1 The Council of Clermont (1095) in The Deeds of the Franks A Case Study By Scott Mauer, M.A. Definitions Asia Minor – the geographical area consisting, mainly, of modern-day Turkey; also goes by the name of Anatolia. Byzantine Empire – the Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the dominant political empire in Greece and the Near East. As the Byzantines spoke mostly Greek, and their religion was Orthodox Christianity, they were in many ways rivals to Western Europe, whether culturally, politically, or religiously. The Byzantine Empire’s capital was Constantinople. Clermont – a city within modern-day central France. Church of the Holy Sepulcher – an ancient church located within Jerusalem, which is reported to be the place of Christ’s crucifixion, burial, and resurrection. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher (from the Latin sepulcrum, meaning grave or tomb) was originally built in the early fourth century, under the order of Roman Emperor Constantine. Crusade – from the Latin word cruciare – “to crucify, mark with a cross” – a crusade is any holy war, which occurred between the late-eleventh and late-thirteenth centuries, either to defend Christianity or to attach enemies of Christianity. Although some historians say that there were nine crusades, all of which occurred against Muslims, many other crusades occurred within this period of time, including within southern France, the Baltic (Lithuania, Latvia, Poland), and Spain. 2 The Deeds of the Franks – an anonymous firsthand account of the First Crusade, originally written in Latin, and thought to have been written around 1100; it details the military tactics, speeches, and struggles that the crusaders went through between the Council of Clermont to the Battle of Ascalon in 1099. Ecclesiastical Council – a council of the Church, in which the pope, bishops, and other clerics participate. Historically, there are two categories of councils – a synod, and an ecumenical council. A synod is simply a meeting of bishops and clerics, whether from a specific region or all of Europe, which may or may not be led by the pope. An ecumenical council is a much more important council, in which all bishops of the Church have a right to participate. Usually, ecumenical councils were called to define a particular doctrine against a supposed heresy or misunderstanding. The Council of Clermont in 1095 falls into the category of a synod, and is not considered an ecumenical council. The Holy Land – the geographical area now consisting of the state of Israel, Jordan, and Syria; this area consists of the Palestinian region in the Middle East. Since this region is holy in all three Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), including the popular site for pilgrimages, the question of who should possess it caused much friction. Jerusalem – the holiest site within Christianity; Jerusalem was the city in Judea in which, according to the Gospels, many events of Christ’s life occurred. Jihad – Arabic for “struggle,” this term was originally meant to convey an inner struggle with the soul, to fight against temptations. Later, it took a more militaristic and physical meaning for an actual war, much like a crusade. 3 A map of Jerusalem, thirteenth century Cast of Characters Author of The Deeds of the Franks – Although scholars know nearly nothing about the author to The Deeds of the Franks, including his name, nationality, and background, we can conclude that he was certainly under the command of Bohemond, Prince of Taranto, in southern Italy. Due to his association with Bohemond, we can deduce that he was a 4 French Norman from southern Italy. The Latin grammar within The Deeds of the Franks was simple, which strongly suggests that he was not a cleric, but a nobleman. Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (also spelled Alexius I Comnenus) – Byzantine Emperor from 1081 to 1118; as the first powerful emperor of the Komnenos dynasty, he inherited a struggling empire (the Seljuk Turks, along with other invaders, were continuously attacking, such as the Turks’ decisive victory at the Battle of Manzikerk in 1071) and an unstable monarchy (in the previous fifty years, six of eleven emperors either abdicated or were deposed). As general and soldier prior to usurping the throne, Alexios personally fought against the Seljuk Turks. Pope Urban II – Pope from 1088 to 1099; born Otho de Lagery, prior to his election as pontiff he was a prominent cardinal and legate close to Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085), whom, during his papacy, was willing to declare a Crusade to fight the invading Seljuk Turks. Background and Chronology of Events In 1071, the Seljuk Turks, an Asiatic tribe, defeated the army of the Byzantine Empire in the Battle of Manzikerk (now modern-day eastern Turkey), in a decisive victory. The Byzantine Emperor, Romanos IV Diogenes (1068-1071), was taken prisoner and only released after paying ransom, along with additional payment every year. After being usurped and deposed soon after, the Byzantine Emperors saw a rapidly successful Turkish army. In 1077, the Seljuks captured Jerusalem. By 1080, nearly all of Asia Minor was under Islamic control. In 1081, a prestigious military general, Alexios Comnenus, usurped the throne from Emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates (1078-1081), as the three year reign was marked by internal 5 unrest. Nearly a decade later, in 1090-1091, another Islamic nomadic tribe, called the Patzinaks, besieged Constantinople. As the Seljuks, along with other tribes, conquered much of Byzantine territory within a decade, Emperor Alexios decided to send a plea for help to the Pope. This message was received in the Council of Piacenza in March of 1095, asking for Western mercenaries to assist in reclaiming the Holy Land. Between November 18 to November 28 of that year, Pope Urban II convened the Council of Clermont, with various other ranks of clergymen, to call a crusade. There are several accounts by different authors as to what Pope Urban specifically said; whether or not the specific author was an eyewitness to the Council, or whether may explain why the differences in his speech are sometimes substantial. Each version emphasizes a different aspect of Urban’s speech, whether the necessity to defeat the enemies of Christianity, or defend Christian pilgrims. Selection from The Deeds of the Franks Now since that time had approached, which the lord Jesus daily shows to his faithful, specifically saying in the Gospel: “If he who wills to come after me, let him refuse himself and carry his own cross and follow me,” [Matthew 16:24] a strong movement was made through the whole of the Gallic regions, so that if someone with a zealous and clear heart and mind would want to follow God, and he would wish to carry faithfully this cross on his own back, he would not be slow to seize the swifter way of the Holy Sepulcher. The apostle of the Roman seat [the Pope] departed as quickly as possible over part of the mountains with his archbishops, bishops, abbots, and priests, and he began eloquently to talk and to proclaim that if someone’s own soul 6 wished to be saved, then he would not doubt to begin the humbler life of the Lord, and if the abundance of money was lacking to him, then divine mercy would be given to him. For the apostolic lord says, “Brothers, it is possible for you all to suffer for the name of Christ, clearly misery, poverty, nakedness, persecution, want, illness, hunger, thirst, and other things of this kind, such as the Lord says to his own disciples: ‘It is necessary for you all to suffer in my name,’ [Acts 9:16] and: ‘Do not wish to be ashamed to speak before the things of man; I truly give to you a mouth and wisdom,’ [2 Timothy 1:8; Luke 21:15] and following: ‘It will continue to follow you all with large retribution.’ [Matthew 5:12]” And now with this sermon gradually began to become prevalent through the Gallic duchies and counties, hearing this, the Franks immediately took to sew the cross on their right shoulders, saying to follow Christ unanimously on foot, from which the hands were redeemed of the underworld. At this time the Gallic lands were removed from their homes. Pope Urban II Consecrates Church in Cluny 7 Analysis A Council for the Apocalypse? The translation from The Deeds of the Franks above says that the “time” came in which the Council would start. However, the original Latin has the word terminus. This word, in which we get the words terminal, terminate, and so on, has connotations of finality and conclusiveness. The first sentence of The Deeds would literally be translated as “Now since that end had approached….” The author may have connected the Council of Clermont to a heralding of the apocalypse. To the Western Christian, a mass army of God’s enemies (as the author frequently calls the Turks) invaded and conquered the holiest site in Christianity. By calling the Council for a crusade, the author may have seen this as the precursor to a literal Battle of Armageddon: And the sixth angel poured out his vial upon that great river Euphrates; and dried up the water thereof, that a way might be prepared for the kings from the rising of the sun. And I saw from the mouth of the dragon, and from the mouth of the beast, and from the mouth of the false prophet, three unclean spirits like frogs. For they are the spirits of devils working signs, and they go forth unto the kings of the whole earth, to gather them to battle against the great day of the Almighty God.