sign in sign up
<<
Home , Council of Piacenza, Ecumenical council, Pope Urban II, Siege of Nicaea (1113)

1

The Council of Clermont (1095) in The Deeds of the Franks

A Case Study By Scott Mauer, M.A.

Definitions

Asia Minor – the geographical area consisting, mainly, of modern-day ; also goes by the

name of .

Byzantine Empire – the , also known as the Eastern , was the

dominant political empire in Greece and the Near East. As the Byzantines spoke mostly

Greek, and their religion was Orthodox , they were in many ways rivals to

Western , whether culturally, politically, or religiously. The Byzantine Empire’s

capital was .

Clermont – a city within modern-day central France.

Church of the Holy Sepulcher – an ancient located within , which is reported to

be the place of ’s crucifixion, burial, and resurrection. The Church of the Holy

Sepulcher (from the sepulcrum, meaning grave or tomb) was originally built in the

early fourth century, under the order of Roman Emperor Constantine.

Crusade – from the Latin word cruciare – “to crucify, mark with a cross” – a crusade is any holy

, which occurred between the late-eleventh and late-thirteenth centuries, either to

defend Christianity or to attach enemies of Christianity. Although some historians say

that there were nine , all of which occurred against , many other

crusades occurred within this period of time, including within southern France, the Baltic

(Lithuania, Latvia, Poland), and Spain. 2

The Deeds of the Franks – an anonymous firsthand account of the , originally

written in Latin, and thought to have been written around 1100; it details the military

tactics, speeches, and struggles that the crusaders went through between the Council of

Clermont to the Battle of Ascalon in 1099.

Ecclesiastical Council – a council of the Church, in which the , , and other clerics

participate. Historically, there are two categories of councils – a , and an

ecumenical council. A synod is simply a meeting of bishops and clerics, whether from a

specific region or all of Europe, which may or may not be led by the pope. An

ecumenical council is a much more important council, in which all bishops of the Church

have a right to participate. Usually, ecumenical councils were called to define a particular

doctrine against a supposed or misunderstanding. The Council of Clermont in

1095 falls into the category of a synod, and is not considered an ecumenical council.

The – the geographical area now consisting of the state of Israel, Jordan, and Syria;

this area consists of the Palestinian region in the Middle East. Since this region is holy in

all three Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), including the popular

site for pilgrimages, the question of who should possess it caused much friction.

Jerusalem – the holiest site within Christianity; Jerusalem was the city in Judea in which,

according to the , many events of Christ’s life occurred.

Jihad – Arabic for “struggle,” this term was originally meant to convey an inner struggle with the

soul, to fight against temptations. Later, it took a more militaristic and physical meaning

for an actual war, much like a crusade.

3

A map of Jerusalem, thirteenth century

Cast of Characters

Author of The Deeds of the Franks – Although scholars know nearly nothing about the author to

The Deeds of the Franks, including his name, nationality, and background, we can

conclude that he was certainly under the command of Bohemond, Prince of Taranto, in

southern Italy. Due to his association with Bohemond, we can deduce that he was a 4

French Norman from southern Italy. The Latin grammar within The Deeds of the Franks

was simple, which strongly suggests that he was not a cleric, but a nobleman.

Emperor Alexios I (also spelled Alexius I Comnenus) – Byzantine Emperor from

1081 to 1118; as the first powerful emperor of the Komnenos dynasty, he inherited a

struggling empire (the Seljuk Turks, along with other invaders, were continuously

attacking, such as the Turks’ decisive victory at the Battle of Manzikerk in 1071) and an

unstable monarchy (in the previous fifty years, six of eleven emperors either abdicated or

were deposed). As general and soldier to usurping the throne, Alexios personally

fought against the Seljuk Turks.

Pope Urban II – Pope from 1088 to 1099; born Otho de Lagery, prior to his election as pontiff he

was a prominent cardinal and legate close to Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085), whom,

during his papacy, was willing to declare a Crusade to fight the invading Seljuk Turks.

Background and Chronology of Events

In 1071, the Seljuk Turks, an Asiatic tribe, defeated the army of the Byzantine Empire in

the Battle of Manzikerk (now modern-day eastern Turkey), in a decisive victory. The Byzantine

Emperor, Romanos IV Diogenes (1068-1071), was taken prisoner and only released after paying

ransom, along with additional payment every year. After being usurped and deposed soon after,

the Byzantine Emperors saw a rapidly successful Turkish army. In 1077, the Seljuks captured

Jerusalem. By 1080, nearly all of Asia Minor was under Islamic control.

In 1081, a prestigious military general, Alexios Comnenus, usurped the throne from

Emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates (1078-1081), as the three year reign was marked by internal 5

unrest. Nearly a decade later, in 1090-1091, another Islamic nomadic tribe, called the Patzinaks, besieged Constantinople.

As the Seljuks, along with other tribes, conquered much of Byzantine territory within a decade, Emperor Alexios decided to send a plea for help to the Pope. This message was received in the Council of in March of 1095, asking for Western mercenaries to assist in reclaiming the Holy Land. Between to November 28 of that year, Pope Urban II convened the Council of Clermont, with various other ranks of clergymen, to call a crusade.

There are several accounts by different authors as to what Pope Urban specifically said; whether or not the specific author was an eyewitness to the Council, or whether may explain why the differences in his speech are sometimes substantial. Each version emphasizes a different aspect of Urban’s speech, whether the necessity to defeat the enemies of Christianity, or defend

Christian pilgrims.

Selection from The Deeds of the Franks

Now since that time had approached, which the lord daily shows to his faithful, specifically saying in the : “If he who wills to come after me, let him refuse himself and carry his own cross and follow me,” [Matthew 16:24] a strong movement was made through the whole of the Gallic regions, so that if someone with a zealous and clear heart and mind would want to follow God, and he would wish to carry faithfully this cross on his own back, he would not be slow to seize the swifter way of the Holy Sepulcher. The apostle of the Roman seat [the

Pope] departed as quickly as possible over part of the mountains with his , bishops, , and priests, and he began eloquently to talk and to proclaim that if someone’s own soul 6

wished to be saved, then he would not doubt to begin the humbler life of the Lord, and if the abundance of money was lacking to him, then divine mercy would be given to him.

For the apostolic lord says, “Brothers, it is possible for you all to suffer for the name of

Christ, clearly misery, poverty, nakedness, persecution, want, illness, hunger, thirst, and other things of this kind, such as the Lord says to his own disciples: ‘It is necessary for you all to suffer in my name,’ [Acts 9:16] and: ‘Do not wish to be ashamed to speak before the things of man; I truly give to you a mouth and wisdom,’ [2 Timothy 1:8; Luke 21:15] and following: ‘It will continue to follow you all with large retribution.’ [Matthew 5:12]” And now with this gradually began to become prevalent through the Gallic duchies and counties, hearing this, the Franks immediately took to sew the cross on their right shoulders, saying to follow

Christ unanimously on foot, from which the hands were redeemed of the underworld. At this time the Gallic lands were removed from their homes.

Pope Urban II Consecrates Church in Cluny

7

Analysis

A Council for the Apocalypse?

The translation from The Deeds of the Franks above says that the “time” came in which

the Council would start. However, the original Latin has the word terminus. This word, in which

we get the words terminal, terminate, and so on, has connotations of finality and conclusiveness.

The first sentence of The Deeds would literally be translated as “Now since that end had

approached….” The author may have connected the Council of Clermont to a heralding of the

apocalypse. To the Western Christian, a mass army of God’s enemies (as the author frequently

calls the Turks) invaded and conquered the holiest site in Christianity. By calling the Council for

a crusade, the author may have seen this as the precursor to a literal Battle of Armageddon:

And the sixth angel poured out his vial upon that great river Euphrates; and dried up the water thereof, that a way might be prepared for the kings from the rising of the sun. And I saw from the mouth of the dragon, and from the mouth of the beast, and from the mouth of the false , three unclean spirits like frogs. For they are the spirits of devils working signs, and they go forth unto the kings of the whole earth, to gather them to battle against the great day of the Almighty God. Behold, I come as a thief. Blessed is he that watcheth, and keepeth his garments, lest he walk naked, and they see his shame. And he shall gather them together into a place, which in Hebrew is called Armagedon ( 16:12-16).

The author’s connection between the Crusades and the end of the world is further linked to the prayer of those Christians killed after the Siege of in 1097:

And we were in that siege for seven weeks and three days, and many of our men received martyrdom there, and, happy and rejoicing, they gave up their blessed souls to God; and out of the poorest army many died of hunger in the name of Christ. Those men were received into Heaven, triumphantly carried the robe of martyrdom, saying in one voice: “Lord, revenge our blood, which was poured out for you; you who are blessed and praiseworthy in the ages of ages. Amen.”

Compare that quotation with the [6:9-11] (Douay-Rheims translation):

And when he had opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls of them that were slain for the word of God, and for the testimony which they held. And they cried with a 8

loud voice, saying: “How long, O Lord (holy and true) dost thou not judge and revenge our blood on them that dwell on the earth?” And white robes were given to every one of them.”

The same Latin phrases are used in both texts (: Domine…vindicas sanguinem nostrum;

The Deeds of the Franks: Vindica Domine sanguinem nostrum). The author uses the same words of the recent martyrs at Nicaea to the martyrs at the end of the world. This connection was not merely coincidental or merely for a simple allusion, but may show the author’s belief that the literal Last Judgment was about to occur.

The Goal of Retaking Jerusalem

The author specifically mentions that the crusader “would not be slow to seize the swifter way of the Holy Sepulcher” if he so desired. Historians are split as to whether the original intent was to reconquer the Holy Land itself, or to liberate the Byzantine Empire, with the additional goal of securing Christianity’s holiest site. Certainly, the original intent from Emperor Alexios was to defend the Empire against additional invasions.

A decree from the Council of Clermont, which is again quoted in a letter from Pope

Urban dated September 19, 1096, states that “Whoever goes from pure devotion and not desire for earthly profit to liberate the Church of God in Jerusalem, his journey will be considered a substitute for all .” Robert the , who was likely present during the Council of

Clermont, records Urban directly referencing Jerusalem; , a cleric, likewise has

Urban emphasizing the liberation of the holy city.

A Journey for Suffering and Martyrdom

The following Biblical passages are cited by Pope Urban II during the Council: 9

* “Then Jesus said to his disciples: If any man will come after me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross, and follow me.” - Matthew 16:24 * “For I will show him how great things he must suffer for my name's sake.” - Acts 9:16 * “Be not thou therefore ashamed of the testimony of our Lord, nor of me his prisoner: but labour with , according to the power of God.” - 2 Timothy 1:8 * “For I will give you a mouth and wisdom, which all your adversaries shall not be able to resist and gainsay.” - Luke 21:15 * “Be glad and rejoice, for your reward is very great in heaven. For so they persecuted the that were before you.” - Matthew 5:12

What do the messages in the passages imply about the nature of the Crusade? Three of

the passages (Matthew 16:24; Acts 9:16; Matthew 5:12) directly reference suffering for Christ,

one (2 Timothy 1:8) emphasizes the necessity to maintain a Christian identity, and one (Luke

21:15) mentions the superiority of evangelization and ability to convert non-Christians.

Questions

1) The Deeds of the Franks does not have a prologue or introduction, but immediately puts the

reader into the Council of Clermont. What could the author of The Deeds of the Franks

mean when he states that the “time had approached” to call a crusade?

2) The full title of The Deeds of the Franks is The Deeds of the Franks and Other Pilgrims to

Jerusalem. What would this imply the author thought about the Crusaders? How does this

implication match the author’s portrayal of Pope Urban’s speech at the Council of

Clermont?

3) The Great of 1054, in which a formal (and still unresolved) break between the

Western Church and the , occurred fifty years prior to

the Council of Clermont. While and shared

most beliefs, one of the major points of contention was the supremacy of the pope over 10

the Church. What relation, if any, do you think calling the Council of Clermont would

have on this recent rift?

4) If The Deeds of the Franks was written after the success of the First Crusade, how might this

reflect how the author wrote Urban’s speech?

References for Further Reading

For The Deeds of the Franks, see

Cuff, Andrew. “The Author and the Hierosolimitanus: Reading the Gesta Francorum as a Pilgrim Narrative.” Presented at the 6th Annual Graduate Student Conference on Medieval Studies: Cross-Cultural Encounters in the (2012).

For the First Crusade in general, see

Edbury, Peter. “Warfare in the Latin East.” In Medieval Warfare: A History. Edited by Maurice Keen, 89-112. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Montefiore, Simon Sebag. Jerusalem: The Biography. New York: Vintage Books, 2011.

Runciman, Steven. The First Crusade. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980.

For the Church’s role and response to the Crusades, see

Baldwin, Marshall W., ed. A History of the Crusades: The First Hundred Years. Volume 1. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1969. (See especially chapter eight – “The Councils of Piacenza and Clermont,” pages 220 – 252).

Peters, Edward, ed. The First Crusade: The Chronicle of Fulcher of Chartres and Other Source Materials. 2nd Edition. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998.

Schein, Sylvia. Gateway to the Heavenly City: Crusader Jerusalem and the Catholic West (1099-1187). Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2005.

Somerville, Robert. Pope Urban II’s . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Tolan, John V. Saracens. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.

11

For the Byzantine East, see

Harris, Jonathan. Byzantium and the Crusades. London: The Hambledon Continuum, 2003.

Kazhdan, Alexander. “ and Franks in Byzantium: Perception and Reality from the Eleventh to the Twelfth Century.” From The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World. Edited by Angeliki E. Laion and Ray Parviz Mottahedeh, 53-70. Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2001.

Ostrogorsky, George. History of the Byzantine State. Translated by Joan Hussey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1969. (See especially chapter six – “The Rule of the Military Aristocracy (1081-1204),” pages 351-417).