Political Parties

Political parties are indispensable for the working of a democratic government. In fact, political parties are the life and blood of democracy. According to Bagehot, “Party government is the vital principle of representative government.” In the words of Prof. Harold Laski, “There is no alternative to party government save dictatorship in any state of the modern size and they are inevitable in a democracy.” In every democratic country the party system is an extra-legal growth. It exists outside the legal framework of the state and is not referred to in the Constitution. Political parties express and form public opinion and are the chief mechanism of informing and influencing the electorate. Organisation and mobilization of the electorate is an important function of the political parties.

Definition- By a political party we mean a group of citizens more or less organized who hold common views, ideas on public questions and acting as a political unit seeks to obtain control of the government in order to further the policy which they profess MacIver defines a political party, “As an association organized in support of some principle or policy which by constitutional means it endeavours to make the determinant of government.” According to Gilchrist a party may be defined as, “an organized group of citizens who profess to share the same political views and who by acting as a political unit try to control the Government.” Leacock compares it, “With a joint stock company to which each member contributes his share of political power.”

Functions- Political parties generally perform the following functions:

 Building party cadres;  Organizing public opinion on important issues affecting public;  The selection of candidates for election;  Provide leadership to the people;  Planning and execution of the election campaign;  Maintaining party discipline and loyalty;  To formulate policies and programs and implement them after coming into power;  Educate people and arouse political consciousness;

Evolution and history of Party System in - The contemporary party system in India developed originally in the context of the struggle for freedom. The centre of political activity during the National Movement was the Indian National which was founded in the year 1885. In the pre-independence years, the was the first organized political party of Indians. In course of time, the Congress attracted cross-sections of Indian community and became a mass organization. Later on in 1906, the Muslim League, in 1916 the Hindu Maha Sabha and in 1924 the Communist Party were formed. After Independence the adoption of a democratic federal system set the stage for the emergence of several political parties both at the National and the regional levels. The evolution of parties and party system in India after Independence can be divided into four phases; A-20, 102, Indraprasth Tower, (Behind Batra Cinema), Dr. Mukherjee Nagar, Delhi- 09 1 Ph:- 011-27651250, 09810702119, 09899156495 Email- [email protected] , Visit us at. www. saraswatiias.com

1. Period of Congress consolidation and dominance; (1952-67)

2. Consolidation of opposition parties and emergence of multi-party system; (1967-89)

3. Period of flux (1989-98);

4. Shaping of coalitional party system; (1998onwards).

First phase of Indian party system (One dominated party system) - Rajani Kothari said that it is the first phase of Indian political system. He said that if we want to see party system in India then we have to look only ascendance and decline of Congress. First, Congress was emerged as movement during national movement so some scholars said it is party of movement. It was a movement against communalism, imperialism and British imperialist from 1920 onwards congress organisation. It as political party and it was considered as rainbow coalition because it represented each and every segment of India society. There were people from North (G. B. Pant) south (K. Kamaraj), and Y. V. Chahwan from Maharashtra. The most important leader of JagJeevan Ram was from Congress; Chaudhary from Utter Pradesh who represented the Backward class. So congress was known as Umbrella Party. It represents the combination of different ideologies like Nehru was liberal and Purushottam Das was conservative. Congress represented the diverse, plural & heterogeneous society in India.

Rajani Kothari said that in the initial phase of party system, congress played role of government and role of opposition too. There was no recognised opposition party in the initial decade. Therefore it was known one dominated party phase. Congress won more than 2/3 seats in Lok Sabha elections and in the elections of state Assembly too. It was known party of consensus (decisions were taken through consensus). If we want to look the reason behind the dominance of congress; i) It was because of the legacy of national movement. ii) Congress had better organisation even congress have Charismatic leadership of Nehru, as for as ideology is concerned, congress had adopted left of the centre ideology (it was tilted towards socialism, secularism welfare state & Non Alignment policy). And during Nehru, there was an internal democracy too in the Congress party. Nehru never decided that who will become Chief Minister of states and in most of the cases state leaders have chosen the Chief Minister of the state, And even the head of the party in that state too. Nehru was leading the party of Congress. He always distinguishes between party and organisation. But first time, there was a setback for congress. That was after Indo-china war (1962) No confidence motion was brought about against Nehru in 1963. His popularity declined. And it was also felt that there was a decline in Congress party. In order to reviving congress organisation President of Congress– K. Kamraj, proposed Kamraj plan. It was basically for reviving the congress, and kamraj said that some cabinet ministers of union government and some state Chief Minister belonging to congress party must be inducted in organisation. Although, critics said that Kamraj plan was brought about for protecting the Nehru because criticism of Nehru has grown in the party.

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Second Phase (competitive party system in India) - It was started after the death of Nehru (1964). Congress was in dilemma that who will replace of Nehru in party and first time internal struggle was started between party members. Party supported Lal Bahadur Shastri rather than but after sometime Lal Bahadur Shastri was died in (1966) and again crisis emerged because of support of syndicate leader, was selected as Prime Minister. She was from . She was handling ministry of information. And first elections were held after Nehru in 1967 but congress could not manage to get 2/3 majority in Lok Sabha. It was not sort of majority and 1st time in almost 8 states of India the non-congress governments formed. This was known as competitive party system. Others parties started to show their dominance. Congress party was no longer capable to maintain dominance in states.

Several leaders within the Congress, who were either disgruntled with the policies of the party or denied access to power went out of it and formed separate parties–Socialist parties, Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party (KMPP), Krishikar Lok Party (KLP), Bangla Congress, , Jana Congress in Orissa, Swatantra, Bharatiya Kranti Dal, etc. Other parties, rooted in long standing anti- Congress orientations, also began to gain strength: SAD in Punjab, Muslim League in Kerala, DMK in Tamil Nadu, National Conference in Jammu & Kashmir, etc. The Communist party split on the question on support to the Congress party and those who took a vehement anti-Congress position, saying that defeat of the Congress was necessary for the advancement of people’s democracy in the country.

The emergence of new parties is well evidenced with the history of CPM. The party was born in 1964.Within three years it became the ruling party in Bengal and Kerala. Together with this the late 60s and 70s saw the consolidation of the non-Congress parties. Although the Congress retained power at the Union level in the 1967 elections, the party citadels began crumbling in several States. Opposition parties forged alliances and formed governments in eight major Indian States. Biju Patnaik, who formed the Utkal Congress in 1970, advocated the theory that future belongs to provincial parties which championed the hopes and aspirations of the people of their respective regions. Visions of a federal government comprising representatives from different States began to appear on the political horizon. For the first time since independence the Congress suffered massive defections, as the Congress leaders who were dissatisfied have other parties to look to. It is in this background Rajani Kothari spoke of the dominant party model giving way to a more differentiated structure of party competition. Morris-Jones (1978) joined Kothari when he observed that the new situation brought a number of opposition parties fully into the market place, and competition that had previously occurred within the Congress was now brought into the realm of inter-party conflict.

In 1969 Congress party was divided first time because of ideological conflict between the leaders of congress. The reason was the presidential elections as Indira Gandhi supported V. V. Giri. Congress president K. Kamraj was supporting Neelam Sanjiv reddy. But Neelam Sanjiv reddy lost the elections specifically after 1971 Indira Gandhi has dominated over congress party. Syndicate leaders get divide into two parts; first, congress (O) lead by Syndicate leaders second is congress (R) leads by Indira Gandhi. When she won the election of 1971, she relied over her personal Karishama. She in fact neglected the organisation of the party. After that Congress was no longer umbrella party or

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rainbow coalition after 1971. In terms of electoral victory she managed to get 2/3 majority of Lok Sabha she was leading government as well as party too.

During Indira Gandhi period leadership was very good because she emerged as Charismatic leader. But organisation was broken at that time. And in terms of ideology, She always tilted towards left from the centre (socialist) she was managed the winning because of socialist & populist policy. All things were decided by Indira Gandhi alone. It became the era of high command; Rajani Kothari said that In Indian politics personality is a very important factor rather than ideology. This manifested congress domination was good in centre but it was not remain dominant in the states because several non-congress parties came in the power.

But first time in 1977, a non-congress party formed the government at the centre. The agitations led by , was resulted in the imposition of Emergency, and finally the formation of the in 1977 brought far-reaching changes in the structure of party competition. The Janata party came through the merger of different parties–Socialist Party, Bharatiya Lok Dal, Bharatiya Jan Sangh and the Congress (O). The Congress for democracy under the leadership of joined the party after the election. The emergence of a viable non- Congress party and its capturing of power at the Centre raised the hope of a two-party system taking shape. That was Janata party, which was gave slogans against congress party. Rajani Kothari again pointed out first specific feature of Indian politics. He said that here opposition party always opposes whichever party is in power. Ram Manohar Lohiya said that none of the party got even 50% majority of votes but congress wins the election just because of the lack of unity in opposition party so in 1977, all opposition parties came together and formed.

On that basis, we can draw another feature of India party system, Rajani Kothari said that – i) Various parties are formed because of the defection from the congress or the division of the congress rather than party represented the different interest of society. ii) In India, ideology doesn’t matter in party system (said by many scholars). It is only for the public consumption because if ideology matter for the parties then the parties remain in unity not in conflict. iii) From this fact it is proved that coalition is not new in India & in fact in began at the state level from 1969. In 1977, Janata party was not a party as it was the informal coalition of parties at the centre first time. In fact in Janata party there was a conflict of ideology and personalities too but only factor of unity of Janata party was opposition of the congress. iv) The dispute within the Janata party was because of double membership of Jan Sangh. Therefore Janata party government collapsed due to internal conflict. v) In 1980, elections again held Indira Gandhi said that congress is a natural party to run the government. It means she want to show that no party other than the congress can run the country. And in this these elections Janata party was washed out. vi) Indira Gandhi never tried to revive the organisation because she always relied over her Charismatic power. But interesting thing was that several regional parties were emerged 80s during as dominant in the states, for instance–janata party came in power in Karnataka, Assam Gana Parishad won the elections of Assam and very importantly Telugu Desham won the

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landslide victory in Andhra, Akali Dal in Punjab, DMK & AIADMK in Tamil Nadu, left party in west Bengal. This was the sign of emerging of regional parties. vii) These regional parties came in power because Indira Gandhi was not able to lead the elections in each and every state because the party has not a strong leader in states against the regional parties. viii) The ever biggest majority received by Congress was in 1984 as Nehru couldn’t win this type of majority and it was because of the death of Indira Gandhi in 1984. Congress was led by Rajiv Gandhi as Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi had not a legacy of socialism he was engineer by profession. He was tilting towards right from the centre because first time he tried to introduce some liberal elements in Indian economy.

After a gap of nine years the non-Congress parties once again came to power in 1989, under the banner of . But it too collapsed within two years. The leaders of these parties, although very experienced and talented, were unable to work out a broad programme to aggregate political groups and to overcome the deep-seated party identities. Thus, the non-Congress alliance was unable to consolidate the significant support it received from the electorate and continue in power. However, the Janata and National Front experiments proved that it was possible to displace the Congress if the non-Congress parties could come together.

Third Phase of Indian Party system- The major changes occurred in the third phase was end of one dominated party system in India. It means decline of Congress. Rajiv Gandhi who got 400 seats in 1984 election, he got approximately 190 seats in 1989 Lok Sabha election. It was the sharp decline of congress. Even in 1989, congress was a single largest party but still it did not claim for the making of government at the centre. As congress party thought that other parties should be given a change to form central government. They will repeat the same mistakes & then congress will became back in power this was not happened, V. P. Singh of National front becomes the , he was the earlier member of Congress. He was the finance minister when Rajiv Gandhi was Prime Minister. V. P. Singh formed and it was supported from outside by left parties and right parties both and again the object of these parties was to throwing congress power. Again it proves that ideology doesn’t matter in Indian political system. In 1991, again elections were held in India as janata Dal government was collapsed. And in this election again Congress emerged a largest party at the centre and it got 242 seats in parliament (a short of majority) minority government was formed at centre led by congress with Narsimha Rao as Prime Minister. In 1990, congress adopted the liberal economic policy. It was the major change in ideology. Organisation was remained in the same position it was not revived. It was first time when congress party was headed by Non-Nehru or Gandhian family member & therefore lots of scholars said that leadership was not Charismatic (Narsimha Rao) like Indira-Nehru. Congress decline was also due to rise of BJP. Due to Mandal politics after 1990 congress performed very badly in Hindi heartland as identity politics became popular because of Mandal politics in U.P. & which were dominated their OBC’s votes were captured by Lalu & Mulayam Singh Yadav. In 1990, the rise of BSP emerged. It took away votes of SC & ST’s from congress. Due to Mandal Movement, There was rise of BJP. It took away votes of Brahmins from congress. Therefore

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nothing was left for congress. It was uprooted because from U.P. & Bihar. Before 1990 congress was considered as catch of all parties but after 1990 it became fail to catch the majority. Some scholars are of the view that congress leadership has failed because the strong regional leaders were belonging to OBC’s & SC, ST’s & some scholars said that congress is still dominated by upper caste leaders. In 1996, again elections held at the centre level and for the first time BJP emerged as single largest party. It shows decline of congress too. First time regional parties played a very important role in the formation of government at the central level. This was the new tendency developing in India. Regionalisation of All India parties was also taking place. When BJP came in power, all parties came against BJP & said that BJP is untouchable. No party was ready to support BJP the problem with BJP is that it is only powerful in North Hindi heart land; it is not powerful in South India which is a major drawback of this party. Dev Gauda (1996) became Prime Minister & government is known Government. He was heading Janata Dal & was supported by congress party from outside first time CPI participated in the government at the centre (tilting towards socialism). First time in India, Dev Gauda Government was formed on the basis of secular ideology. So coalition government was known secular alliance. But again coalition government collapsed & elections took place in 1998. Pre-poll alliance formula was worked in BJP. It formed government at central level & again regional party leaders like Mamata Banerjee, Jayalalitha etc played a very important role in the formation of government at the centre and again coalition government formed. But this coalition government was fall because of AIADMK a regional party. We look present party system, it is multiparty system and there was two coalitions UPA vs. NDA formed (1999). In this alliance regional parties play a very important role. Therefore India’s party system was in fact much more near to the multi party system. At union level there was multi party system but in some states for Example in Rajasthan (Congress and BJP), Haryana & Uttarakhand, Goa, Himachal two party system is going on. Some states are where regional parties are dominating in India. If we recognize the downfall of national party we look for Hindi-heart land. Where emergence of regional parties occurs. Ex; U.P. (BSP Vs SP). Bihar (JDU Vs RJD), Odisha (Biju Janata Dal). National parties are junior partners in some states with regional parties like in Tamil Nadu. Trinmool Congress is senior and congress is junior partner. Multi party system in India is a logical consequence of the diverse & plural society in India. In 2004, congress form the first coalition government at centre and in fact a changing strategy of congress because congress never formed coalition government with any regional party at centre. It admitted the necessity of coalition government at central level in 2004. First time in 2004, BJP seats were reduced from 180 to 125. Therefore one thing is challenging for BJP that Muslims thought that this party is not in favour of Muslim society. Once Rajani Kothari said that whichever party comes in power in India it has to adopt the centrist approach. For instance when BJP came in power in 1999. It abundant its core issues like Article-370, the issue of Ram Temple, common civil court. Rajani Kothari also highlighted that, left parties also became liberal when they came in power it liberalise both left and right. Although there are two broad coalitions in India UPA & NDA but partners of this coalition are changing their site time and again still BJP is looking for the partners for 2014 general elections. In 2014 general election, new trend emerged in context of party system, it is first time after thirty year, a single party got majority,

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Narendra Modi led NDA came in power, In NDA, BJP got 283 independently. It is predicted that the time of coalition government is over.

Rise of one Dominated Party System again India- Sixteenth Lok Sabha election is unique in India. After 1984 Lok Sabha election first time any single political party (BJP) got the majority in Lok Sabha. The coalition phase which began science 1989 is over now. Ironically congress manages to get only 44 Seat in Lok Sabha which is not enough for recognising as opposition party in Lok Sabha. Regional parties like Samajvadi party, BSP, RJDU, janata dal uninted were washed out in the Lok Sabha election however TMC in West Bengal. BJD in Odihsa, AIADMK in Tamilnadu registered comfortable win in the sixteenth Lok Sabha election. BJP got approximately 10 percent in Kerala and it also won Lok Sabha seat form the north eastern state. It is important to note that BJP performance in Karnataka is also outstanding. It proved that BJP has been successfully expanding its base in southern India too. BJP won the election of Haryana without any strong organisation base and first time it becomes the largest party in assembly in Maharashtra. It win the largest ever tally in election in the assembly election in Jammu & Kashmir. Therefore rise of BJP is very significant in party system of India but Indian party system is still in transitional phase, therefore dominance of BJP cannot be predicted in forth coming election. The historic win of in Delhi assembly election shows that the role of regional party cannot be ignored. The merger of JDU, RJD, and SP, which is now known as Janata Pariwar is also challenge for BJP in upcoming election. Features of Indian Party Systems-

1. The result of external stimuli- In most countries the political parties are formed by the internal stimuli. The local problems, the socio-economic movements, and the local leadership act as a force in channelizing the people's aspiration into an institutional framework. To achieve this there need be a politically conscious citizen. Normally socio-political movements that change the fabric of social life, precede this. If we look at the history of western democratic set up it becomes clear how the socio-political upheavals made a way for the formation of political party system. India at the advent of British rule represented a dead society. Political conscious was totally lacking, superstitions, ruled the roast. The very idea of nation never existed. The feudal system negated the human values like equality, liberty which are fundamental to the formation of any political organisation. There was no basic political ideology which can be called an all Indian. Historians mention that India at the end of 18th and beginning of 19th Century represented "a dark age.’’ There could be no social cohesion with hierarchical caste structure operating in all its rigidity. New ideas could never penetrate due to lack of exchange of knowledge. The knowledge was the theological and confined to priestly class. In such a dull and authorization society, no organization could be formed to function as an agent of people’s aspiration and convey them to ruler. It was a fragmented society devoid of any political ambition. The beginning of Renaissance was with the pioneer efforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Perhaps the Brahma Samaj may be termed as a pseudo-political organization, where for the first time people assembled, debated and made representation. But its character was purely social reforming with no political aims. With the complete establishment of British Rule in India, with the spread of English education, came the idea of need for an organization

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that can speak for Indians. As already mentioned the Indian National Congress was started by a British person.

2. General distrust of Political parties- We observe that by and large an average Indian has distrust of all political parties. This could be a phenomenon elsewhere also. But in India we have systematic theories developed by leaders like Vinoba, Jai Prakash Narayan, Radical Humanist ideologue M. N. Roy, who wrote extensively on the evils of Party system. There was an idea of non- party democracy. Parties divide people, create ill-well, and concerned more about the power than service to people. Sarvodaya believed in party fewer rules. The village panchayats were to be formed on non party basis. M. N. Roy felt, a political party ipso facto limits the peoples ’participation in active politics to its cadres only. Thus it is a hindrance to "Peoples Power". The average citizen it’s cynical of parties. May be the behaviour of parties in post-Independent of India, with over emphasis on populism, conducting programmes like conducting bands resulting in violence made people to keep aloof from the parties. Even in the pre Independence Day’s intellectuals kept aloof from party affairs. With the aloofness of intellectual’s middle class people to the political parties, we have the problem of bogus membership, lack of popular control on party functioning. This would be a dangerous trend.

3. The Non-democratic nature of party system- The main function of political parties is to contest elections and try to capture power. There are series of steps involved in the process. Selection of candidates, forming manifesto, campaign, voter mobilisation and so on. In a well developed democratic set up these actions will be under taken openly with active participation of people involved. The only criterion is his winnable capacity. Of late the highest bidder gets the party ticket to contest elections. Such a candidate once get elected from a constituency, he hardly knew before election is certainly not inclined to show any interest in the problems faced by the people of "his constituency". There is lack of accountability in the party system in India. People openly flout party discipline. When as aspirant member of a party not given ticket to contest elections, he would fight as a rebel in the elections against the official candidates. If he is successful at elections, the party would openly re admit him in the party, waiving off suspension or expulsion, issued by it for contesting against party dictates so the flouting of rules is from both sides, Because the criteria is to win and to capture power. In the process if party's organisational strength is eroded, no one cares.

It is a well accepted criterion that Indian Society is still feudal, however, modern we proclaim to be. The community and not the individual is centre of action. Values like individuality, freedom of action equality which is the hallmarks of a modern society do not operate with full vigour in our political system. The factors like caste, sub-caste, religion play a part in the party functioning. As mentioned earlier on the chief function of a political party is to select the candidate for contesting elections. In this function, the influence of certain "caste groups" is off to paramount importance. It is now openly seen that these groups are demanding certain percentage of seats for their castes. It has become an open bargain. It is not an ideology of the party that matters but the willingness of a party to accommodate the demands that matter. If a party can give say 30% of seats to a particular community, the caste association would issue a dictate for their members to vote for that party. From an accepted goal of casteless society, Indian political system has made us to travel to a situation where no party even the communists can afford to ignore the strong caste pulls. A-20, 102, Indraprasth Tower, (Behind Batra Cinema), Dr. Mukherjee Nagar, Delhi- 09 8 Ph:- 011-27651250, 09810702119, 09899156495 Email- [email protected] , Visit us at. www. saraswatiias.com

The non-democratic character of Indian party system also can be seen in the "culture of nomination". Normally the office bearer of a political party should be formally elected by the members of the party. But in India they are nominated by higher ups. People sitting in Delhi will nominate the party president and secretary for state party. What is more disturbing is the lack of inner-party democracy. Very rarely the dissent is tolerated. The culture of nomination buys loyalty and aspirants play safe by concurring to the views of party high command. Those who openly differ from the views of party high command are marginalized; sometimes it leads to the split in the party. An ideal democratic party would arrive at a consensus by adhering to the principle of giving due recognition to the opposite views

4. Leadership issue- Indian political parties are basically leader based and not cadre based. The charismatic leadership guides the party. A film star or members from ex-royal family will have a mass appeal, rather than a professional politician. The leader of such nature would soon create his own coterie and the ordinary members of party would be left high and dry. This is clearly shown in regional parties where father would appoint his son as the party chief, after his retirement and the process of nomination goes on. In fact the family members of a particular party leader would claim it as Divine right to get their share in party power. This type of hereditary politics guiding the party is perhaps featuring of Asian Politics. A trend had been set up by the erstwhile national leaders-The Nehru clan which is still controlling national affairs, though not as powerfully and this is followed by almost all the parties. The main problem with this hereditary politics is lack of trained second line leadership. A good political party should encourage grass root leadership. It should properly train them giving them responsibilities so that one day a trained leadership would be ready to take over from old hands. The party organization is not a private property of a leader, so that he can hand over to any one him like. A proper democratic method is absent in Indian party system.

5. Multi party system- Indian party system is a multi party system. There are a large number of parties most of them are not recognized. They come and disappear as and when elections are announced. Those that really count are confined to a few regions. Since, 1990 the regional parties have gain prominence. Earlier the Indian National Congress Party was a home for different sections, groups and interests. It was able to assimilate the multi ethnic groups into one party. The scheduled castes, Muslims and other minorities could not feel the need to have a separate party, as their interests were safeguarded the Congress Party. In post-Nehru era that picture changed. Now each group either ethnic or religious want to have their own political platform. The Akali Dal speaks for Sikhs, the Republican Party and speaks for lower castes and so on. In south India D. K. (Dravida Kazagam) was formed to protect "Dravidian culture" from "hegemony" of north India, as it was claimed by the founder. Soon it split into DMK, AIADMK and so on. In Maharashtra the a party which came into existence to protect the interest of native people in employment opportunities got split into M.N.S (Maharashtra Nav-Nirman Sena). Since India is vast sub-continent with diversified cultures, languages, ways of life, and since Democracy allows, every group to organize politically a multi-party system is inevitable. Since India believes in unity with diversity it is a challenge for democratic temperament in India to see that these multi parties are woven into a Grand National political culture, with some shared goals and aspiration. If that fails

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there would be anarchy, instability and perhaps end of democracy. Only future would tell whether multi party system strengthens or harms the democracy.

6. Endless proliferation of political parties– There has been a mushroom growth of national, regional, communal and ad hoc parties in India. No other democratic country in the world has such a multiplicity of political parties. The party structure has also been rapidly changing due to splits, defections, alliances and counter alliances. This unusual growth of political parties is the result of a series of complex and inter-related development such as the emergence of new social aspirations, the political skill of the regional leaders and the excessive centralism and monopolistic policies of the Congress.

7. Fragmented Opposition- A peculiar feature of the Indian party system is that although there are a number of opposition parties and groups, they do not constitute a credible national alternative. Ideological incompatibility, personal differences among party leaders and the refusal of the parties to merge their identity in the new organization also prevents the emergence of a credible national alternative. However, in the context of the coalition era, political parties have been coming forward to set up political alliances to form coalition governments.

8. Lack of Ideological Commitment- Ideology equips a party with a meaningful end and the motivation necessary for mobilizing its organization to achieve that end. Despite their emphasis on ideological commitment, the main aim of all political parties in India has been to capture power. Today Indian politics has become more issue oriented rather than ideologically committed. Political parties lack a clear cut ideology. As Francine Frankel has opined “Elections have been won not on the basis of the inherent strength of the ideology of a political party but on the basis of issues of immediate concern to the electorate.”

9. Organizational Drawbacks- Another feature of the Indian party system is the organizational looseness of political parties and lack of party discipline. From the organizational point of view, the Indian party system has suffered at the hands of both the leaders and their followers. Most of the parties do not have democratically organized structures. Several political parties maintain no membership registers, keep no accounts, hold no organizational elections and lack organizational discipline. Parties are dominated by the ‘top leaders’ or the ‘party elites’. A leader of towering personality can make or break a political party.

10. Dominance of Personality Cult- Party politics in India is characterized by the dominance of individuals in the political parties. Political parties stand organized around charismatic personalities and their leadership. Parties are often formed not on ideological or programmatic basis but around politically influential individuals. Such parties become a group of power seekers whose fortunes depend on their leader and never acquire a mass base.

11. Dominance of Caste and Communal Forces- Political parties are ridden by caste and communal considerations to a large extent in India. It is evident right from the selection of candidates for contesting elections from the various constituencies, to the distribution of ministerial portfolios after the winning of elections. Every political party keeps in mind the caste and communal

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composition of the constituency while choosing the candidate. Attempts are made to influence the electoral behaviour also on the basis of caste and communal identities. Parties are also dominated by caste and communal leaders.

12. Inner Factionalism and Groupism- Factions and Groupism within political parties has become a common feature of Indian party system. Internal factionalism and groupism is found in almost all the political parties. Groups owing loyalties to different leaders are present in different political parties. Such factional leaders compete among themselves for political influence within the party and the government. Such factionalism tends to keep the parties in a constant state of flux.

13. Emergence of regional political parties- In India several regional political parties have grown in number and influence. These parties articulate and seek to defend a regionally based ethnic or religio-cultural identity. Some of the prominent regional political parties are the DMK and the AIADMK in Tamilnadu; Akali Dal in Punjab; Assam Gana Parishad in Assam; National Conference in Jammu & Kashmir; Telugu Desam in Andhra Pradesh; Shiv Sena in Maharashtra. Another new development is the growing influence of these regional parties in the government formation at the centre in the context of hung.

14. Parliament and coalition politics- A process of power sharing between national and regional political parties has been instrumental in the formation of government at the centre.

15. Politics of Defection- Defection is the term used for opportunistic transfer of loyalties from one political party to another for selfish and power seeking reasons, without resigning the membership from the legislature. It is also known as ‘floor crossing.’ During 1951-67 political defections took place on a very limited scale. After the Fourth General Elections, 1967, Indian political system came to experience a spate of political defections. In 1985, the Parliament passed the 52nd Amendment Act for checking defections. It outlawed defections and constituted a bold attempt to check the evil practice of political defections. The 52nd Amendment Act, 1985, added a new Schedule the Tenth Schedule to the Constitution.

16. Politics of Populism- Almost all the political parties adopt and follow populist policies and raise populist slogans for securing their vote banks. Waving of loans, increased reservations, free water and electricity, food grains at very low prices etc. are some of such schemes. Such populist decisions do not take into account the increasing revenue needs of the state and ultimately leads to financial crisis.

17. Irrelevance of Party Manifestos- As part of the election campaign, every contesting party issues its manifesto. But the document has become a mere formality and is losing its significance. No party refers to its manifesto seriously and there is not much difference in the contents of various manifestos. Every election manifesto comes up with populist policies and promises. Moreover the differences among major political parties on critical issues of domestic policies are hardly visible.

18. Use of Extra-Constitutional Means to Power- Political parties have been using non- parliamentary and extra-constitutional means for gaining power instead of resorting to peaceful and

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constitutional means. All the political parties resort to strikes, gheraos, bandhs etc for securing party gains. During elections some political parties resort to malpractices like booth capturing, rigging, forced voting, poll violence and forcible prevention from voting.

19. Era of Coalition Politics- The era of coalition politics has dawned in India. In the context of ‘’, when no political party gets a clear cut majority in the legislature, a coalition government has to be formed with several political parties coming together. Since 1996 coalition governments have been in power at the centre and in several states.

Indian party system has been the product of the social, economic, cultural, linguistic, religious and regional pluralism which has been a basic feature of Indian society. Indian party system has been a fast changing and developing multi party system. It has come out of the age of one-party dominant multi party system and now is developing as a real multi party system. The existence of several political parties both national and regional, has kept the Indian political party scenario very complex.

Classification of Political Parties- In India political parties are classified into the following;

1. All India Political Parties or National Parties- All India political parties have been officially defined as those national parties with broad based national support and able to win at least six percent of valid votes polled in any four or more States at the general elections to the Lok Sabha and in addition win at least four seats in the Lok Sabha from any State or States. Another criterion is that a political party wins at least two percent of seats in the Lok Sabha i.e. at least 11 seats in a house of 543, and its elected members are from at least three different states. These parties emphasize on national issues in the parliamentary elections. Example-Indian National Congress, Bharathiya Janata Party, , Communist Party of India (Marxist), Bahujan Samaj Party, Janata Dal, Samata Party.

2. Regional Parties- They clearly represent sub-regional nationalism based upon the common language, culture and history of a region. These parties try to aggregate regional interests regardless of the caste and religious affiliation of their members and their power base and voting strength are confined to a particular geographic area. Ex–DMK, AIADMK in Tamil Nadu; Telugu Desam (Andhra Pradesh); the National Conference (Jammu & Kashmir); Assam Gana Parishad (Assam).

3. Communal Parties- Include those parties and organizations that are exclusive in their memberships; that are they accept as members only persons of a particular religion or ethnic community. They seek to protect and promote the interest of that particular community only. Ex; Muslim League (Kerala); Akali Dal (Punjab); Shiv Sena (Maharashtra) etc.

4. Ad-hoc parties- Consists of those organized around powerful persons or local and state issues. Such parties may not survive very long; some may appear only for a short period and then disappear completely or merge into other parties. The Bangla Congress, Kerala Congress etc are examples of such ad-hoc parties.

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Ideological and social bases of Political Parties-

Bharatiya janata Party- BJP is the branch of RSS. The RSS is cultural organisation and fallows nationalism. So, the ideology of BJP is same that of RSS i.e. Hindu nation or cultural nationalism. Once the RSS leader said that who is beyond the river Indus is Hindu. Gowalkar said that there are two types of people staying in India. The category of people in India is a motherland and holy land too. Therefore Hindus, Sikhs, & Jainism come in this category. But for Muslims & Christians in India is a motherland not a holy land so these are coming in second category. RSS was founded during the national movement of 1925 and when Gandhi was killed then people started criticising of RSS after that RSS created its political branch too. And that political branch is known as Jan-Sangh created in 1951 under the leadership of Shyama Prashad Mukherjee. RSS have many branches as like VHP, BMS, ABVP, and BJP etc. RSS create an organisation and ideology for BJP and functions of BJP always decided by RSS that is why RSS is called mother branch of BJP. BJP has adopted Cultural nationalism ideology. BJP always said that congress always adopt the policy of pseudo-secularism (false secularism). Abolishing 370 from Indian constitution and implementing the common civil courts in India is another demand of BJP. From very beginning it preferred better relations with USA but congress with Russia. The welfare of down trodden section of society is developmental model of BJP. After 90, BJP has also adopted the policy of eco- liberalisation. Social base- BJP is considered as the party of Brahmins and Baniyas. It is considered that the social base of BJP is much more in cities in comparison to the rural areas. In 1984 onwards BJP started its political journey when it got two (2) seats in Lok Sabha elections. But from 1986 onwards, L. K. Advani became the President of BJP then the temple movement and the ideology of Hindu nationalism was perused very aggressively. Therefore BJP policy was relying over temple movement and in next Lok Sabha elections it got more than 80 seats. (1989) After 1990, BJP improves its position in Hindi heartland and professor Joya Hassan said that BJP is much more stronger in northern India because during partition of India more communal violence was took place in northern India. After demolition of disputed structure of Ayodhya all parties allies that BJP is promoting communalism in India. Therefore in 1991 of Bengaluru session BJP changed its slogan Ram, Roti & Swadeshi. Rajani Kothari said that the character of parties in India is dual. They speak different when they are in power they change their stand after assuming the role of opposition. In 1998, 91 formed government at centre & when it was not in centre it gave slogan of party with difference in respect to congress. As they always added that we are more disciple than the congress. But defection & expulsion also took place in BJP came in power it relied over the policy of development in India, good governance. And when they left the issue of temple, they loss the elections of 2004. And now a day’s BJP introducing Modi as winning icon/strategy. Changing orientation of BJP- Advani ran across the chariot with an issue of corruption not on the issue of temple of Ayodhya this is the changing orientation of BJP with change in time and circumstances. Presently, BJP is in strong conditions in MP, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Goa, Himachal & Maharashtra, Delhi, Punjab and all other northern state. In 2008, BJP won the Karnataka assembly elections and it was considered very important as it became the Gateway of south India for BJP. But dilemma before BJP is that whether it perused the Hindu nationalist policy or

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the policy of development. But as of now, BJP is much more relying over the issue of development. But it is still immature to say that BJP has left its Hindu nationalist policy.

Ideologies of Communist Party- CPI was founded in 1925. The basic ideology of communism is to destroying the capitalist form of economy. And they always said that there are two types of capitalist forces in India first is Britishers and second is congress they said that congress is fighting only for the protection of bourgeoisie (capitalist) not for the common people they are the two parts of same coin (Britishers Congress). Communist believes that the liberation of India is possible through class-struggle. Therefore communists never recognise Gandhian factor. When India became independent in 1947 communist said that India is a Semi colonial country and imperialist forces are ruling over India. After Indian independence, communists started violent movement from telangana. They were drawing their strength from Soviet Union and china in 1970. Communist wanted that type of environment in India such as free of cost education, payment from state to unemployed person etc. they want to establish a real peoples rule in India; but there are two models of communist models; (1) Russian; & (2) Chinese. So therefore communist ideology was different. Russian Model was based on labour movement & Chinese Model was based on peasant revolution they were thinking that whether they adopt Russian model or Chinese model. And in a mean time very strategic change occurred in communist parties and they declared that they will participate in the 1st general election (1952). This party became the 1st communist party of the world which decided to participate in electoral politics. And they said that they will bring out the change in system to participating in electoral politics. Although in general elections they could not perform better but 1st time in Kerala they performed much better in 1957 & that was the much achievement of communist party. They phase an ideological challenge when they face Indo-China war in 1962 and China- Russia dispute at the same time when there was India-china war And Russia & China both were communist powers & they thought together thus Indian party face a dilemma that which side they should go. So this was the serious problem among the communist party of India. Some sections of communist party of India said that Indo-China war was not among the two nations but it is against the two difference ideologies as India is a capitalist country and China is a communist country. Some argue that communist party can’t take side of any country. It wants to be neutral on this matter. There was disagreement over the issue of supporting congress party. One section of communist party was in favour of supporting congress party but the other section said that communist party should maintain distance from congress. When Soviet Union said that Nehru is socialist than communist party said that congress is socialist. It occurred because of change of power in Moscow when Khrushchev Came in power after Lenin in 1953, all disagreements fed to the division of communist party in 1964. Communist party of India (CPI (M)) emerged from CPI.

Deference’s between CPI (M) AND CPI- CPI (M) is based on support of the peasant section of society. It never supports the congress in any form. It preferred the Chinese model of communism over soviet model. It also said that Indian bourgeoisie cannot be divided in small or big capitalists/ bourgeoisie. These different were very technical only and ideology is almost same. Morris Jones said that ideologies in Indian parties are merely for displaying. In reality party cannot be divided on

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ideological lines. With aggressive policy of communism CPI (M) got more seats in comparison to CPI. Collectively they formed the government & hence alliance took place between CPI and CPI (M) in West Bengal. After some time the communist started very violent activists is in West Bengal and communist cadre became uncontrolled. CPI (M) used brutal power against its own cadres. Therefore in 1967, CPI (M) was divided further and CPI (ML) was created from CPI (M). CPI (ML) vowed that they will never participate in elections and they will violently overthrow state & government. This is agenda of CPI (ML), Because of CPI (ML) Naxalist supported. Their ideology is CPI (ML). They also divided in several sections, like in Bihar MNC, in Andhra people’s war group. They are banned in India. In 2004 again all these section of naxalists reorganised as of new. They are known as CPI (M- Maoist). Communist’s emphasis over strengthening of the people. They believe that in India infrastructure of democracy is stronger but people are deprived. Dominance of left parties is only in few pockets of India i.e. West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura. Canadian political scientist Douglas Barney said that in India some parties are having the national ideology/agenda but their real presence is regional. This saying is very appropriate for communist parties. Before 1990, its presence was very limited but after that communist parties made presence at national level. After 1991, India adopted liberal economic policy. Consequently communist parties said that government has forgotten socialism. It is promoting privatisation and liberalisation. Communist parties also opposed communal policy of BJP too after 1990. They also opposed religious policy of BJP too. Apart from congress and BJP they created . First time in 1996, they supported National front government (i.e. Dev gauda Government) and participated in it. In 2004 communist parties achieved biggest success and it got approve 54 seats in Lok Sabha elections. Some communist party opposed the party of liberalisation in centre which supported it in West Bengal. After Jyoti Basu, Buddha dev Bhattacharya Became Chief Minister of West Bengal and he supported & promoted liberalisation.

Social Base of Communist parties- Indian society is divided on the basis of caste while communist party tried to make it categorise on the basis of class. Peasants & rural section of society, SC/ST’s, Muslims, labour class and a few sections of urban intellectuals. Rudolph & Rudolph said that the presence of left parties in West Bengal is because of historical reasons rather than socio- economic conditions. Challenge before left parties- The basic support of left parties is no longer. Defeat of communist parties in West Bengal is very historic regional party like Trinamool Congress defeated them. Present communist leaders are drawn from elite universities of India and abroad and their connection is no longer effective & stronger today with the masses. Communist parties are still facing the dilemma over their economic policy because on the one hand they are opposing policy of economic liberalisation & on the other hand they implementer this policy in their state.

Bahujan Samaj Party- The glaring ideology of power of is being projected by Bahujan Samaj Party (B.S.P.). The party successfully checked the rise of BJP in Uttar Pradesh and projecting the ideology which is upliftment and protection of Dalit rights. This party is only a regional party and may play a decisive role in case of "hung parliament". The same applies to . Although the leaders claim to be followers of Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia, neither Lohia's anti-

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congresses, not his plea for democratic socialism is reflected. If any the party is more close to Congress. So there is an ideological lacuna here.

Conclusion- As of now the post-independent India shows two clear ideological patterns are operating. One which is market friendly open competition methods, inviting multi-nationals to operate, so that speedy economic development may emerge. The other stresses the concept of social justice, employment oriented economy, sanctity of public sector and greater say for states. While Congress and BJP represent forever, the Leftist forces represent latter. How, the new developments would take place whether a new ideology would again emerge from churning of present economic, political and social situation, only future events would tell.

Regional Parties- India is a land of regional parties. Regional parties are parties, whose main holds are in one particular region or state. They generally limit their operations within the territorial limits. Some prominent regional parties include Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu, Telugu Desham Party (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh, (SAD) in Punjab, Shiva Sena in Maharashtra, Kerala Congress in Kerala, National Conference in Kashmir, Hariyana Vikas Party in Haryana, Manipur Peoples party in Manipur, in Sikkim, (MNF) in Mizoram. These regional parties have considerable influence over national as well state politics. With the coming of coalition politics most of the regional parties acquired national significance. This can be explained in connection with the weakening of the Indian National Congress and emergence of new political demands, priorities and polarities in the Indian polity.

Some authors argue that regional identity is constitutive of Indian national identity as a whole. Rajani Kothari says that the India’s nation-building process is driven by two simultaneous trends: administrative political re-structuring and the inter penetration and growth of multiple power centres as well as new elites through a re-configuration of social and economic structures.

Factors Responsible for the Emergence of Regional Parties- The regional feeling starts with the identification of part of territory as a separate unit. Apart from geography, culture also plays a role in generating this feeling. Many a time for administrative conveniences regional groupings will be undertaker. The regionalism manifests itself in more than one way. In its extreme from it may preach for secession from Indian Union. Some groups in Jammu and Kashmir, in Punjab and North East are examples of this ideology. Even in South in early 40's and 50's the Dravidian movement was very strong and was clamouring for Dravidstan. Now that tendency seems to have lost the steam. Regionalism also finds expression when in federal structure states demand more autonomy or more financial powers. It can also appear in the demand for converting Union Territories into full fledged State units. The demands for separate states within the existing states, like the demands for Telangana, Vidarbha is another feature of regional aspiration being let out. In modern days of economic development a new trend is emerging. The states would like to have greater say in the allotment of natural resources falling within their territory. For instance when gas is produced in a river basin the particular state would like to have a lion's share. Their argument is “it is their state and the natural resources belong to them”. Mining, forest wealth, hydro-electricity or Atomic power, which have a potential for rapid industrialization are coming under the shadow of A-20, 102, Indraprasth Tower, (Behind Batra Cinema), Dr. Mukherjee Nagar, Delhi- 09 16 Ph:- 011-27651250, 09810702119, 09899156495 Email- [email protected] , Visit us at. www. saraswatiias.com

regional demands. When states demand a more favourable treatment in interstate disputes like sharing water we see the forces of regionalism appearing in politics. Cauvery disputes between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, is the latest example. Each state demanding only their point of view be given due consideration. Apart from the merits of the case the point to note is politicians would exploit sentiments that their state is getting step motherly treatment and evoke regional passions.

1) Erosion of all India feeling- The post independent India witnessed erosion in the spirit of nationalism. One country one people were a slogan that stirred emotions of people to launch a fierce movement against Britishers. All separatist tendencies like caste, religion, language, and region were kept aside. An all India picture emerged. National leadership provided an ideal for the people to follow nation above everything. That feeling gradually eroded with the advent of independence. Hitherto suppressed, separatist tendencies re emerged. There was no negative factor like foreign rule to unite people. Uniting for development activities is not that easy. Because there is always feeling that development is lopsided. Every region feels it did not get its due share. The post independent leadership also lacked the spirit of sacrifice exhibited by earlier leadership and failed to infuse a sense of sacrifice among the people.

2) Failure to live up to constitutional ideals- The constitutional experts always describes India, "Unitary in nature and Federal in structure". Even then to keep the Democratic diversity the Central government should be sincere in honestly implementing whatever little federal provisions the constitution provided. Using Article-356 to dismiss the elected governments, for narrow political gains, governor acting as agent of centre and exercising extra constitutional powers to destabilized non-congress governments, the method of imposing the chief ministers from Delhi and changing them the moment they become powerful, are some of the short sighted actions taken by government at centre that have created a strong regionalist tendencies and infused regional pride. The state governments are feeling they are being treated as subjects in colonial country. The emergence of Telugu Desham party on the issue “pride of Telugu people” is centred on the “nomination culture” of Central government when N. T. Rama Rao (N.T.R.) started his party, the Congress was ruling but the moment N. T. Rama Rao the film star cum Politician announced the formation of a political party the Congress government at centre got panicky. It went on changing the Chief Ministers with a faint hope that a suitable strong person would checkmate N. T. Rama Rao That was not to be. In fact it strengthened the argument of T.D.P. that the chief ministers have no spine, they are acting as servants of central leadership and insulting the Telugu People's pride. The Telugu Desham Party swept the polls on the core issue of self respect of Telugus". Recently Gujarat Chief Minister talked 'Gujarati pride”. Shiv Sena always proclaims “Amcha Marathi Manoos”. All these reflect the sentiments on a region and the failure of the central leadership to analyze it in proper perspective.

We need “a cooperative federalism” not a pseudo federal structure to contain the regional pride from hurting national pride. Perhaps we can analyze a new trend in regional politics. In post independent India the regional leader's charisma has outsmarted the national leaders. Apart from late Mrs. Gandhi there is no central leader who has that much charisma and following which can match regional leaders like NTR, M.G.R, Jayalalitha. This factor is responsible for the growth of regionalism in the Indian political system. A-20, 102, Indraprasth Tower, (Behind Batra Cinema), Dr. Mukherjee Nagar, Delhi- 09 17 Ph:- 011-27651250, 09810702119, 09899156495 Email- [email protected] , Visit us at. www. saraswatiias.com

3) Imbalance in Economic Development- Many Economists have pointed out the centralized planning and policies for economic development pursued by the government ever since independence have not resulted in a well balanced economic development of all regions. Normally the capital investment takes place in capital cities. There was a theory of “development gains being percolated to all regions from the capital”. That seems to be not the real picture. The gains have been monopolized by a few centres. While the large areas has been left completely backward. The areas like Rayalaseema and Telangana villages in Andhra Pradesh can never be compared with the technological prosperity achieved by Hyderabad the capital of Andhra Pradesh. Similarly Mumbai the capital of Maharashtra is far superior and rich compared to Vidharbha. The studies have indicated that regional disparities and inequalities are continuing even today as they were at the time of independence. In fact the post-independent Indian economy pectoris’s the increase rather than decrease of inter regional disparities. The planned resources transfers have not only been unable to prevent the increasing the gap between the rich and poor states but actually contributed to accentuating the disparities. If a neighbouring state is prosperous, it is inevitable that people from backward regions would migrate to that state. This creates problems of overcrowded cities, growth of slums, severe burden on public transport and also increase in crime rate. The people belongings to prosperous state resent this migration. So we have the theory of “Jobs for locals” “sons of soil” making rounds recently there were attack on outsiders who came to attend the interviews at Mumbai and Bangalore. There is another dimension to this problem. In some states like Kerala there is 100% literacy, educated people, technically qualified people get degrees from universities but no scope for jobs. Their chances of getting jobs, outside their region are high because of their technical qualifications. This trend again creates resentment among the locals.

4) Global Economy leading to regionalism- It may appear to be contradictory but the new economic policies open out to Foreign Direct Investment, has in a way strengthened regionalism in a subtle way. According to Indian constitutional provision the foreign policy and all the issues concerning international trade and commerce is central subject. But of late we find the state Chief Ministers and other Ministers of state undertaking foreign trips, meeting the people of their states, settle in foreign countries and appealing them to come and invest for their state development. The appeal is always confined to a particular state and not to India. For instance, when a Minister from Andhra goes to USA or Kuwait, he would appeal to Telugu people to invest in Andhra. So an emotional appeal, a regional appeal but not a national outlook. Though this approach is positive as it boosts economic development, its potential ability to sustain regionalism cannot be denied.

Role of Regional Parties- In the present federal party system of India regional parties are determining the formation of government at union level. Therefore, they are playing national role as of now. Since 1996 onwards regional parties are very important for government formation in centre and even for the stability of coalition government too. Earlier regional parties always adopted anti- union government stand and anti-centre approach but they are part of union government now too. Therefore regional parties are making an alliance with national parties at centre. In the present coalition government and in the age of alliance politics regional parties are senior partners however All India parties are junior parties/partners. This clearly shows importance of regional parties. For 2014, elections both BJP and congress and BJP are looking for the regional parties.

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The role of regional political parties has been progressively increasing in the Indian political system. Firstly, regional parties have posed the most powerful challenge to India’s ‘one party dominant system’. Secondly, regional parties have made a strong impact on the nature and course of Centre-state relations. The State leaderships have become more demanding with their dealings with the Central leadership and the centre is becoming more responsive to the needs and demands of the regional parties. Thirdly, regional parties have made politics more competitive and popular participation in the political process has become more extensive. Fourthly, in the context of the present era of coalition politics, several regional parties have been emerging as key players in national politics. During 1999-2004, 23 regional political parties shared power at the centre as partners of the NDA. Since 2004 the UPA is governing at the centre consisting of around 20 political parties including regional political parties. Emergence and growing number and popularity of regional political parties have helped in a new thinking which admits a positive role that regional parties can play in the process of nation building. Participation of regional political parties in national politics has been a new factor of Indian politics and federalism.

Impact of Regional parties- Although impact of regional parties appears positive over democracy because it ensures the participation of each and every segment of society in the government. However regional parties have been creating a very negative impact over foreign policy, economic policy and more over stability of the government National issues are undermined in order to pleasing the regional parties.

Conclusion- It can be concluded that the role of regional political parties in the Indian political system has been enormous. On the one hand they have helped in the development of participatory political culture and provided a check against the overshadowing tendencies of the Central government; on the other they are also a source of strength for the development of the federal process in India. Regional parties manifesto diversity & plural society of India and India’s party system is still in a transitional phase. Regional parties are getting their strength because all India parties do not have strong organisational presence.

Coalition Politics: Problems and Perspectives- Since the 1989 Lok Sabha elections the national party system transited from one-party Congress domination to a multi-party system. This represented the pluralistic feature of Indian Social System. Since no single party gets absolute majority a system of coalition government takes place. There are two methods by which coalitions are formed;

One method is before elections the group of parties come to some understanding about jointly fighting elections, even issue joint manifestos and fight elections. If these groups of parties get required majority they would form the government recently in Punjab, Akali Dal and BJP jointly fought elections and formed the government so also case in Bihar where the J.D. (U) and the BJP got required seats and a coalition government is formed. This type of pre election coalition is sounder, systematic than the government formed after election by different groups.

In the second method parties would fight elections independently. If a situation rises where no party has got required number of seats the largest party would start formation of government in

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the process the support of other parties will be sought. This will result in what came to be known as “horse trading” that is trying to snatch away members from other parties to get the required majority by offering cabinet posts to other parties and so on. Such a coalition government, not based on any shared ideology cannot last long. The parties can resort to blackmailing tactics, forcing the majority party to review every decision it takes. It can result in paralysis of administration.

Coalition at State level- Coalition government in India was formed in 1967 onwards in states and the regional parties started the formal coalitions in India. Although, ideology was not binding factor among the coalition partners but opposition of congress or opposition of ruling party was main agenda for the coalition partners.

Coalition at the centre- In 1977, Janata party government is considered as informal coalition government because technically it was a single party but it was formed by five different parties and there was a clash of personalities in that coalition and again the coalition was aimed for replacing the congress from power. But coalition could not fulfil its five year tenure, therefore almost all coalition government in India were unstable. Ricker said that coalition government in India is always based on the principle of power maximisation rather than ideological compatibility. But there are some exceptions where ideological coalition ran very successfully.

Coalition Government after 1990- 1990, no single party could manage to win majority seats in Lok Sabha. Therefore, coalition government formed with a support of regional parties. V. P. Singh government in 1989, it was a kind of centrist coalition, but it was because of support of national parties not regional parties (left parties and BJP support) from outside. In 1996, Dev Gauda became the Prime Minister and his government is considered as united front coalition. This united front coalition was left from the centre because first time left parties participated in the government. Most importunely this was the first coalition in India where regional parties played a national role. And first time in India this alliance was known secular alliance but this was an alliance that was keeping away BJP from the power. BJP could not forms a party because of lack of regional parties support to BJP. In 1998 NDA collation came into power. This coalition considered as right from centre and again regional parties played a very crucial role in order to form a government And the coalition of 1991 again it was coalition of right, it was a first coalitional at centre which has completed its five year term in centre when NDA was formed by coalition at centre, major coalition partners were Akali Dal, Shiv Sena, Telugu Desham Party, Trinmul Congress, National conference of J & K, Lok Jan Shakti party, Biju janata Dal, Samata party of George Fernandes. Those coalition partners explained that ideology is not a crucial factor to form the government in India. Coalition was based on power maximisation. The 1999 alliance was pre-role alliance. Since 1999, the coalition of national parties led by UPA & NDA. BJP always won the election on the question of religion (Temple case) but it always loss on the question of good governance. But BJP loss the elections of 2004 because there were communal riots in 2002 in Gujarat.

Why coalition government came in power- The pattern of not a single party getting full majority is being continued in 12, 13, 14 and 15th Lok Sabha election (1998 to 2009). This brings home the truth that the path to power in contemporary India lays in the creation of political regional

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and social alliances. No single party can rule India. There are many reasons why coalition politics become inevitable in India. To begin with there is Politicisation of various social groups hitherto marginalized. With the growth of democratic temperament these groups would fight for political emancipation and empowerment. Earlier one larger party Congress was supposed to cater to all needs of all sections. But with a vast diversified society it is not possible for any party to fully do justice to the demands of all groups. At the most a few members may be nominated but they cannot be completely satisfied. Let us take the example of a party like the BSP. This party exclusively speaks for Dalits. The Indian National Congress also is committed to upliftment of Dalits. That way all parties are at least overtly. If there was no BSP party the social group comprising of Dalits would have been mere supporters of Congress being satisfied with whatever little concessions offered by Congress. But today they can dictate terms. As a political party with sufficient number of MP’s. The BSP can demand and get what it wants. Every social group would like to be in such a position. Instead of playing second fiddle to a large party they would like to have a say in the national agenda. It is the role of policy makers that enthuses a group than mere “beneficiary” of a system. The same point is emphasized by Professor C. P. Bhambri when he says, “politicization of social groups and their struggles for share in power, strong desire to retain social/regional identities by such group’s emergence of strong and independent regional leadership have made coalition government inevitable at the federal level for some years to come.’’

The failure of national leadership to broaden the base of the party and to accommodate different groups has only wetted the appetite of various groups to chalk out separate entities. In an underdeveloped country like India the non availability of opportunities for better economic development could lead to formation of interest groups to fight for jobs, economic betterment and for more opportunities. Such groups would transform into political parties and can upset the balance. The Telangana area is potential for growth of regional identity. The national party Congress was unable to take a firm stand on the future of separate state, because of pressure from coastal area congress leaders. It would forfeit the Telangana. The group representing separatist aspirations might fill that vacuum of Congress and get its demand for separate state either by joining the coalition of supporting a government from outside. Now the Separate Telangana State is a political reality. Since coalition is inevitable at least for some years to come it is necessary to frame some broad guidelines to make the working of coalition successful. Because by now it is clear that, in a coalition government with different parties pulling in different direction no policy can be formulated. Even if it is formulated it may be impossible to effectively implement it. To begin with a convention must be developed that only those coalition of parties formed before commencement of election be recognized while forming government. The formation of groups after election results are announced cannot be treated as genuine. This could prevent horse trading, defection, pressure tactics and so on. The coalition parties should agree on a common minimum programme. They should announce it before people during elections. A co-ordinated body of coalition parties is formed. This body should meet regularly to review the working of government. All differences are settled amicably. A spirit of comradeship is developed. Once they are part of government they should work as a team and if need arises be prepared to curb small political considerations in the national interest. A good leadership is what makes a coalition government run effectively. The larger party should look at smaller parties in coalition with respect and treat them as partners of equal status not as juniors. A

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measure of magnanimity is required from the big partner and a spirit of compromise from smaller partners. Since any government is judged by the effectiveness it should be endeavour of all parties to provide clean and corruption free administration. The spirit of co-operation among the parties should not stop once national elections are over. It will be a good idea if a convention is developed that the coalition parties who contest parliamentary elections should continue to do so at state and local election also so that a real unity is forged among them. At present we have to sets of coalitions working at centre, The NDA and UPA whether it will give rise to a two party system replacing present multi party system only future will tell. It can be also possible in future one strong party may emerge under a charismatic National leader. But that possibility is remote. We are stuck with multi party system and coalition government and should make it work successfully otherwise constant instability, frequent elections may create an atmosphere not conducive to Democracy.

Advantage of coalition government- India is a coalitional society then coalition government represents each & every segment of society. Therefore coalition government is much more democratic. In other words coalition government represent the diversity & plural society of India which is not possible in one dominated party system. Coalition government gives way for the emergence of real federal polity in India. Coalition government is also prevented the misuse of federal provision by the union government. Coalition government is much more democratic because decisions are taken by consensus rather than by majority. The power & position of leader of opposition is also institutionalizing. All decisions were taken on the basis of all party meet. Coalition government may stable too and in India last two-third (2/3) coalition government have completed their 5 year tenure. Therefore coalition based on pre-pole alliance or common minimum programme can be stable.

Disadvantages of coalition government- In the age of coalition government, government is facing a kind of policy paralysis, it means government is unable to take a major decision. It is running like a care taker government (only performing day to day administration Task not make any policy or long term decision).There is no guarantee of stability of government therefore running the government becoming an ultimate task for the government and government is also facing credibility crisis. In this, we undermine the power of prime minister and cabinet. Therefore, each & every branch of government is unable to perform their stipulated task and objectives. The coalition government has also committed/created a challenge for parliamentary democracy too. And in present coalition government it is very different to distinguish the party in power and party in opposition. Corruption is also thriving in different Branches of government too in the absence of regulation and control. Therefore it appears that coalition government is very ineffective in India. Government (Union) is unable to take a stand over the issues of foreign policy because of the pressure of regional parties. Determinants of Electoral Behaviour- It means behaviour of an electorate and analysing or examining the factors which determines the behaviour of electorate. Election studies show that a combination of factors determines the electoral behaviour. These factors include mainly religion, language, region, caste, tribe, etc. For each and every part of India, there is very different to generalize single voting behaviour pattern. These factors are important in voting, in some elections caste is seen as import factor. In 4th Lok Sabha elective 1971. The personality was the important A-20, 102, Indraprasth Tower, (Behind Batra Cinema), Dr. Mukherjee Nagar, Delhi- 09 22 Ph:- 011-27651250, 09810702119, 09899156495 Email- [email protected] , Visit us at. www. saraswatiias.com

factor that determines the voting factor. It is also seen as regional tendencies that how personality factor emerge as electoral factor. N. T. Rama Rao (83) He won the election because of Charismatic personality. In 1984, when India Gandhi was killed all the people of India voted for congress on emotional appeal. Some time split voting (casting two different parties in S. L. An elections & for Lok Sabha) factor also takes place. In 1980’s, religion was also a factor of electorate behaviour. But, personality factor is gradually declined. Voting behaviour is based on development and progress factors after 1990. It also based on good governance. Water, electricity & Roads are also became an important factor for electoral voting. The regional and linguistic factors were used to mobilise votes in Tamil Nadu by the DMK, AIADMK, in Andhra Pradesh by the in Telugu Desham, in Assam by AGP. With increased democratisation and politicisation, the political parties have tried to exploit the caste factor for election purpose, which in turn enables elite group of castes to get inducted into the political process. In fact, caste is the most commonly used factor of mobilisation. It does, however, not mean that all the castes or even an entire caste becomes politicised or mobilised to influence the political system. The caste associations in India began much before independence as agents of Sanskrit is nation seeking to secure educational, service and other facilities to raise the status of their caste in social hierarchy. But their post-independence role has become much more important and complicated since now they combine the roles of pressure groups in economic and political field as well. The caste associations have made people conscious of their rights and privileges. Their most important contribution lies in making the illiterate masses participate effectively in politics. Through this process, politicisation of caste has reached a stage where not only is the caste regarded as one of the main issues for deciding in favour of a candidate by the voters but caste is also one of the most important variables in the distribution of election tickets and formation of ministries. Thus, the caste connections of leaders, command over their caste men and the ability to form coalitions of castes for the purpose of political gains came to play significant roles. With the introduction of universal adult franchise, the Dalits and other backward castes became conscious of their potential power due to their sheer numerical size. Caste solidarity has acquired tremendous importance. People tend to vote either for a party with which their caste or sub-caste is identified, or for a respected member of their caste, irrespective of his/her party affiliation. What Paul Brass had observed in 1965 in the context of state election is now relevant in the context of national election; “The role of caste in elections is easily the most discussed aspect of contemporary Indian political behaviour.” The interaction between caste and electoral politics has resulted in traditionalisation of politics, on the one hand, and politicisation of caste, on the other. According to Rajani Kothari, “The alleged casteism in politics is thus no more and no less than politicisation of caste. By drawing the caste system into its web of organisation, politics finds material for its articulation and moulds it into its own design. In making politics their sphere of activity, caste and kin groups, on the other hand, get a chance to assert their identity and to strive for positions.” In the democratic process politics has penetrated into the remote villages of India. Political consciousness and participation have increased among all segments of the society awakening them to the power of their votes in determining the fate of political leaders. Thus, at times electoral process has been the route to social mobility as in the case of Yadav in UP and Bihar. Awakened to its political weight by force of numbers, the community has dominated the political scene in the states since mid 1980s. The logic of electoral politics has also

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compelled the political parties to broaden their social or caste base. Thus, anti-high caste parties like the DMK and BSP (Bahujan Samaj Party) had to co-operate the higher castes to make their regional identity more inclusive, while the upper castes and urban parties like the BJP have to reach out to the middle and lower castes and rural periphery to challenge the Congress dominance. The acceptance of universal adult franchise and extension of political power to the common man by the Indian constitution, irrespective of caste, community and sex was a revolutionary step. There have been changes of government both at the Centre and in the states several times through the election process. By political participation one may refer to those legal activities by citizens which are more or less directly aimed at influencing the selection of government personnel and policy decisions. The robustness of democratic institutions depends on three interrelated phenomenons. First, there must exists a cadre of political activists who are committed to democratic principles and complete among themselves for capturing political power within the confines of democratic rules of the game. Second, there must be available an institutional structure that facilitates articulation of divergent public policies and promotes smooth transformation of inputs into appropriate systemic outputs. And lastly, there must be exists a generalised commitment to democratic values and norms on the part of the general public. The most fundamental reality of the Indian society is the overwhelming poverty. A vast multitude of Indians is unemployed and underemployed. The rate of literacy is very low. The illiteracy among the Dalits and the poor is almost total. It is this vast ocean of humanity living in the rural India, which constitutes the basic reality of India. It is this majority of population living below and just above the poverty line which has the major share of votes in the Indian elections. Poor, illiterate, superstitious with a sense of belonging only to the caste or religion, and with no access to proper communication, except occasionally the government run broadcasting system, this enormous human wave is being driven to the polling station, every now and then to cast its sovereign will. It is mainly on this section of the population that the outcome of the election really depends. The election thus becomes an occasion when their consent is manipulated not to promote their interest but to sustain a political system that expects them to surrender their sovereign right. This is clearly reflected in the class nature of the electoral slogans as well as the performance of the parties once they come into power. The ‘socialistic pattern’ benefited the private sector more; and nationalisation of banks really meant more capital becoming available to the big business houses. The dominant social groups often infringe upon the rights of the Dalits, lower backwards and other disadvantaged groups. The most common method adopted is a simple one of voting by proxy; the labourers leave the choice to the landowner, who advises and persuades them not to go to the booth as their votes would be cast. In case they are undecided and look like voting for someone other than the choice of the landowner, they are prevented from voting. Such practice has been going on almost since the beginning of election in India, but more openly and on a larger scale since the sixties, with the emergence of the rural elite of landlords and kulaks as an influential lobby at the state politics. The political parties and their leaders too all along have adopted a policy of non- interference in the rural sector so as not to annoy the land owning classes, without whose help and feudal vote banks, a candidate could hope to win. By and large, this forms the basis of the voting pattern in the rural India. The feudal patron client relations have not yet been replaced, though there is a trend towards their erosion in certain parts of the country. This manifests in the social life as a close nexus between class, caste and citizenship and strengthens the operation of vote banks

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and vote contractors in the Indian electoral politics. Role of caste and religion are very important in this context. We are observing the political behaviour in electoral behaviour and it can’t take against a part from social context. When there is change in social context voting behaviour is bound to change. We can’t determine voting factor on single base although & factor may be important from others but it is always based on cumulated factors.

Changing social–economic profile of legislative (Parliament)- i) Parliament is a kind of small sample of Indian society. Earlier there was a much more representation of Barristers in parliament. But now, the people belonging to rural background they are dominating the parliament. ii) Earlier, there was a big land lords in parliament but as of now small peasants are dominating the parliament. iii) Earlier domination of upper caste section of society was in parliament but as of now there is a domination of OBC’s, SC & ST’s in parliament. iv) Earlier the parliament was dominated by some big industrialist, royal families, doctors, but now a day’s people from rural background are entering in parliament.

Conclusion- This in fact proves that parliament is becoming more & more democratic institution. It signifies the democratisation of the parliament of present change in profile of parliament as each & every section of society got their due representation in parliament. This changing profile shows a significant achievement of Indian democracy. But still it has some drawbacks like; i) People belonging to criminal background entering in the parliament & law breakers become law makers. ii) The representation of women in parliament is insignificant. iii) The representation of minority section is also very less in the parliament.

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