in Japan. By 2008, the total number homogeneous system of other countries of monitoring stations had reached nearly and compared the tax rate of SOx 2000 as shown in Figure 3. One of the emissions and the fee rate of public reasons for having too many stations is health legal levy. Here, quoting from the provisions of Article 22 and Article Park (2007), the comparison results are 23 of the air pollution control law. In shown in table 4. It is understood that addition, by using subsidies in return for the public health legal levy of Japan is the acceptance of nuisance facilities, a remarkably high even internationally. number of monitoring stations were set There are also environmental economics up around the facility that would cause studies that calculate the marginal air pollution. However, for small-scale reduction cost and consider whether local governments, maintenance and the reduction in emissions is due to the management of the monitoring stations, incentive for public health legal levies, such as updating of measuring instruments, for example, Imura (1988) and so on. became a major economic burden. However, there was the problem of regional monopoly and unique electricity 4. Economic impact of environmental tariff system as mentioned above with measures and changes in industrial thermal power plants that were the largest structure consumers of heavy oil at that time. These circumstances cannot be explained One of the most important reasons by a simple economic model, and papers why such a dramatic reduction in SO2 which were deeply drilling down this could be achieved may be the so - problem could not be found. called public health law enactment.

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Figure 2. Hourly SO2 emissions of Kawasaki city on May 26, 1973 when air pollution waning was issued.

(Source: Iwata, G., Current Status and Issues of Air Pollution Continuous Monitoring, Conf. Japan Soc. Atmos. Env., 2008, www.jsae-net.org/KANTO/info/080613_5ppc.pdf )

Figure 3. Number of air quality monitoring stations

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(Source: https://www.erca.go.jp/fukakin/40th/ayumi/kaisei.html )

Figure 4. Annual trend of the total amount of levies of the public health law

Table 4. Comparison of taxes, levies, and permitted prices relating to SOx emissions in each country

(Source: Park, 2007)

The OECD had announced the 1965 to 1975 using a quantitative economic evaluation on Japanese environmental model. Again, compared to the absence policy in 1991. Among them, even in the of pollution control measures during this case of enormous pollution prevention period, pollution control investment would investment in Japan, the macroeconomic decrease (trade) surplus by 300 billion impact such as a decrease in employment yen, but gross national product would due to it was said to be negligible. In increase by 0.9%. In this regard, it is addition, considering the indirect benefits, necessary to pay attention to the fact that it could be concluded that the profit was many equipments such as desulfurization/ probably winning. In this regard, the denitration equipment did not procure from Environment Agency was evaluating the overseas but contributed to the demand effects of pollution control investment of increase of domestic pollution control 5.3 trillion yen (1970 price conversion) from equipment industries (Kobayashi, 1990).

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In addition, the existing base of some order to ensure the environmental standard industries, such as sulfur mines, had been of nitrogen dioxide in the area where the completely destroyed by desulfurization air pollution by automobiles exhaust was byproducts. (Those with negative prices that severe, “ Act on special measures to reduce would otherwise be waste if not used) (Figure 5). the total amount of nitrogen oxides discharged And recently, several hundred thousand tons from automobiles in specific areas” (The of sulfur are exported to China and other Automotive NOx Act, in subsequent revisions, countries a year, since recovered sulfur more regulations on particulate matter were than domestic demand is produced. According added, and it became the NOx - PM Act) was to the material flow data of mineral resources promulgated in 1992. The law stipulates that released by the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals prefectural governors should formulate a National Corporation (JOGMEC), the most nitrogen oxide priority implementation plan recently published domestic supply of sulfur or a particulate matter priority implementation in 2010 was about 2 million tons. Meanwhile, plan. However, the governor had not been domestic demand as a raw material for given the authority to directly regulate the synthetic fiber and sulfuric acid production automobile exhaust. For this reason, the was 0.64 million tons. And, 1.26 million tons plan formulated by the prefecture remained were exported. in limited response, such as the call for voluntary self-restraint of automobile use 5. Regulation on automobiles by many businesses and individuals. It was considered that the PM2.5 problem had not Regulation of automobile emissions been considered as important as it is today, in Japan began as administrative guidance even when the exhaust of diesel vehicles was of the Ministry of Transport in 1966. After denounced (about 1990 - 2000) as a cause that, legal grounds were established by the of health damage in roadside areas. It can be establishment of the air pollution control law seen from Figure 1. that the concentrations in 1968. Initially it was only measures for of not only air pollutant NOx and PM but carbon monoxide, but NOx countermeasures also SO2 were significantly different between became a central issue in the 1970s. In the late residential areas and roadsides before around

1980s, significant air pollution in industrial 2000. After that, the SO2 concentrations in the areas was almost eliminated, and major roadside were decreasing to the same level as problems on air pollution were shifting to in the residential area. Figure 1. shows that it measures against automobile emissions. In took long time for the compulsory regulation

(Source: Okamoto, 2005)

Figure 5. Enhancement of petroleum desulfurization equipment and annual change of sulfur production

8 D. Turenjai and S. Okamoto / EnvironmentAsia 13(2) (2020) 1-14 to move, and the countermeasure had been On the other hand, diesel vehicles could not delayed. In facilities that were subject to the use such technologies (1) and (3) above) Public health law, it was more economical because they contained a lot of sulfur to use expensive low-sulfur heavy oil than in the fuel oil. For this reason, effective paying an extremely high public health law means was limited such as adjustment levy. On the other hand, even though light of ignition timing and adjustment of oil desulfurization is technically easier compression pressure up to the early 1990s, than heavy oil desulfurization, its start was and it was difficult to simultaneously significantly delayed. Since there was no reduce both nitrogen oxides (NOx) and economic incentive to remove sulfur in particulate matter (PM). Then, when one light oil using as fuel for diesel vehicles, a of the NOx and the PM is reduced, the circumstance that capital investment did not other is increased. For this reason, in move until the stage where regulation by Japan where emphasis was placed on NOx laws became certain. It seems that voluntary countermeasures, the regulation of the PM environmental management was not effective had become moderate as compared with for measures to reduce the pollutants in diesel Europe and the United States. The latest vehicle exhaust gas. trends in emissions countermeasures for diesel vehicles include a method of burning Technical issues of automotive exhaust in a high PM condition to remove particles gas countermeasures with a filter or a method of burning in a

The following three methods are high NOx condition to remove NOx by a effective as measures against emissions for catalyst. At this time, removal of sulfur in gasoline vehicles: (1) Three-way catalyst, diesel oil is indispensable in either case. (2) Optimization of air fuel ratio, and (3) In line with the 1995 revision of the air Exhaust gas recirculation. The biggest pollution control law, the Secretary of the obstacle to implementing these measures Environment Agency (the predecessor of was the presence of lead as antiknock the MOE) decided to set an allowance for agent contained in gasoline. However, substances contained in automobile fuels. in Japan, we had established the above To this end, the “Law on ensuring the technologies (1) to (3) by promoting lead quality of petroleum, etc.” was enacted, countermeasure in gasoline ahead of the and from the following year, automobile world. And this became the driving force to fuel quality regulations began (Kobayashi, establish the dominance of Japanese cars’ 2019). Recent trend of regulation on sulfur environmental measures (Okamoto, 2003). content in fuel oil is shown in Figure 6.

(Source: Osaka prefecture, www.pref.osaka.lg.jp/attach/5004/00201015/01-7gaiyo.doc ) Figure 6. Allowable limit for automobile fuel

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6. Regulation on chemical substances it to the regulatory authorities. The relevant organizations will publish their aggregated In order to understand the air pollution data, and anyone can request disclosure for caused by harmful air pollutants, the contents notified by the business operator. MOE conducts monitoring of hazardous Under this SDS system, businesses are air pollutants. Meanwhile, administrative obliged to provide the information (SDS) guidance for each company is not based when transferring and/or providing target on the air pollution control law but is chemical substances to other business entrusted to the other laws under the operators. Under the chemical substance jurisdiction of the Ministry of Economy, management law, the METI and the Trade and Industry (METI). For many MOE have jointly estimated and totaled chemical substances, emission standards the released and transferred amounts of by the air pollution control law are not chemical substances. According to the indicated. Of course, the MOE grasps the submitted notifications in FY2015, 378,000 concentration of chemical substances in tons in total of the chemical substances the environment and requires the industry were released or transferred, down by to respond as necessary, but it is not due to 1.3% from the previous year (METI, 2017). the compulsory emission standards. The compiled data by business operator The chemical substance management will be available on the METI and MOE law is under the jurisdiction of the METI websites. This law does not regulate the (METI, 2018). This law is mainly based on release of target chemical substances into the Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers the environment. The purpose of this law (PRTR) system and the Safety Data is to help business operators grasp the Sheets (SDS) system. It aims to promote releases of chemical substances and to improvement of voluntary management of support their own self-management of chemical substances by business operators chemical substances. Based on this idea, and to prevent the environmental pollution notification of PRTR and distribution of in advance. When a business entity releases SDS is mandatory. However, this law does and/or transfers target chemical substances, not prescribe provisions for measures to it is obliged to grasp the amount and report reduce emissions.

Figure 7. Annual mean Benzene concentrations and number of sites exceeding the standard

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Regarding the prevention of air and extent, it is important to be able to reproduce water pollution, administration has been various atmospheric diffusion phenomena, even involved in both environmental standards and if we specify the location and time. Although emission standards. In other words, we have the AERMOD incorporates a sophisticated implemented emissions regulations so that atmospheric boundary layer meteorological we can achieve environmental standards by module, it was not sufficiently discussing to what determining the upper limit of concentration extent the atmospheric diffusion phenomenon in in the environment. However, regarding the such a situation was reproduced. The METI-LIS regulation of hazardous chemical substances also emphasizes the downdraft by a low-rise such as benzene announced in 2001, it was building and employs a submodule similar to decided to achieve the environmental standard the ISC3 model. However, this is not the Huber- by only voluntary activities in each company Snyder’s algorithm, but a Kouchi-Okabayashi’s (METI, 2001). This means that it is the algorithm (Kouchi et al., 2004). The source responsibility of the business operator to grasp and executable METI-LIS programs and some the relationship between the concentration in related documents can be downloaded from the environment and the amount of emissions, the JEMAI’s homepage with free of charge and to take appropriate measures. In 2001 (JEMAI, 2018). when this regulation started, there were 60 monitoring stations that failed to achieve the 7. Prevention of health effects by environmental standard, but in 2016 it has other harmful substances decreased to one station as shown in Figure 7. (MOE, 2018b). In Japan, many mesothelioma patients came from workers in the factory dealing with A tool for self-management of chemicals asbestos and also residents around the factory. The METI had developed an air quality As a result, air pollution caused by asbestos has prediction model, METI-LIS that can be used become a major social problem. In response to as a tool to support business operators’ voluntary this problem, the air pollution control law was management activities. This model is not a amended in 1996. regulatory model that installation of the facility Next, in response to ratification of the is not permitted when calculated concentration “Minamata Convention on Mercury”, the air value exceeds a certain reference value. The aim pollution control law was amended in 2015. is to make it possible for operators to understand Regarding coal-fired power plants and others the relationship between the emissions of their regulated by this convention, notification of facilities and the environmental concentrations mercury emission facilities, compliance with surrounding them, thereby evaluating the mercury emission standards, measurement of effectiveness of their environmental measures. mercury concentration, etc. were obligated. In 2016, Therefore, we thought the AERMOD model monitoring results for mercury in atmospheric of the US.EPA was not appropriate. To some environment (MOE, 2018b) are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Mercury concentrations in atmospheric environment in 2016

* The guideline values are not environmental standard, but numerical values that serve as guidelines for reducing health risks due to harmful air pollutants in the environment. As for the mercury, this value is 40 ngHg/m3. 11 D. Turenjai and S. Okamoto / EnvironmentAsia 13(2) (2020) 1-14

8. Monitoring results of atmospheric According to the amendment of the air environment pollution control law of 1996, countermeasures against hazardous air pollutants, which may harm The prefectures monitor air human health by long-term exposure, have been pollution situation at the general institutionalized. Since 1998, local governments environmental monitoring stations and have monitored the priority substances according automobile exhaust gas monitoring to the air pollution control law. There are 21 stations (roadside stations) according to substances to be monitored. They were measured the air pollution control law. The data is at about 400 sampling sites nationwide. Among gathered in real time by “Air Pollutants them, the monitoring results of the four substances Wide Area Monitoring System” and for which environmental standards are set are information is provided on the internet included in Table 5. Along with the amendment of site. Some of these data are shown in the air pollution control law in 2013, monitoring Table 6. of radioactive materials was started, and radiation dose rates were measured at approximately 300 locations nationwide. (MOE, 2018a).

Table 6. Status of air pollution in 2016

(Source: https://www.env.go.jp/press/files/jp/108676.pdf ) *As for the hazardous air pollutants such as benzene, annual mean is not calculated from 8760h monitored data, but the mean value of more than 12 samples (more than one sample for each month).

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9. Concluding remarks Reference

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