PSYCHOACTIVE USE IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA: A REVIEW

.llllhropologisl. Y('\I' (iuinca [:i1Thcoholam Pro/1'CI, Po. Box 39::, Aslzgrol'c, Quccns/awl 4064, Australia

JJIIS arllcl1' nTIClIS Th1'lilcrllTUr1' Oil psnJ1OaCfil'c planr usc ill Papua Ycu' (iuin1'a Thc

use ofpsn}woui\'1' plllJ1T,\1III'apua Y1'll' (iumea ha,\' often hcen rcporred in the scientific lil{'/'aillre, hou'1'n". /llli/lI' of Ihe ,']Jt'Cles of psn}1Oactil'e IIsed in Papua Yell (iuJilea are sTdl poorh' IIl1dersTood Data on the hO!am', chemistn' and ethllolog.l' o( O\'{'/' fifn ,\peci1's o(psnhl'llclIn' plal1Ts uscd in Papua Yeu' (Iuinea is prescl1Tcd in tl1ls re\'ICU' article TI1Is rel'/cu' also JIIcllllles sCl'cral unidCnTifi1'd ,\pccics ofpsvclwactil'1' plal1Ts Il'hich havc he en reporred in Thl' IiteraTllre To have hecn used traditionallv in Papua Yell' Guinca, Included ill This n'l'iClI' is a glossan' of Tok Pisin, Hiri .\lofU and local ler/l/s relaTed To psvchoacTiI'e planr use in Papua Yell' <1uinea, IT is reco/l/mcluled in This article thal/l/orc ,\nTC/l/alic and /l/ultidisciplinalT research is rcquired on lhe usc of P,\\'choaul\'1' plmlT /lS1' III !'apua Yell' (,uinea .\\'sTe/l/lITic and multidisciplinon'

I'ncllrch Oil pSl'cll

IIlclIlI(icalion ofsuhsTallces \1'1l1i 1I(1\'el che/l/ical slrucTures and ullique pharmacological profilcs l!oll'C\'er, it is Importallt Thar this research is undertaken hefi)re tradiTional cwlogical kn01dedge (TE}..·) o{psnJ1Oactive plant IIse is losT among the local people o{ Papua Yell' (iuinea Further research on psvchoactil'e plant use in Papua .\'ell' Guinea has The pOTentialfiJr the disc(l\'en' and development o{nell' p,\Tcl!oTropic drugs

Emboden, 1972: Shaw. 1972: Heim. 1973: Biological and cultural diversity Havano. 1975: PowelL 1976: Heim. 1978: 111 Papua New Guinea (Allen. 1983: Schultes. 1978: Emboden. 1979: Schultes & Chowning. 1982) provides a unique Hofinann. 1979; Schultes & Hofinann. 1980: opportunity fQ.rethnobotanicaL anthro- De Smet. 1983; Dobkin de Rios, 1984: Poole. pological and ethnopharmacological 1984: De Smet. 1985: Ott 1993: Otto 1996: research on psychoactive plant use, A Sterly. 1997a: Sterly, 1997b: Sterly. 1997c: vanety of psychoactive plants have Rudgley. 1998: Ratsch. 1999: Benjamin. been reported from Papua New Guinea 1999: Thomas. 1999a; Thomas. 1999b: (Barrau. 1957a: Barrau. 1957b: Barrau. Thomas. 1999c) and many of these species of 1958a: Singer. 1958: Reay. 1959: psychoactive plants are still poorly under- Rea\'. 1960: Webb. 1960: Barrau. stood (Schultes & Hofinann, 1979: 26). This 1962: Heim, 1963: Heim & Wasson. review presents data on the botany, chemistry 1964: Heim & Wasson. 1965: Heim. and ethnology of psychoactive plant use in 1966; Heim. 1967; Aufenanger. 1968: Papua New Guinea Burton-Bradley. 1970; La Barre. 1970: Hofinann. 1979) and The BOlany and Chemistn' of Hallucinogens (Schultes & ·Psreh )(letive' IS defined as the Hofina.ru1.1973: Schultes & Hofinann. 1980) potential . to produce inebriation or Data on the chemistry of psychoacti\"e alh:r:1-tions in the state of conscious- plant species has been collated from ness. whether stimulation. sedation. Alexander Shulgin & Ann Shulgin' s texts on euphoria. ete (Ott. 1995: 129) This is the chemistry and pharmacology of phene- a pi ..:cise allJ etymo-logically correct thylamines (Shulgin & Shulgin. 1991) and tenn \\hich embraces all classes of tryptamines (Shulgin & Shulgm. 19(7). dru •..; with -:ffects on con-sciousness Jonathan Ott's tt:xt Pharmacorheon (Ott. (ott. 1993 257) 'Plant" IS used here 1993. Otto 1996). the published lIterature on to rder to all botamcal species (flora) ph~tochemical research in Papua Ne\\ and also to Basidi-om\"cetes of the Guinea (Webb. 1955: Binns et aJ.. 1965: Order Agaricaks (fungi) .Use' is Ritchie & Ta\lor. 1967: Hart1ev et aI., 1973: defiJ:..:das the intentIOnal iiltroduction Holdsworth 8.: N·Drawii. 1973: Holdsworth of a substance into the human body b\' & Farnworth. 1974: Holdsworth er aJ.. 1974: a \ :'nety of possibk route~ to produc'e Holdsworth & Rati. 1989: Holdsworth et aJ.. a catain physiological or psycho- 1989: Collins et al.. 1990: Holdsworth & logical eftect 'Papua New Guinea Holdsworth. 1991) and the United States refers to the Independent State of Department of Agriculture Phytochemical Papua New Guinea. database - USDA - ARS - NG/U~ \\Titten and maintained by Stephen M Beckstrom- Sternberg & Jim. A. Duke (1992). which can be accessed on-line using the Internet or This reView of psychoactive World Wide Web. plant use in Papua New Guinea has been compiled from a variety of dift'en.:nt sources. The research and \\fltmgs of French ethnobotanist and anthropologist Jacques Barrau (Barrau. The psychoactive plants of Papua New 19:'7a: Barrau. 1957b: Barrau. 1958a: Barrau. 1962: Barrau, 1966) have been Guinea an important source of data on psycho- Acalypha insulana M. A [Euphorb- acme plant use in Papua New Guinea, iaceae] leaves, which is also knov-n as but are unfortunately written in French. Acalypha hellwigii Warb., have been smoked Barrau. \\"ho is better knO\\U for his in Papua New Guinea (Airy Shaw, 1980: De pioneering research on subsistence Smet, 1983: 298). This variety, Acalypha agriculture in Melanesia (Barrau. hellwigii moWs (Warb.) Shum. & Ltb" has 1958b: Barrau. 1959), was the first also been used to wrap tobacco for smoking scientist to svstematically study in Papua New Guinea (De Smet, 1983: 298) psychoactive plant use in Papua Ne\\' Gumea. Acorus calamus L. [Areceae] is used in ritual and medicine in Papua New Guinea Data on the hotany of psycho- (Powell, 1976: 15) It is ingested in initiation active plant species used in Papua New rituals to make young men grow tall and Guinea has been collated from the strong in some Highland cultures, however, Handbooks of the Flora of Papua New the use of Aeorus calamus in these Highlands Guinea (Womersley, 1978: Henty, cultures for this purpose requires further 1981) and Richard Evans Schultes & ethnobotanical research. Acorus calamus is a Albert Hofinann .s popular books perennial herb that has a horizontal rootstock Plants of the God{j (Schultes & up to J.5 metres long. The leaves grow from 1/2 to 2 metres tall. are sword like and leaves of two unidentified Laporfea species have a crimped edge The flowers are [Urti-caceae] are ingested by the Baining to minute greemsh-yello\\ on a cylin- counteract the tOXICeffects of the Alocasia drical sprke Aco;"1/.\·calam1ls grO\\s ll1 sp. or the Colocasia esc1llenta tubers. How- marshes and along the borders of ever. during these same dancing ceremonies creeks The use of ACOrl/Scalam1ls as the dancers have usually eaten nothing else an entheogen has been reported in but Areca catechu nuts for the previous five North Amenca (Morgan. 1(80) The days and continuously chew betel nuts during frans-and cis-isomers of 1.2.4- the ceremony (Burton-Bradley. 1972: 67). trimcthoxy-5- (I-propenyl) -benzene An unidentified species of \yild taro (a-asarone and B-asarone. C 12H 1603) (Alomsia) is used in malevolent sorcery have been reported as the active among the people of Wewak and Boikin. East entheogemc constItuents of Acorl/s Sepik District (Gerstner. 1954) Sorcerers calal1111s(Hoffer & Osmond. 1967: prepared and ate a mixture called gombl Keller and StahL 1(83) a-Asarone IS which included wild taro (Alomsia sp.). wild the precursor of 2.4.5-trimethoxyam- lemon. grated . the bark of a tree phetanline (TMA-2) (Shulgin & species identified as mali and several vari- Shulglll. 1991 8(3) The rhizome of eties of ginger (De Smet. 1983 292). Acorl/s calamus also contains 1.8- cineole. camphor. ele-micin. eugenol. Amaracarp1ls sp [Rubiaceaej leaves IsoeugenoL linalol. menthoL menthone. have been smoked with tobacco in rituals to produce a trance-like state among the Giml of methylisoeugenol (Beckstrom-Stern- the Eastern Highlands (Glick. 1(67) berg & Duke. 1(92) The plant (lean:s. stems) contalll acoric acid. Amaranthus sp. [Anlaranthaceae] (tu- alpha-humulene. aipha-terplllene meni) was used with an unidentified species (Beckstrom-Sternberg & Duke. 19(2) of flame coloured cockscomb (siroru) anlong Elcnllcll1 and aconc acid are reported the Orokaiva of Mount Lamington. Northern to be 'halluc1l1ogens' (Beckstrom- District to produce a ceremonial shaking-fit Sternberg & Duke. 1(92) Elenllcll1 (Wilhams. 1928) (5-allyl-1.2.3-trimethowbenzene) IS the precursor of 3.4.,)-trimethoxyanl- Archontophoenix sp. [Palmae] fruit has phetanline (TMA) (Shulgll1 & Shulgin. been chewed like betel in New Britain 1991: 836) Acor1ls calamus has also (PowelL 1976: Rudgley. 1998). been used by the Raiapu Enga of the Areca catechu L [Palmae] (betel nut) Western Highlands to stimulate their is a popular psychoactive drug plant in Papua dogs for hunting (Feacham. 1972- New Guinea and the practice of chewing 1(73) The rhizome of ACOrl/S betel nut is common (Chinnery. 1922: calam1ls is chewed by the Raiapu En&£!. Krenger. 1939-1942; Burton-Bradley, 1972: and then spat into the noses of their Farnworth, 1975; Essig,l977: Burton-Brad- dogs to make them better at hunting ley, 1978: Young, 1979; Burton-Bradley. (Feacham. 1972-1973) 1980: Seyfarth, 1981; Drusch & Ropert, Alocasia sp. [Araceae] tubers are 1984; Cawte, 1987; Watson, 1987: Frewer, an important subsistence food and are 1990; MacLeish & Huang, 1990; Wyatt, used ritually by the Baining people of 1996; Devereux, 1997; Rudgley, 1998) the Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain in Betel nuts are most often chewed with the dancing ceremonies (Laufer, 1946- betel leaf or fruit (Piper betle L [Piperaceae]) 1949: Laufer, 1963-1964: Laufer. (Balasubrahmanyam & Rawat, 1990) and 1965-1966). Colocasia esculenta (L) with slacked lime from processed coral, sea Schott [Araceae] tubers have also been shells, mountain lime or commercial lime consumed instead of Alocasia sp. The (McEldowney, 1993). Areca catechu and Piper betle are almost always cul-tivated for use. hl\\'ever. some people will on rare fungi (Order: Agancales: Class occasions chew \vild Areca catechu Basidiomycetes) \\hlch were first collected nuts and Piper I-jctlcleaves. stems and and described by Roger Heim & R Gordon fruit (Burton-Bradlev. IlJ72 66), The Wasson (Heim. 1963: Heim. 1964; Heim & fruit of Areca 'catechu contains Wasson. 1964: Heim & Wasson. 1965: Shaw. arecalO,lle. an:coline. betasito-sterol. 1972: Devereux. 1997: 95: Ratsch. 1998 choline. d-catechin. diosgenin. guva- 688: Thomas. in press [a)) in 1963 from the cine. lnoleic JCld. OklC acid. palm- southern Wahgi Valley. Western HigWands ltoleic acid (Beckstrom-Sternberg & Province, Papua New Guinea. Heim and Duke. 1992) Arecoline (methyl- Wasson both visited the Wahgi Valley for 1.2.5.6-tetral1\dro-I-methvl-nicotinate) three weeks in 1963 after anthropologist is the psychoactive constituent of Marie Reay had reported the use of Arecu catechu which accounts for the apparently hallucino-genic fungi anlOng the mcotine-like central nervous svstem Kuma people of the Nangamp group who stimubnt actl'. itv and '.:uphoriant "effect lived around Minj in the southern Wahgi of betel nut chewing (Euler et al Valley (Reay. 1960) These six species of 1945) The alkaloid Jrecoline acts on Boletus were among the eleven nicotlll": receptors and also on the Basidiomycetes recognised as psychoactive parasympathetic nervous system to by the Kuma people of the Nangamp group produce a feeling of well-being. from the southern Wahgi Valley. Western euphona. stimulation and increased Highlands Province. Papua New Guinea. In stamina as wdl as constricted pupils. 1936 Father W A Ross. a priest of the mcreased mucous secretions and on Catholic Mission of the Divine Word (S. V InItial use. dizziness. vertigo. nausea D) living in the Wahgi Valley since 1933 and cold perspiration (Burton-Bradley, had observed the use of a wild mushroom 1972, 66-67) When habitu -ation which produced temporary insaneity (Ross. occurs. the unpleasant effects usually 1936: Gitlow. 1947: Heim & Wasson. 1965. no longer occur, The psychoactive Dobkin de Rios. 1984 82) Father Ross had effects of che\\lng of betel nuts have suggested that this mushroom would make been described anthropologist Alfred people .[fly].. mto a fit of frenzy' and .death Gell as .mild disassociation'. "feeling was known to have resulted from its use at of reduced gravity' and 'a 'marginar times and he suggested that these state of consciousness' (Rudgley. mushrooms were eaten before ' ...going out to 1993 153-15'+: Rudidey. 1995: 153- kill another native or in times of great 154) ~ . excitement. anger or sorrow' (Ross, 1936: Burton-Bradlev, 1972: Kiloh & Cawte, 1972: Areca Illacrocalyx L [Palmae] Dobkin de RIos. 1984: 82). One of these has been used as an inferior substitute species, Boletus manicus, has been reported for betel nut in se\ eral regions of to contain indole alkaloids in trace amounts Papua New Guinea (Williams. (Heim, 1965; Heim, 1978; Ott, 1993: 422; 1936425: Bock. in press), .• Ratsch, 1998: 668). Heim (1978) has Beaumontia sp, [Apocynaceae] reported the presence of three unidentified has been smoked in the Kema Valley indolic substances in Boletus manicus, In lllstead of tobacco (Le Roux. 1948). self-experiments Heim ingest-ed a small dose of dried and powdered Boletus manicus (less Boletus flammeus Heim [Bolet- than 60 mg orally) and reported colourful aceae], B. kumaeus Heim [Boletaceae], luminous visions (Heim 1965: I). B. manicus Heim [Boletaceae], B. ni- gerrimus Heim [Boletaceae], B. nigro- Bubbia sp. [Winteraceae] bark has violaceus Heim [Boletaceae] and B. been added to tobacco and smoked to reayi Heim [Boletaceae] are species of produce a dream-like state during healing rituals among the Gimi of the Eastern substitute for betel nut (Holznecht. 1971). Highlands (Glick. 1967: Rudgley. 1(98) Cryptocarya aromatica (Becc.) Kos- term. [Lauraceae] bark has been chewed with ('annahis sariva L [Cannaba- lime and a species of betel leaf (Piper sp.) as ceae I IS an erect annual herb which a betel nut substitute by the Baining of the grow from 1-4 metres high The leaves Gazelle Peninsula. New Britain (Parkinson. are palmately compound with usually 1907: Laufer. 1963-1964) 5-9 narro\\-lanceolate serrate leaflets. 5-15 cm long (Henty. 1980 1(6) The Curcuma /onga L [Zingiberaceae] rhizomes have been prepared into an t10\\ers are smalL greenish-white and intoxicating drink consumed before young the male and female flowers appear on men can be admitted to the circle of adults separate plants. The male flowers are anlOng the Pawaia (Wolf-Eggert. 1977). loose cymose panicles. somewhat glandular-hal~ (Henty 1980-106). ('ycas circina/is L [Cycadaceae] pol- The female flower pani-des are more len has been used as a narcotic bv the Tolai compact covered densely with resinous (Gunantuna or Kuanua) of New Britain glandular haIrs. The fruit and achene (Sted\". 1970: Rudgley. 1998) The pollen is 3-4 nun long and is ellipsoid. and male flower bracts of other species of slightly t1attened \\"ith h\O convex (~vcas have also been reported to have faces meeting 1I1 an angular rim narcotic properties in other parts of the world (Helltv. 19lW 1(6) C mtiva contains (Thieret.1958: Whiting. 1963) analogs of tetrahydrocannabinol Tetr alndrocanabinol (THC) is the 1110no- Datura (Brugmansia) candida (Pers) terpene tetrahydro-6.6. 9-trimethyl- 3- Safford [Solanaceae] is a small shrub of tree pentyl-6. H-di-benzo-[b.d ]pyran-l-ol growing to 4 metres high with oblong- Cannahis sariva also contains calma- lanceolate leaves. 15-25 cm long (Hen~. binol and caImabidiol (CBD) The 1980 124). The flowers are solita~·. white. possessIOn. cultivation and use of 30 cm long and trumpet shaped (angel's ('annahis sativa IS illegal III Papua trumpet) Cultivars of D candida have a Ne\\ Guinea. variety of different colour flowers. ego pinkish-orange In Papua New Guinea, D. ('a.\'tanopsi acuminates.\'ima candida is found from sea level to at least (Bl) A DC. [Fagaceae] seeds have 2000 m above sea level (Henty, 1980:124). 1- been eaten by the people of Banz. Hyoscine (scopolamine) is the principal Western Highlands District for similar alkaloid in the aerial parts of D. candida, ll1toxicating effects as certain psycho- together with atropine, norscopolamine. active mushrooms when cooked and oscine. meteloidine and noratropine (Evans. eaten in sufficient quantity (Heim & 1979: 245). Datura species have a long Wasson. 1965) When eaten raw and history of use as entheogens in both the Old uncooked. the seeds of Castanopsis and New World (Schultes, 1979: 139). acuminatis.\'ima can produce emaci- Datura metel L. is an erect annual herb which ation. anaemia and mouth ulceration grows from 1-2 metres tall with 20 cm long (BelL 1973: Henty. 1980) ovate-acute dentate-lobed leaves (Henty. 1980: 125). Flowers are erect, 5-lobed, 15 Cinnamomum sp. [Lauraceae] cm long, corolla trumpet-shaped and are bark has been chewed by sorcerers on white, purple or a combination of white and Mailu Island to make them "hot" purple. The fruit is a 4 cm capsule with stout (magically powerful) (Saville, 1926). prickles. In Papua New Guinea, D. mete/ Costus sp. [Zingiberaceae] fruit appears sporadically at low altitudes. The has been chewed by the Adzera as a active constituents of D. metel are the tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, meteloidine hy- osc"amine. norhvosc"amine, nor-sco- and 19-dehydroerva-tamine (Knox & Slobbe. poloamine) and non-tropane alka-loids 1975). Ibogaine is a central nervous system cuscohygrine and nicotine (Schultes. stimu-lant (Sershen et ai.. 1996: Mash et al. 1979: 145). Datura species have been 1995) Excessive doses of ibogaine can result responsible for several urnntentional in convulsions, paralysis and death from recoro..:d poison-ings ill Papua New respiratory failure (Olney. 1994). Guinea (Bell. 1973: Bridgewater. 1968. Henty, I(80). Erythroxylum spp. [EIYthroxylaceae] has been reported in the Mountain Ok region Elaeagnus sp. [Elaeagnaceae] of Papua New Guinea (Hyndman. 1984: has b..:..:nadded to tobacco and smoked Bock. in press) This species is related to to produce a dream-like state by the Erythroxylum coca Lam. [EIYthroxylaceae] Gimi of tht: Eastern Highlands. like and Erythroxylum novogranatense (Morris) Amaracarpus sp. (Glick. 1967) Hieron [Er)throxylaceae], which are culti- vated in South America as a source of Endmpcrmum maluccanum (T cocaine (Plowman, 1986). The presence of & B.) Kurz [Euphorbiaceae] has been cocaine (benzylmethylecognine) or other used hy the peoples of the Jimi Valley related ecognines or tropanes in this species and Mount Hagen. Western Highlands found in Papua New Guinea has not yet been to make young men fierce (De Smet. determined. Another related species, Ery- 1983) Powell (1976: 150) has also throxvfum austrafe is found in the Northern suggested that Endospermum j(Jmica- rum ['}]is also used for this purpose. TerritOr)· and Queensland. Austra-lia and is kno\\n to contain the psychoactive chemical Ervatamia orientalis (R. Br.) meteloidine [0.8%] (Johns & Lamberton. Turr lApocynaceae] is a shrub that can 1967: 1301). Like the species from Papua be found in south coast Papua New New Guinea. this related species is shrub that .Guinea and is 2 to 6 m tall with smooth grows up to 4.5 meters tall with leaves from 1 leaves occurring opposite to each other cm to 3.5 cm long. The fruit is red and on the stem. The leaves are 10 to 22 contains one seed. The flowers are solitary or cm long and from 4 to 7 em wide. The paired with white petals. The habitat o(this flowers are white with twisted petals species ranges from stony and rocky granite and it flowers from October to May hillside slopes to open forest. The fruits occur in pairs, are smooth Euodia bonwickii F. Muell [Rutaceae] and curved \\·ith an orange colour. with bark is chewed by men while dancing at fruIting from February to August. Its feasts among the people of Mount Hagen habitat is in coastal monsoon vine (Stopp. 1963) thickets. at the edge of tropical rain- forests. or on stabilised dunes in Ficus subnervosa Comer [Moraceae] monsoon regIOns. This species was leaves have been chewed as a betel nut originally described as Tabernan the substitute on Rossel Island (Henty, 1980). oricntalis and is closely related to the species Tabernanthe iboga Baillon belgraveana (F. Muell.) [Apocynaceael. a shrub which is used Sprague [] bark has been chewed with the leaves of an unidentified for its psychoactive effects in Africa (Haller & HeckeL 1901; Fernandez, sp. [Araceae] by the people of 1972: Fernandez, 1972; Furst, 1976; the Okapa region, Eastern Highlands to Pope, 1969; Samorini, 1993; Samorini, induce visions and a dream-like state (Barrau, 1995). The leaves of Ervatamia 1958a; Hamilton, 1960; Benjamin, 1999). orientalis contain ibogaine and the The physical effects of chewing agara and related alkaloids iboxygaine, voacris- eririba include violent tremor and miosis (De tine, vobasine, dregamine, ervatamine Smet 1983: 296; De Smet, 1985; Benjamin, 1999). The visions and violent tremors last for about an hour followed by a sense become mad or insane (Heim & Wasson. of calmness. euphoria and then drowsi- 1965: Schultes & Hofmann. 1979: 44: ness (De Smet. 1983: 296: De Smet. Devereux, 1997: 95). This mushroom grows 1985: Benjamin. 1999). Galbulimima to a height of 10-20 cm and has a small helgravcafw has also been used brownish or orange yellow cap 4-6 cm in without Homalomena sp. leaves for diameter and yellowish brown spores divination and to produce trance-like (Schultes & Hofmann. 1979: 44) This states and visions anlong the Gimi species has been incorrectly named Heimiella people of the Eastern Highlands angrieformis by Schultes & Hofmann (1979 (Glick. 1963. Glick. 1967: Benjanlin. 44: see Ott. 1993: 423) 19(9) The bark and also the leaves of Heimiella retispora Heim [Boleta- Galhlllimnno helgraveona have been ceae]. a species closely related to Heimiello used anlOng other groups of the anguiformis. has also been eaten by the Kuma Eastern HIghlands to make young men of the Wahgi Valley. Western Highlands fierce (Webb. 1960: Powell. 1976 Provllice to mduce madness (Schultes & 150: BenJanlln. 19(9) The people of Hofmann. 1979 44: Ratsch. 1998: 688). Aseki in the south of Morobe Province use the bark of Galhulimima belgra- Homalomena sp. [Areceae] leaves have veana as an analgesic by chewing the been eaten alone. or with the bark of bark. spIttmg it out into a bowL mixing Galhulimima belgraveana, by the people of salt with it and then swallowmg it Okapa in the Eastern Highlands to produce again to relieve pain (Woodley. 199 I; dreams and visions (Barrau. 1957b: Barrau. Benjamm. 1999) The Oksapmin of 1958a: Barrau. 1962) This species has been the West Sepik Provmce use olllso, suggested as Homalomena ereriba (Em- shredded Galh/llimima helgravcona boden. 1972: 26). Homalomena lauterhachii bark mixed with wild gmger (Zingiher Engl. (Schultes & Hofmann. 1979: 45) and sp [Zingiberaceae]). in the treatment Homalomena belgraveana Sprague (Ott. of diseases caused by sorcery and 1993: 409). Homalomena species are small \vitchcraft (eg fever. 'skin conditions to large herbaceous plants with aromatic and pOisoning) (Skmgle. 1970: rhizomes. The leaves are oblong-lanceolate Benjamin. 19(9) The Bimin-Kiskus- or cordate-ovate on short stems rarely min' of the West Sepik Province have exceeding 15 cm in length (Schultes &. also used Golhulimimo belgraveana in Hofmann. 1979: 45). The spathe persists in ritual (Poole. 1987: Benjamm. 1999) Homalomena species while the plant is The phytochemistry of Galhulimima fruiting and the male and female parts of the helgravcana has been extensively spadix are proximate (Schultes & Hofmann, studied and well documented (Webb, 1979: 45). No psychoactive substances have 1955: BrO\\TIet af.. 1956: Binns et q], yet been identified in any of the species of 1965: Ritchie & Tavlor. 1967: Ritchie Homalomena studied (Schultes & Hofmann, & Tavlor. 1971; Choo et af.. 1990; 1979: 45: Ott, 1993: 409). Other species of Collins et al.. 1990; Benjamin. 1999). Homolomena such as Homolomena cordata Galbulimima helgraveana is rich in Schott and Homolomena versteegii Engler are alkaloids (Webb, 1955: Benjamin, used in ritual and magic in some areas of 1999) and twenty-eight alkaloids have Papua New Guinea (Telban, 1988). been isolated (Ritchie & Taylor, 1967: 531; Benjamin. 1999). Homolanthus sp. [Euphorbiaceae] has been used to make young men fierce on New Heimiella angu~formis Heim Britain (Powell, 1976: 150). [Boleta-ceaeJ is a species of fungi that Kaempferia galanga [Zingibera- was eaten by the Kuma of the Wahgi L. Valley. Western Highlands Province to ceae 1 is a smooth stemless or short stemmed herb that grows to about 1.5 metres, its round lea\~s grow to about 12 cm long and magically powerful in Papua New Guinea up to 12 em wide. The leaves are flat (Stedy, 1970). For example. the Mivanmin at ana spreadll1g. The flowers form a Yominbip use a species of Lapo;'tea as a terminal spike and are white with deep stmmlant to flagellating themselves with the red veining Kaempferia galanga has plant when on long walks (Flannerv, been reported to have psychoactive 1998:93). .The Miyanmin also recognise effects (Barrau. 1962: Gottlieb. 1973: another species of nettle (Laportea sp.) which Schultes & Hofmann. 1980; Rudgle\'. is said to be more potent and dangerous 1993: Rudgley. 1(98) The rhizonle (Flannery. 1998:93) has been chewed :It Okapa in the Eastern Highlands to induce visions Lycopodium sp. [Lycopodiaceae] is and dreams (Barrau. 1962) Kaemp- used as medicine in ritual and magic at Jimi and Hagen (Powell. 1976: 149) .feria galanga has also been chewed in Morobe Province to induce pleasant Lycopudium squarrosum [Lycopodia- dreams (Po\\dl. ILJ76: 135. Woodle\'. ceae] IS used for its psychoactive effects by 1991: Rudgley. 1993: Rudgley. 19(8) the Nokopo of Madang and Morobe Province Th•. rhlzoHh':contams essential oils and who rub this plant over their bodies before IS lughly aromatic. These essential oils going sleeping so that they can meet bush include borneol. camphene. carenl,;. spirits in their dreams (Schmid. 1991: Bock. ethyl-p-methoxyciIlllanlate (Beck- in press). strom-Sternberg & Duke 1992) and methyl-p-cumaric acid. cinnamic acid . Mitragyna spc('iosa Korth. [Rubiaceae] ethyl ester. pentadecane and cinnamic IS a tree which can be found in the Flv River aldehyde (Perry & Metzger. 1980:442) area of the Western Province in Papua New None of these essential oils are known Guinea (Paijmans, 1971: Bock, in press). to be psychoactive. The related species The leaves of this species are used in Alpinia galanga (L.) SW. [Zingibe- Southeast Asia as a substitute for opium raceae] [.greater galangal"1 and A 1- (Papaver somnUi:rum L. [Papaveraceae]) pinia otficinarum Hance [Zingibe- (Emboden. 1979: Ott. 1993: Ott. 1996: raceae] ['lesser galangar] contain I'- Harrison McKenna, 1989). Mitragyna speci- acetoxychavicol-acetate, I'-acetox\'- osa contains indole alkaloids such as eugenolacetate. cadinene, camphor. mitragynine (Emboden, 1979; Shellard, 1983: eugenol. galangm. methvlcinnamate Jansen & Prast, 1988a: Jansen &. Prast. and 1.8-cineolc, eugenoL galangm. 1988b; Shellard, 1989: Ott. 1993; Ott, 1996), Imalol. methylcinnamate respectively. The ingestion of the leaves of this species· It is possible that some of these produce central nervous system stimulation. constituents have psychoactive effects. however, the isolated alkaloid mitragyninc Eugenol. for example, is a precursor has depressant activity (Shellard, 1989; Ott, for 3-methoxy-4 hydroxyamphetarnine 1993: 413: Ott, 1996). It is likelv that The presence of eugenol in Kaempferia secondary alkaloids are responsible for the galanga. however. has not been psychoactivity of this plant. reported. Nicotiana tabacum L. [Solanaceae] is Lactuca indica L. [Asteraceae] one of the most commonly used psychoactive seeds have been chewed by the Anga plants in Papua New Guinea (Van Nouhuys, of the Eastern Highlands as an 1932; Merrill, 1946; Le Roux, 1948; Brott, intoxicant and a betel nut substitute 1981: Michel, 1981: Hays, 1991: Marshall, (Blackwood. 1940; Powell, 1976: 135; 1991: Goodman et al. 1995; Attah Johnson. De Smet 1983: 297). 1998). It has been suggested that Nicotiana tabacum reached Papua New Guinea in the Laportea sp. [Urticaceae] have early eighteenth century (Womersley, 1972: often been eaten to become 'hot" or 224). By the time of the first European exploration. Nicotiana tabacum was outbreaks of irrat-ionai behaviour The established in the lowlands of Papua psychoactive substance N,N-dimethyl- Ne\\ Guinea where the drying and tryptamine (DMT) (Szara, 1956; Szara, 1957; smoking of the leaves was well known Turner & Merlis. 1959: Szara. 1961: Szara. (Haddon. 1946: Riesenfeld. 1951: 1962: Szara, 1970: Shulgin, 1976: Shulgin & Womersley. 1972: 224). Nicotiana Shulgin. 1997) has been isolated from some fabacum leaves are dried and most species of mountain from Minj in often cured. The dried or cured the Western Highlands Province (Hyndman. tobacco is either smoked III manu- 1984). however, N.N-dimethyltryptamine is factured pipes (Haddon, 1946) or not active when taken orally (Shulgin, 1976) rolled into cigarettes using leaves (De and its presence in certain Pandanus nuts Smet 1983: 298) or commercially does not explain the altered-state-of- available paper The leaves of several conSCiousness produced when certain species have been used in rolling Pandanus nuts are ingested. tobacco for smoking: AcalJpha insul- Piper methysficum Forster [Pipera- ana M.A. [Euphorbiaceae]. Donax ceae] is a shrub up to 4 metres tall with heart canniflormis (Forst. f.) K Schum. shaped leaves up to 16 cm long and short [Maranthaceae], Ficus sp. [Moraceae], spikes rising from the base of the leaf stem. Hibiscus sp. [Malvaceae], Kleinhovia The spikes are densely covered with flowers. hmpifa L. [Sterculiaceae], Macaranga The plant grows in cool, moist highlands or sp. [Euphorbiaceae]. Pandanus sp. wet forests up to 300 meters above sea level. [Pandana-ceae] and Rubus mol/lccanus It grows best where summer temperatures are L. [Rosaceae] (De Smet 1983 298). between 26°C - 32°C. A beverage made from Nicofiana rabacum has been a signify- the rhizome of Piper methysficum has been cant ritual intoxicant in Papua New used in some areas of Papua New Guinea Guinea and its use corresponds to the (Hough. 1904; Haddon, 1906; Chinnery. shamanic use of the species in South 1922: Williams. 1936; Barrau. 1957a; America (Wilbert. i 972; Wilbert. Steinmetz, 1960; Steinmetz, 1973; Holds- 1987). worth, 1977; Cox & O'Rourke, 1987; Knauft, Palmeria sp. [Monimiaceae] 1987: Lindstrom, 1987; Marshall, 1987, leaves are reported to have been used Sagir. 1987-1988: Brunton, 1989; Ambrose, bv men in the Chimbu area as a 1991; Lebot et a/. 1992). In the Western stimulant in warfare (De Smet, 1985). Province of Papua New Guinea, the Kiwai, Keraki, Wiram (Suki), Aram, Anima, Pandanus spp. [], Semariji, Gambadi and Mikud peoples of the most likely including Pandanus iwen Trans-Fly, Western Province have cultivated B. C. Stone, Pandanus julianettii and prepared a beverage from Piper Martelli and Pandanus brosimos Merr. methysticum (Haddon, 1936; Landtman, and Perry [Pandanaceae]) (Hyndman, 1927; Williams, 1936: 427), as have the 1984; Stone, 1984) has been eaten for Gogodala on the eastern side of the Fly River their psychoactive effects in many (Crawford, 1981). According to A. C. areas of Papua New Guinea (Sinclair, Haddon, Piper methysticum was ' ...an 1957; Webb, 1960; Barrau, 1962; important part in the whole ceremonial life of Rea", 1960; Heim & Wasson, 1965; the Kiwaians and it constitute ...[d]... one of Steriy, 1973; Stone, 1982; Hyndman the most essential instruments of the people's 1984; Rudgley, 1998). Raw or im- welfare' (Haddon, 1936: xx.xi). Among the mature Pandanus nuts are eaten, for Kiwai, the drinking of Piper methy/sticum example, in the West Sepik Province, beverages was believed to make people wild the Western Highlands Province and and fierce and anxious to fight (Williams, the Chimbu Province to become 1936: 281). Piper methysticum beverages temporarily mad and to experience usually produce mild euphoria, Heim, 1957b: Heim, 1958) which was relaxation. lethargy and eventually originally identified as Psiloe-~vbemuliercula sleep. Piper methysticum contains six Singer et Smith (Singer & Smith 1958: 141- related resinous apyrones: kawain, di- 142; ott, 1993 302-303; ott, 1996). This hvdrokawain. methvsticin. dihvdrom- species has also been compared by ott (1993: ethystician. yango~in and dlhydro- 315) to the knov,u psilocy-bine-eontaining yangonin. A related wild species. species P. zapotecorum Heim (Heim & Piper wichmannii DC is also found in Hofinann. 1958. Heim & Hofinann. 1958 south-coast Papua New Guinea (Chew. [1959]: Hofinann. et af. 1959), which has also 1972) and has been reported to have been knO\m as P. candidipes Singer et Smith been used in magic (Telban. 1988) (ott & Guzman. 1976). ott (1993: 315) also This species contains similar chemIcal reports that P kumaenorum and the related constItuents as Piper methysticllm species P. novaezealandiae have psycho- (Lebot & Ll:\esqul:. 1989) active effects and are knO\\TI to be used as recreational drugs in New Zealand and Psilocvhe kllmaenorum Heim Australia (Allen et af. 1991). Other psycho- [Family Strophariaceae: Order: Agari- active species of Psiloe-:vbe mush-rooms cales: Class: Basidiomycetes] was first found in Papua New Guinea include P. collected and described bv the French brunneocystidiata Guzman et Horak [Stro- mycologist Roger Heim (Heim, 1967: phariaceae]. P. inconspicua Guzman [Stro- Heim et al.. 1967: Heim. 1978: Dobkin phariaceae] and P papllana Guzman et de Rios, 1984: Thomas in press [b]) Horak [Strophariaceae] from the southern Wahgi Valley. Western Highlands Province, Papua Psychotria sp. [Rubiaceae] is used for New Guinea. Roger Heim accom- various purposed among the Chimbu (Powell. panied R. Gordon Wasson on a three 1976: 149). week visit to the Wahgi Valley in 1963 Psychotria beccariodes Wemh. [Ru- to investigate reports made by biaceae] from Papua New Guinea psycho- anthropologist Marie Reay (Reay. active tryptamines, including a unique alka- 1959: Reav. 1960) that the Kuma loid C55~cN 10 which has five linked tryp- people used apparently hallucinogenic tamine units (Collins et af. 1990: 6). Several fungi (Heim, 1963: Heim, 1965; Heim other species of Psychotria are found in & Wasson. 1964: Heim & Wasson Papua New Guinea (Rappaport, 1977 [1968]: 1965). Heim (1967: 187) suggested Paijmans, 1976) and may also contain that Psilocyhe kumaenorum probably psychoactive tryptamines. One South Ameri- . contains psilocybine. based on the can species, Psycho tria viridis RUlz et Pavon morphological and microscopic simi- [Rubiaceae] (Pinkley, 1969; Schultes, 1969: larities with varieties of the kno\\>TI Prance, 1970; Rivier & Lindgren, 1971: entheogenic species, P. caerulescens Kensinger, 1973; Weiss, 1973; Schultes & and that the flesh of P. kumaenorum Hofinann, 1980; Luna, 1984; McKenna et al. tends to turn green or blue like some 1984; Kohn, 1992), for example, contains other Psiliocyhe species which are N,N-dimethyl-tryptamine (DMT) in its leaves knO\\>TIto" contain psilocybine. P. (Ott, 1993; ott, 1994; Ott, 1996), as well the kumaenorum has been included bv Ott psychoactive substances N-mono-methyl- (1993: 31 I: Ott, 1996) in a list of psilo- tryptamine (MMT) and 2-methyl-tetrahydro- cybine-containing mushroom species. I)-carboline MTHC) (Rivier & Lindgren, P. kumaenorum was considered by 1972; Ott, 1993; Ott, 1994; Ott. 1996). A Heim (1967: 187) to be a hallucino- closely related South American species genic species of Psilocybe mushroom Psychotria carthaginesis Ja-quin [Rubiaceae] similar to the Mexican species Psilo- (Rivier & Lindgren, 1971; Schultes, 1972; c_vbe wassonii Heim (Heim 1957a; Schultes & Raffauf, 1990) also contains DMT. MMT and MTHC (Rivier & is short and stout \\ith orange spots on the Lmdgren. 1971) A Pohnesian base and the flesh is white and sweet species. P.\ychotria insulanmi Grey (Schultes & Hofmann. 1979 55) (Cox et al.. 1989: Cox. 1991: Whistler. 1992: Otto 1993: Otto 1996). is also Russu Ia kirinea Heim IRussulaceae]. pharnlacologically active. Russula maenadum Heim [Russulaceae] and Russula psuedomaenadum Heim [Russula- Pt),chococcus paradoxus Becc. ceae] are related to Russula agglutinata Heim IPalmae] fruit has been che\ved as a and have also been eaten bv the Kuma to substitute for betel nut in the Bismarck Induce madness (Heim & Wasson. 1965. Arclllpelago (Friederici. 1(12) Schultes & Hofmann. 1979: Otto 1993: Otto 1996: Devereux. 1997 95: Ratsch. 1998 Puerana phaseoloides (Roxb) (88) Benth [Fabaceae I leaves are reported to be used for their psychoactive Sida rhomhiji)!ia L [Malvaceae I has effects 111Ne\\ Bntam (PowelL 1976 been eaten anlong the Anga of Central 135. Rudgley. 1(98) The flowers of Pronnce as a death IndUCIngherb \\hich has I'licranu phose%ides (tropical kud- been belIeved to make a person grO\\ smaller .lea) occur m an erect raceme and are and smaller and then tinalh die (Black\\ood. pm\... blue or \\hlte (Womersley. 1972 1940: Williams. 1998) Shta rhomhiji>!ia ISa 23 I) The pod IS narro\\ and elongate herb or shrub often gro\\Ing to :2 7 m 111 an hairy \\hen young (Womersley. height and is most often found growing 111hot 1972 231) The leaves o( }'lIerana 100vJands. The leaves are lanceolate to phase%idcs contain gemstem which obovOid and measure about 2.5 cm wide and IS a MAO inhibitor as \\ell as an up to 10 cm long (Schultes & Hofmann. ll1hibltor of catechol-O-methd-trans- 1979 56) The flowers vary in colour from ferase. DOPA-decarboxvlase: t\TO- yellow to white ~""'idarhornhijiJ!ia contaInS smekinase. and topolso-merase-II the psychoactive chemical ephedrine (ex-[ 1- Gemstell1 has been isolated from other (methylamino )-ethyl ]benzene methanol) psychoactin: Fabaceae species such as which has similar effects on the central ner- (Vfisus canariensis L (=Genisto vous system as the amphetamines but which canariensis). C scoparius L (=Genisfa are considerably less marked (Chen & scoparius). Desmodium gangeficum Schmidt. 1930: Aviado. 1970: Innes & DC. Rhynchosia phaseloides DC and Nickerson. 1975) A similar and closely re- :;"ophorasecundiflora (Ort) Lagasca ex lated species Sida acuta Burm. is smoked as a DC (Beckstrom-St~rnberg & Duke. substitute for Cannabis sativa in Mexico 1(42) (Diaz. 1975: Schultes & Hofmann. 1979: Otto 1993: 419; Ott, 1996), a 'mystical medicine' Russula agglutinata Heim [Rus- in Panama (Duke, 1975), a 'tranquilliser and sulaceae] is a species of fungi (Order: sedative in Bangladesh (Alam. 1992) and an Agaricales: Class Basidiomycetes) oxytocic in Nicaragua (Dennis. 1988). eaten by the Kuma of the Wahgi Valley. Western Highlands Province to Strychnos minor Dennst [Loganiaceae] produce 'mushroom madness' (Heim has been in various parts of Papua New & Wasson. 1965; Schultes & Guinea to simulate dogs for hunting and to Hofmann, 1979; Ott, 1993; Ott. 1996; make them fierce (Henty, 1980) Devereux. 1997: 95; Ratsch. 1998: Zingiber species [Zingiberaceae] are 688). This mushroom has a glutinous, chewed in many areas of Papua New Guinea concave. deep cream coloured cap because they are believed to make a person which is brown at the centre and 4-8 'hot' or magically powerful (Williams, 1936: cm in diameter (Schultes & Hofmann, 316; Glick, 1972: 1081: De Smet, 1983:291). 1979: 55). The stipe on this mushroom Zorma gibbosu Span. [FabaceaeJ The Kutubu of the Southern High- has been reported Schultes & Hofmann lands prepared usi, a mixture of tobacco, aroa (l9XO) to be used in sorcery in an bark. yiragi herb and other ingredients for unidentified area of Papua New young male initiates to drink (Williams, 1976 Guinea. [1941-1942]: 278). Unidentified psychoactive The Maring from the Bismarck plants. Mountains have eaten the leaf of a succulent plant, possibly a species of Pollia [?], kno\\n The Danga of the Western as 'fighting leaves' (komerik) with parcels of HIgnlands are reported to have eatcn salt to make people become ' ...wild and an unidentified plant called nong'n for bloodthirsty' (Rappaport. 1977 [1968]: 136) intc'"icating effects similar to those produced by certain psychoactive The bark of a tree called kevo is eaten mushrooms (Reay. 1960) The leaves by people in the Bismarck Mountains. of an umdentified young triX knO\m as Central Highlands to produce a trance-like sota or tsinimp have been eaten as a state (Aufenanger & Hbltker. 1940). bt:h.: nut substitutt: b\' ihe Adzcra (Holzknect 1971) - The Elema people of Orokolo in the Papuan Gulf have chewed an A more systematic and multidiscipli- unidentified aromatic bark called paiha nary approach to the study of psychoactive and a flat red seed called hepahepa. plants and psychoactive plant use in Papua sometimes with a small piece of human New Guinea is necessarv in the future to be bone. to become excited and to able to identify substances with novel produce a ....strong and belligerent chemical structures and unique pharmaco- mood' (Kiki, 1974: 1). logycal profiles before traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) of psychoactive plants and The Keraki of the Trans-Fly. their use is lost forev~r. Systematic Western Province, has chewed wangllp multidisciplinary research whi"h success- (ginger roots) and a hot aromatic bark fully combines the research methods and called wimotar with psychoactive expertise of ethnobotanists, anthropologists plants called wen Cleaves') in sorcery and ethnophannacologists has the potential and in the diZlgnosis of illness for the discovery and development of new (Williams. 1936: 347 & 351). psychotropic drugs with biomedical and A Wild-leaf callea komakoma pharmaceutical applications. was also used by the Keraki as an inferior substitute for sukuva (Meo- tiana tabaceum L., tobacco) (Williams. 1936:424). The Suki [Wiram] and the Semarji of the Trans-Fly chewed the I wish to express my gratitude to reddish bark of a tree called surita with Michael Bock, Tim Flannery, Nicole Haley, lime and betel nut (Areca catechu L.) David Hyndman, Roger Lohmann, Jonathan (Williams. 1936:426). Ott, Marie Reay, Christian R,~3.tsch,Giorgio Samorini, Alexander Shulgin, Pamela The Kiambi-speaking people Stewart, Andrew Strathern and Alexandra who live in the Nebilyer Valley on the Szalay for their assistance with this research. slopes of the Kubor Mountains eat unidentified species of psychoactive fungi (Nelson, 1970: Dobkin de Rios. 1984). Tropical et de Botanique .-lppliquee of. 270- 27~ Air~' Shaw, H. K. (1980). thc cllphorhi- Barrau, J. (1957"). Usage curieux d'une Aracee accac of .\Cll' (iul/lca. Kew Bulletin de la Nom'elk-Guinea Journal d Agriculture AdditIOnal Series. VIII, Her Majesty's Tropical ct de Botaniquc Appliquc e". ~-+S- Stationary Officc London ~-+l) Ahlm. M. K. (1992) Medicinal ethno- aurau, J. (195Ia). NoU\'elies obser\'ations au botany of the Marama tribe of Bangla- sujet des plantes hallucino~enes d'usage dcsh Fconolllic Botany "6. :no-~:n autochtone en Nouvelle-Guinea, JOllrl/ol Allen, a. (1983). 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