The Wisdom of James the Just Dan G. McCartney

Dan McCartney is an Associate Pro- Introduction The object of this study is two-fold: fessor of New Testament at Westminster It has long been recognized that James first, to identify more precisely the rela- Theological Seminary where he has has, among the New Testament books, a tion of James to the genres of Jewish taught since 1986. His most recent book special relationship to Jewish wisdom wisdom literature, and second, to describe is titled Why Does It Have to Hurt: The literature. A quick glance at the margins the character of James’s particular “wis- Meaning of Christian Suffering, and he of a Nestle-Aland text turns up more dom” content. That is to say, we will ask, is working on a commentary on James than thirty cross-references to Jewish wis- first, “Can James be called ‘wisdom litera- for the Baker Exegetical Commentary on dom literature of the Old Testament or ture’ in any sense,” and, second, “What is the New Testament. Dr. McCartney has intertestamental period, versus ten to the the nature of the wisdom that James urges written two other books, as well as Pentateuch, eighteen to Prophets, and believers to ask for?” numerous articles and book reviews. seventeen to Psalms (some of which are “wisdom” psalms). While Jewish wisdom James and Jewish Wisdom literature clearly influenced James, schol- Literature ars still debate the nature and extent of Before we can address the first ques- that influence. Almost all scholars who tion, we must ask, “what is Jewish have studied James agree that there is wisdom literature?” This is not easy to some kind of relevant background in answer, since those books that are gener- Jewish wisdom literature. However, while ally identified as wisdom are so diverse, some would go so far as to call James both in form and in content. Though the “wisdom” book of the NT,1 and a few scholars give various answers to this ques- even suggest that it was originally a tion, some general distinguishing marks strictly Jewish wisdom text that was only are frequently mentioned. later Christianized,2 others such as Ropes First, we agree with Crenshaw that the and Dibelius argue that, though James term “wisdom” can apply either to cer- seems to be influenced in some way by tain generic forms that appear in the wis- Jewish wisdom materials, the essential dom literature (e.g., series of aphorisms, nature of the book is hellenistic.3 Most instruction books, nature lists, extended interpreters in the last few decades have dialogic poetry, self-addressed reflection) landed somewhere in between, recogniz- or to the themes that wisdom tends to ing the influences of both Greek rhetori- address in various forms (e.g., the mean- cal devices and language, and Jewish ing of life, the problem of suffering, mas- material content and forms. Further, the tery of one’s environment, grappling with Jewish influence is not restricted to wis- finitude, and the quest for truth that is dom. The margins of Nestle-Aland27 also assumed to be concealed within the cre- reveal that of the eight actual quotations ated order).4 Wisdom literature can be in James, only two are wisdom texts, most identified by form or by content. citations being from the Pentateuch. More- Second, wisdom is a practical matter. over, the fierce invective of 5:1-6 certainly It is not a quest for knowledge for its own sounds more like Israel’s prophets than sake, but knowledge of how to live. Wis- her sages. dom “is the reasoned search for specific 52 ways to assure well-being and the imple- ture of the LXX. And of the 21 words that James shares with only one mentation of those discoveries in daily other NT author, 19 occur commonly existence.”5 It also appeals to the human in the wisdom books. desire to have some measure of control (5) James is fond of using highly pic- torial language, in ways similar to over what happens to us. Wisdom’s and other wisdom writers. admonitions are expressed not in terms Some of this is directly paralleled in of duty but of advantage.6 Sirach. Compare Sirach’s “double- heart” (Sir 1:28) and testing by fire Furthermore, wisdom is, at least in its (Sir 2:5) with James’s double- earlier forms, something hidden. Prov- minded doubter (1:8) and the fire of the tongue (3:6). But it is the sheer erbs, Job, Qoheleth, Sirach, and Wisdom quantity of these vibrant illustra- of are all searching books, which tions that marks James as clearly try to ascertain the truth of the matter. standing in this tradition. The stream of illustrative examples on Wisdom is typically linked to creational the tongue in James 3:3-12 is breath- rather than covenantal theology because taking: bits in horses’ mouths, great wisdom is looking for the inherent order ships and little rudders, sparks and forest fires, the taming of animals, in the world, which enables humans to fresh and salt water springs, and control their world. But Jewish wisdom fruit trees, all in just ten verses. The books, coming from a cultural environ- reader also encounters dead bodies (2:26), waves and wind (1:6), misty ment that depends on God, must struggle vapors (4:14), mirrors (1:23), fading with the tension between the self-reliance flowers (1:10), and patient farmers (5:7-8).10 implicit in such a search and dependence (6) James, alone among NT writers, on God’s mercy and disposition, which specifically names Job as a pattern 11 certainly cannot be controlled by human to be emulated. 7 (7) Verses that are transitional from effort. one general subject to another are Does James fit this pattern? First of all, typically drawn from wisdom tradi- we must note that there is no question that tion (Jas 1:4-8, 27, 4:6, 5:19). (8) Most important are particular there are several points of similarity. E. themes of James that, while sporadi- Baasland8 has noted at least eight “wis- cally found elsewhere in the , dom” elements in James: are central in wisdom. For example, James highlights the themes of concern for widows and orphans,12 (1) James knows and uses Proverbs. respect of persons, use and misuse James 4:6 cites Proverbs 3:34, and of the tongue, and caution regard- James 5:20 at least directly alludes ing future planning. to Proverbs 10:12. To this we might add the echo of Proverbs 27:1 (“do not boast about tomorrow”) in To this list many other points of con- James 4:13-16, and many other par- tact could be noted. Especially notewor- allels, though these do not necessar- thy is the relationship of James to Sirach. ily evince direct dependence. (2) James explicitly refers to wisdom Nestle-Aland27 notes no fewer than 11 in 1:5 and 3:13-18. allusions to Sirach in James, compared (3) According to Baasland, at least with 6 allusions and 2 citations from Prov- 40 of the 108 verses of James have literary parallels in wisdom litera- erbs. Moreover, there are some very obvi- ture. ous shared themes: the dangers of the (4) The language and style of James reflect wisdom origins. Baasland tongue (Sir 19:6-12, 20:5-8, 18-20, 22:27, refers to the work of Halson,9 who 28:13-26, 35:7-9), the notion that wisdom notes that of James’s 67 NT hapaxes, is a gift from God (Sir 1:1-10), the dangers 34 are found in the wisdom litera- 53 of pride (10:7-18), and the warning against similarity of the presuppositions of James blaming God for sin (Sir 15:11-20). 1:2-5 with those of 4 Maccabees.16 And just In addition to these parallels between recently D. Verseput noticed the structural James and second temple Jewish wisdom, similarities with one of the wisdom texts there are similarities in their way of think- found at Qumran (4Q185).17 ing: But as Verseput also warns, “the per- vasiveness of wisdom elements through- (1) A person’s life is lived either in out all the literature of the Second Temple good connections or in bad. An ethi- cal dualism predominates in both period suggests that the Epistle of James James and in Jewish wisdom. Note cannot be accurately grouped among the in particular the contrast between wisdom documents by merely pointing sin giving birth to death, and God giving birth to “us” (1:15, 18), the out sapiential motifs or by imprudently father of lights vs. the shifting associating its structure with wisdom shadow (1:17), the perfect (teleion) instruction.”18 And James certainly has work of patience (1:4) vs. the matu- ration (apotelestheisa) of sin (1:15), some characteristics that do not fit the and the single-minded (haplos) giv- wisdom pattern. ing of God (1:5) vs. the double First, at the very least it must be said mindedness (dipsychos) of a human being (1:8). that James is incomprehensible apart from (2) As in Jewish wisdom literature certain Christian presuppositions. U. Luck generally, there is a fairly strong the- matic concern in James that deeds points to such things as God the father have consequences. (Baasland refers giving birth to us by the word of truth 13 to this as Tat-Folge Denken). (1:17-18), the implanted word (1:21), the reference to the audience as “beloved Not only the themes, but also the brethren” (1:19, 2:5, cf. 2:1, 14), the impor- generic forms of wisdom literature are evi- tance of and nature of true faith (2:14-26), dent in James. notes that James and the “elders of the church” (5:14) as all exhibits an “apparently disjointed and stemming from the unique social environ- proverbial nature of style.”14 Many of the ment of early Christianity.19 These things sayings in James, even though they have have no parallel in wisdom literature.20 contextual linkages within the Epistle, Second, James does not seem so much could easily stand alone. This aphoristic concerned with the intellectual search for style is one of the most notable features wisdom as with moral action befitting true shared by James and Proverbs. Halson wisdom.21 While James is not unique counts 23 short, isolated aphorisms. But among his Jewish contemporaries in also like Proverbs, James has a few some- thinking of wisdom as a moral matter, what longer discourses, of which Halson when speaking of wisdom itself (3:13-18), identifies seven or eight (2:1-9, 2:14-26, he appears to be setting a true, active, 3:13-17, 4:1-6, 4:13-16, 5:1-6 and possibly socially conscientious wisdom over 5:16b-18).15 Compare the “my son” dis- against a false kind of wisdom that boasts courses in Proverbs 1-7, and the virtuous and abandons social obligations in favor wife discourse in Proverbs 31:10-31. of private, intellectualized concerns.22 Several recent studies highlight simi- This contrast of true and false wisdom is larities between James and specific at best rare in wisdom literature (though instances of Jewish wisdom literature. For it does have an interesting counterpart in example, in 1993 D. E. Gowan showed the 54 the first two chapters of 1 Corinthians. that his audience values wisdom, and Third, James does not fit into the liter- offers a picture of what true, godly wis- ary categories of wisdom literature. dom looks like. An examination of his Crenshaw lists eight such categories: letter reveals at least five characteristics: proverb, riddle, allegory, hymn, dialogue, (1) True wisdom is a divine gift (and there- autobiographical narrative, noun lists, fore related to faith); (2) true wisdom is and didactic narrative.23 Of these only the primarily ethical rather than intellectual; proverb and the dialogue have a generic (3) wisdom is eschatologically motivated; counterpart in some of James’s aphorisms (4) wisdom is spiritual in nature; and (5) and the literarily constructed interlocution true wisdom is the wisdom of Jesus. The of James 2:18. But whereas these genres first three of these have points of similar- are indigenous and constitutive in wis- ity with some (though by no means all) dom literature, they are only useful tools other Jewish wisdom; the last two are in James, and his main arguments can be uniquely James. sustained without them. Most of James, as already noted, is imperatival in tone,24 Wisdom Is a Divine Gift even to the point of upbraiding the hear- James actually mentions wisdom twice ers and calling down woes, more like OT in his epistle (1:5 and 3:13-18). In both prophets than sages. places the concern is not for wisdom gen- But the most significant difference is erally but on true wisdom, which is of that James appears to be deeply conscious divine origin. “If anyone lacks wisdom let of real existential problems, not just gen- him ask from the God who gives to all eralized truths. The exhortations to “stop unstintingly.” The notion that wisdom is fighting” (ch. 4) and to anoint and pray obtained by asking God for it is rooted in for the sick (ch. 5) have no counterpart the prayer of Solomon (1 Kings 3) and the in wisdom literature. And the diatribe relationship between wisdom being a gift against favoritism in chapter 2 bears the and, therefore, the need to ask for it is vivid marks of real occurrences. Though developed in Wisdom of Solomon 8:17- the situations may be common enough 9:18.26 that James can address them in a circular The longer discussion of wisdom letter, they are specific enough to charac- occurs in 3:13-18. P. Hartin regards this as terize James not as a per the “very heart and centre of the body of se, but as a work that uses the wisdom the epistle.”27 Whether that is the case or tradition and forms familiar to his audi- not, certainly James shares the opinion of ence. Nor can we place James firmly other Jewish wisdom that wisdom is a in the camp of Hellenistic diatribes or divine gift. paraeneses.25 If nothing else, the passion In addition, because true wisdom of James 4:1-6, 5:1-6, 2:4, and 2:14-17 ought comes “from above” it is, therefore, sin- to clue us in to the fact that the author of gularly inappropriate to boast about it James is neither a remote sage in his school (3:14), for to do so gives the lie to one’s nor a hellenistic preacher uttering gener- claim to be speaking the truth.28 True wis- alities. He is a pastor concerned for his dom is therefore humble.29 people. But James goes further, because wis- Nevertheless, James does recognize dom in James is closely related to faith. 55 Baasland, who is willing to call James a in 3:17 is that it is pure (hagne). For James Christian wisdom book, nevertheless rec- wisdom is essentially an ethical quality.30 ognizes a clear distinction from common Knowledge, “savvy,” cleverness, and wit Jewish wisdom. James’s exhortation to may all be considered forms of wisdom, wisdom is on the basis of faith (and but these can be used for impure pur- according to Baasland, baptism); it is not poses. They may easily become both the a “clan” wisdom or simply the “Torah” grounds and means of boasting. But ethi- wisdom found elsewhere, but an escha- cal purity, if it boasts, ceases to be purity, tological, Christian wisdom. Notice the and hence a wisdom that is contentious relationship of true and false wisdom in or boastful ceases to be wisdom.31 Because 3:15-17 to true and false faith in 2:14ff. of this basic quality of purity, true wisdom Compare for example 3:13 and 2:18: produces its other ethical fruit: peacemak- ing, gentleness, etc. 2:18 But someone will say, “You As already noted, just as faith is asso- have faith and I have works.” Show me your faith apart from ciated with ethical behavior, so is wisdom. your works, and I by my works Wisdom exhibits good behavior and will show you my faith. meekness (3:13) and runs contrary to bit- 3:13 Who is wise and understand- ing among you? Let him show ter envy, ambition, boasting and lying by his good behavior his works (3:14). At no point in James is wisdom [done] in the meekness of simply a matter of the knowing of facts wisdom. (theoretical knowledge) or even of know- Just as true faith produces good works, how (practical knowledge). so does true wisdom. In particular, the wisdom of James In 5:7-11, James contrasts the farmer’s focuses on two ethical issues: speech eth- wisdom, patiently waiting for God, with ics and humility. The speech ethics of indifference to the poor. This seems an James is the subject of a special study by odd juxtaposition, but this seemingly odd William Baker, who gives ample evidence contrast shows the connection with faith. for James’s roots in the speech ethics of Faith also waits in trust, but if it is indif- the ancient Near East, particularly as 32 ferent to the poor it is no true faith. found in Jewish wisdom. But the ethics humility Finally, James says that faith without of is certainly a dominant theme works is vain, empty (arge). Vanity is of in Jewish wisdom as well, and many, if course a wisdom concern: not all, the economic and social ethical particularly dwells on the emptiness and matters in James essentially stem from vanity of life in this world. James seems concern for humility. The description of to pick up on this, so that even a life of wisdom in 3:13-18 is largely a description faith is vain, empty, and meaningless, if it of humility: it lacks bitter envy, ambition, is a “faith” that does not act in accordance and boasting, and is instead peacable, with its precepts. True wisdom is true gentle, compliant, full of mercy. And con- faith. sider the ills that James rails against throughout the book: boasting (1:9), blam- Wisdom Is Ethical ing God for sin (1:13-14; cf. Sir 15:11-20), Rather than Intellectual favoritism (2:1-7; cf. Prov 14:21), friend- The “first of all” attribute of wisdom ship with the world (4:1-10, including a 56 quotation of Prov 3:34 [LXX] and the tion of good fruits (3:17). The following exhortation to “humble yourselves” in v. verse encapsulates this in what sounds 10), judging brethren (4:11-12; cf. Wis 1:11), like a wisdom saying, “fruit of righteous- and merchant planning without recogniz- ness is sown in peace for those who do ing God (4:13-17; cf. Prov 27:1). Pride lies peace.”38 at the root of them all. Even the evils of the Since wisdom is primarily a moral or tongue may be classified here, since the ethical entity in James rather than intel- section in chapter 3 begins with the warn- lectual or cognitive, the prayer mandate ing that not many should be teachers. of 1:5 comes into clearer focus. The lack of Apparently, the desire to be called “rabbi” wisdom that one should pray to have rem- survived in the church, even though Jesus edied is not an intelligence gap, but a had discouraged it (Matt 23:7-8). moral gap. The one who prays should ask Of course, the ethical character of wis- for moral fortitude in order to face suffer- dom is not unknown in Jewish wisdom. ing and temptation, and thereby become As noted below, later Judaism recognized “perfect.” all or almost all the books of the OT as the word of God, and the ethical demands of Wisdom Is Eschatologically Torah stood as the supreme standard of Motivated life, so an increasingly revelational notion Though the eschatological dimension of of wisdom permeated later Judaism. And James, particularly in his exhortations to indeed much of the later Jewish wisdom patience, is clear enough, the recent work literature identifies Wisdom with God’s of Todd Penner has brought new focus to law.33 The identification of wisdom with this dimension of James’s thought. Penner Torah may have its roots even in the ear- shows that the eschatological dimension liest levels. In Proverbs 9:10 the beginning more thoroughly penetrates the whole of of wisdom is the fear of the Lord, and “the the epistle than had previously been fear of the Lord” in Psalms 19:9 appears observed.39 in synonymous parallelism with the law, Such an eschatological focus is not typi- the decrees, the precepts, the command- cal of wisdom literature. Ancient Near ment, and the ordinances of the Lord.34 Eastern wisdom generally takes its cue Since the Torah is the ultimate source from creation and focuses on God’s work of wisdom, it is a freedom-giving Torah and truth in the created order. Eschatology (2:12), but James takes an additional step receives its impetus from redemption, and refers to the word of God as implanted stemming from a distrust of this world (1:21). Here is another way in which and a longing for the future overthrow of James’s uniquely Christian application of the present order. In wisdom, the idea is wisdom finds expression. For the wise, to avoid the natural retributions and seek freedom-giving Law of God to be effec- the natural rewards of this present age; tive, especially the royal law of love (2:8),35 eschatology recognizes that this world is it must be implanted (1:21).36 Once not fair, and seeks reward and punish- implanted it must be received humbly.37 ment in the future. Sustaining the agricultural metaphor, the However, two forces were at work humble response to God’s planting of to merge these notions. First, wisdom ethical wisdom eventuates in the produc- became frustrated by the problems of 57 unjust suffering. Just as Jewish prophets classical Jewish wisdom material.42 This struggled with the cognitive dissonance is no doubt because James recognizes the generated by a belief in Israel’s election fact that the eschatological expectations in the face of Israel’s poor political situa- are already being fulfilled. Although the tion, so Jewish wisdom struggled with the parousia is still to come (5:7), James knows cognitive dissonance of a world where that the messiah has already come (2:1). traditional wisdom did not always work. Hence the divine gift of wisdom is now Hence intertestamental Jewish wisdom freely available to all who ask in faith (1:5- was drawn increasingly towards the 6). Above all, the readers are the redemptive-eschatological framework of “firstfruits of his creation” (1:18) who were the prophets. given birth by the word of truth. The Second, the nature of the wisdom con- eschatological harvest has already begun. cept changed. As awareness grew of a revealed wisdom from God (as opposed to Wisdom Is Spiritual what humans are able to figure out for Remarkably, James never refers to the themselves), wisdom became more Holy Spirit in his letter.43 J. A. Kirk44 is associated with participation in God’s probably right in arguing that wisdom is wisdom, not just in creation, but in effectively functioning in James as the redemption and law.40 The seeds of this Holy Spirit does in other NT writings. change are already there in such passages Kirk observed the following: as Isaiah 33:6, where wisdom and under- standing are eschatological blessings, and (1) First, wisdom in James, like the Holy Spirit in the Gospels, is a good Isaiah 11:2, where the spirit of wisdom is gift that is requested of the Father. a messianic endowment. Already in James 1:5 speaks of asking God for Daniel, wisdom and eschatology were the gift of wisdom, which 1:17 goes on to speak of as every good gift, being fused (Daniel was a sage, but his which comes down from above, wisdom was supernatural), and the Tes- from a heavenly Father (Father of 45 taments of the Twelve Patriarchs has lights). This is very much like Mat- thew 7:7, which speaks of asking the many instances of both traditional wis- heavenly Father for good gifts, and dom and eschatological expectation. its parallel in Luke 11:11-13, which identifies the good gift requested Eschatology and wisdom also come and given as the Holy Spirit. together in Wisdom of Solomon and 4 (2) James 3:9 also refers to God’s Maccabees. fatherhood as the reason for his giv- ing of wisdom. Here the wisdom James stands in this stream. As from above provides the ability to Bauckham says, “an eschatological orien- control and direct the tongue. tation is not therefore anomalous; it is to (3) There are some striking parallels between the fruit of wisdom in be expected in wisdom paraenesis from James 3:17 and the fruit of the Spirit the first century C.E.”41 However, while in Galatians 5:22-6:8. (Note again the later wisdom books have an interest that wisdom in James is not prima- rily intellectual but moral.) in God’s judgment and refer to escha- (4) Several references to wisdom tology as a way of resolving certain elsewhere in the NT also refer to the Spirit. Ephesians 1:17 is the most wisdom questions, the sayings and admo- obvious, where the author prays nitions of James, like those of Jesus, have “that the Father may give you the an eschatological dimension not found in Spirit of wisdom.” The Spirit of wis- dom is of course the Spirit given to 58 Messiah in Isaiah 11:2. Likewise tion and trials. James’s wisdom is no where Colossians 1:28 relates the Spirit to maturity and trials, James “earthy” wisdom: it comes down from 1:4-5 connects maturity and trials above (3:15). with wisdom. In contrast to the Holy Spirit and true wisdom is false wis- dom and the spirit of the world in 1 Wisdom Is the Teaching of Jesus Corinthians 2:12.46 First Corinthians The correspondences of James with 12:8 identifies the Spirit as the source the teaching of Jesus are numerous. of the utterance of wisdom. Finally Acts 6:3, picking up again on the Mussner48 documents twenty-seven messianic promise of Isaiah 11, instances where James’s teaching reflects refers to those qualified to be dea- that of Jesus. Of these, eleven are identi- cons as those “filled with the Spirit and wisdom.” fied as “Q” material, six as uniquely Lukan, seven as uniquely Matthean, and Kirk found the roots of this wisdom- two as Markan (though in one case the Spirit identification in the Old Testament Markan material is also found in Matthew and Jewish wisdom literature. Through- and in the other in all three Synoptic Gos- out the OT, wisdom and the presence of pels). Hence the correspondence with God’s spirit are closely linked (Gen 41:38- Matthew is very high, with twenty-one of 39, Exod 31:3-4 [cf. Exod 28:3], Deut 34:9, the twenty-seven references being found Isa 11:2). The activity of the creator Spirit in Matthew. Fourteen of these are found of Genesis 1:1-2 resembles the activity of in the Sermon on the Mount. wisdom in Proverbs 8. Likewise Sirach Some of these correspondences may be 24:3-5 portrays wisdom in terms of the found elsewhere in Jewish literature. For Spirit of Genesis. In Genesis Rabbah 85, example, the notion that the one who Solomon’s wisdom is identified as the keeps the whole law but stumbles in one product of the guidance of the Holy Spirit. matter has become guilty of all (James And Haggai 2:5 suggests an identification 2:10), occurs in both Jesus’ teaching (Matt of the pillar of cloud and fire as “my 5:19) and in Jewish teaching (m. ‘Abot 2:1, Spirit,” i.e., the Spirit of God (echoed in Sifre Deut 96:3.2),49 though James and Wis 10:17). Broadly speaking, the func- Jesus seem to have strengthened this tions of the Spirit of God in the OT fre- notion somewhat. Likewise the warning quently become in the intertestamental against slander or grumbling (Jas 4:11, 5:9; period the functions of wisdom (cf. 1 Matt 7:1-5) resembles Wisdom 1:11. Enoch 5:6-9 with Isa 11:2ff). Jesus and James reflect Jewish wisdom Hence Peter Davids suggests, “if some in the form as well as the content of their works have a wisdom christology, James teaching. R. Bauckham,50 referring to the has a wisdom pneumatology, for wisdom work of Aune in classifying the in James functions as the Spirit does in aphorisms of Jesus,51 notes several points Paul.”47 This may be somewhat over- where the aphorisms of James, Jesus, and stated, but James conceives of wisdom not Jewish wisdom literature have formal (not as an abstract intellectual ability or clev- necessarily material) resemblances. erness at manipulating life, but as God’s These similarities, among other things, eschatological gift to the believer (the one have led to the recent burgeoning of schol- who asks in faith) that empowers him or arship suggesting that Jesus was a wis- her to live rightly and to endure persecu- dom teacher, a Jewish sage.52 But Jesus did 59 not just echo the traditional wisdom of seems to be the case is rather that James is other Jewish sages. Much of what is found either writing prior to the formal solidifi- in traditional Jewish wisdom is absent cation of the Greek tradition of Jesus’ from both the teaching of Jesus and words, and thus “quoting” in a different James.53 Furthermore, not only was his form than we have it in the Synoptics, or overall message of the presence and (more likely) he is paraphrasing and imminence of the kingdom unique, many reapplying the ethical teaching of Jesus.56 of his specific ethical instructions were Reinforcing Baasland’s opinion is the unique as well or, at least, not known else- work of Bauckham, who notes five where in Jewish literature. But curiously, highly distinctive characteristics of Jesus’ some of these are known in James. The teaching that are echoed by James: (1) most outstanding example is the prohibi- Radical ethics, (2) the rejection of social tion against swearing (Matt 5:34-37; Jas stratification, (3) eschatological judgment, 5:12). The similarity here is very evident: not social advantage, as the criterion for right and wrong, (4) James 5:12 Matt 5:34-35, 37 God’s mercy as of Above all, my brothers, do not swear But I tell you, Do not swear at all: greater importance than —not by heaven either by heaven, for it is God’s throne; his distributive justice, or by earth or by the earth, for it is his footstool; and (5) the concern for or by anything else. or by Jerusalem, for it is the city of the Great renewing and reconsti- King. tuting Israel as God’s . . . people.57 Just naming Let your “Yes” be yes, and your “No,” Simply let your ‘Yes’ be ‘Yes,’ and your them here, I think, is suf- no, or you will be condemned. ‘No,’ ‘No’; anything beyond this comes ficient for the reader from the evil one. familiar with both the Gospels and the Epistle Though some Jewish wisdom literature of James to notice the similarity. warned of the dangers of taking oaths All this is to show that wisdom for (Eccl 5:4; Sir 23:9-13), none prohibited it James is what it was for Jesus—it involved entirely. Only 2 Enoch 49:1 resembles the both the hearing and the doing of Jesus’ statements of James and Jesus, and most words. According to Jesus, it is the wise scholars view this as a Christian inter- man who built his house upon a rock, and polation. is like the one who “hears these words of Baasland rightly observes that James’s mine and does them.” And this further wisdom is decidedly drawn from the demonstrates the essential Christianity of Jesus tradition. Where James reflects tra- James. While Paul refers to Christ himself ditional Jewish wisdom, those aspects of as the wisdom of God (Col 2:3), James Jewish wisdom are also found in Jesus’ understands the teaching of Jesus to be teaching. On the other hand, wherever wisdom, and Jesus as the ultimate sage, James differs from Jewish wisdom tradi- along the lines already suggested by the tion, he is demonstrably at one with the passage found in Matthew 12:41-42 and preaching of Jesus.54 This is true even Luke 11:31-32: “the Queen of the South... though James never quotes any saying of came from the ends of the earth to listen Jesus as found in the Gospels.55 What to Solomon’s wisdom, and now one 60 greater than Solomon is here.” tamentlichen Schriften [Leipzig, 1908] 75, If the goal of wisdom is the formation cited in Baasland, “Der Jakobusbrief Als of character58 then certainly James is Neutestamentliche Weisheitsschrift,” wisdom. And his unique interest in the Studia Theologica 36 [1982] 123) likened the practical application of the moral instruc- relationship to that between Revelation tion of Jesus, and his frequent use of and other Jewish apocalyptic: “Der Brief aphoristic style, may very well earn his [Jakobus] verhält sich zu den alttesta- epistle the epithet, “the wisdom book of mentlichen Spruchbuchern ebenso wie the New Testament,”59 so long as it is die Offenbarung des Johannes zu der clear that it is a New Testament wisdom, Apoka-lyptik des Spätjudentums.” and that this wisdom is addressed not to 2 L. Massebieau, “L’épître de Jacques, hypothetical, but real church situations. Est-Elle l’Oeuvre d’un Chrétien?” Revue Inasmuch as Jesus himself used Jewish de l’histoire des religions 16/32 (1895) wisdom (both its form and content), it 249-83; F. Spitta, Zur Geschichte und ought not surprise us that Jewish wisdom Litteratur Des Urchristentums II (Göt- tradition was taken over in the Jewish tingen: Vanden-hoeck & Ruprecht, 1896) church. Thus there certainly is no need 382-391. to suppose that James was originally a 3 J. H. Ropes, A Critical and Exegetical Com- non-Christian wisdom piece that was mentary on the Epistle of St. James (ICC; later Christianized, nor is there good Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1916) Introduc- reason to think that James was not explic- tion Section 2; M. Dibelius, James: A Com- itly Christian. True, the great Pauline mentary on the Epistle of James, ed. and rev. issues of christology and redemptive his- H. Greeven, trans. Michael A. Williams tory do not arise much in James (only (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, peeking out from passages like 1:18, 2:1 1975) 1-11. and 5:8), but no writing should ever be 4 J. Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom: An judged for what it does not say. Rather Introduction, rev. and enlarged (Louisville: James ought to help us expand our Westminster John Knox, 1998) 20-30. notion of what is characteristically Chris- 5 Crenshaw, 15. tian. Without James, much of what it 6 W. Zimmerli, “Concerning the Structure means to be a disciple of Jesus might have of Old Testament Wisdom,” in Studies in been lost. James reminds us that the Ancient Israelite Wisdom, ed. James essential matter is not hearing or under- Crenshaw (New York: Ktav, 1976) 177. standing the word of Jesus, but doing it. 7 Crenshaw, 51. That is his wisdom. 8 Baasland, 123-124. 9 B. R. A. Halson, “The Epistle of James: ENDNOTES ‘Christian Wisdom?’,” Texte und Unter- 1 Cf. H. Conzelmann, “Wisdom in the suchungen 102 (1968) 309. New Testament,” in The Interpreter’s Dic- 10Such illustrative language is, of course, tionary of the Bible Supplementary Volume not limited to Jewish wisdom. James’s (Nashville: Abingdon, 1962) 960: “the illustrative grab bag has parallels in entire letter of James is a wisdom docu- Greek moral literature as well, leading ment in parenetic style.” C. F. G. Heinrici Ropes and Dibelius to think of James as (Der Literarische Charakter der Neutes- primarily a hellenistic Greek work 61 (Ropes, Introduction Sec. 2; Dibe- 20Proverbs does use a similar address, genre.) Dibelius, 1-11. lius, 1-11), but it still stands as one but it is from the vantage point of a 26Indeed the entire rest of the book more similarity to Jewish as well as father (“my son”) rather than of a of Wisdom of Solomon may be other wisdom literature. sibling (“beloved brothers”). Ropes intended to be read as the prayer of 11The use of great OT personalities as calls it “utterly different” (Ropes, Solomon. Note the continued use of exemplars is common in Jewish wis- 17). the second person throughout the dom; cf. e.g., Sir 44:1-49:16. 21Cf. below on the ethical nature of book. 12Cf. also F. C. Fensham, “Widow, wisdom. 27P. Hartin, James and the Q Sayings of Orphan, and the Poor in Ancient 22Cf. W. Bindemann, “Weisheit Versus Jesus (Journal for the Study of the Near Eastern Legal and Wisdom Weisheit: Der Jakobusbrief Als New Testament Supplementary Literature” in Studies in Ancient Innerkirchlicher Diskurs,” Zeitsch- Series; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Israelite Wisdom, 161-173. rift für neutestamentliche Wissenschaft Press, 1991) 97. Though his chiastic 13Baasland, p. 124, adds a third simi- 86 (1995) 216. analysis of 2:1-5:6 is rather forced, larity in thought patterns: A per- 23Crenshaw, 27. it is no doubt true that at least the son is not regarded as an isolated 24These generic differences from other gaining of true wisdom from God entity but is always part of a given Jewish wisdom texts are precisely by humbly asking for it in submis- set of social connections. However, why J. H. Ropes and M. Dibelius sion to God is a major concern of this appears to me to be hardly found James to be generically much James. peculiar to wisdom literature—it closer to Greek forms of hortatory 28V. 14 (NIV: “if you harbor bitter runs throughout the Bible—and literature. envy and selfish ambition in your indeed if anything it is somewhat 25It is curious that even Ropes him- hearts, do not boast about it or deny lessened in the later wisdom books. self points out so many marked dif- the truth”). The implication is that 14P. H. Davids, “The Epistle of James ferences between James and Greek to boast of one’s wisdom, to be in Modern Discussion,” Aufstieg und diatribes (Ropes, 15-16) that one proud of knowing truth, is to belie Niedergang der Römischen Welt, Part wonders why he stuck with calling the very truth one professes to 2, Principat, ed. W. Haase (Berlin; James a diatribe. Given Dibelius’s know, since that truth includes the New York: De Gruyter, 1988) inability to provide any positive fact that if one has wisdom, it is 25:3635. characteristics for an ostensible purely by grace. Cf. F. Mussner, 15Halson, 311. genre of paraenesis other than the Der Jakobusbrief, 3rd ed. (Herders 16D. E. Gowan, “Wisdom and Endur- use of Stichworten, and the paucity theologischer Kommentar zum ance in James” Horizons of Biblical of evidence for paraenesis as a Neuen Testament XIII; Freiburg, Theology 15 no. 2 (1993) 145-153. generic form, as opposed to a rhetori- 1975) 171. Teachers in the churches 17D. J. Verseput, “Wisdom, 4Q185, cal device, we must also conclude should read this verse twice a day and the Epistle of James,” Journal of that Dibelius too has failed to find until they take it to heart. Pride at Biblical Literature 117 no. 4 (1998) any convincing generic model in one’s knowledge is as much the 691-707. hellenism. (Dibelius’s only other source of much strife in our day as 18Verseput, 692. characteristics of paraenesis are in James’s day, and is no product of 19U. Luck, “Die Theologie Des Jako- negative, such as the lack of organi- true wisdom (v.16). busbriefes,” Zeitschrift für Theologie zation, and the lack of continuity of 29Instead of the proud self-serving u. Kirche 81 (1984) 1-30. Luck argues thought. And as he himself shows, wisdom of the guru, James advo- that James does, however, differ the use of catchwords is so common cates the humble wisdom of Jesus from Paul in still holding to the Jew- in much Jewish literature that their who was himself humble (Matt ish wisdom notion that a person’s use can hardly be called evidence 11:29) but nevertheless spoke a wis- identity lies in what he does. for paraenesis being a distinct dom that demanded a great deal of 62 his hearers (P. H. Davids, Commen- have roots in Jesus’ proclamation of in the were known tary on James [NIGNTC; Grand Rap- “the kingdom of God” (tes basileias and regarded as authoritative by all ids: Eerdmans, 1982] 209). tou theou) (cf. Jesus’ comment to the Jews, so that Jewish wisdom teach- 30U. Wilckens, “sophia, etc.” in Theo- scribe who acknowledged this com- ers such as ben Sirach, Baruch, 4 logical Dictionary of the New Testa- mand that he was “not far from the Maccabees and Ps-Phocylides drew ment (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, kingdom of God” [Mark 12:34]). A freely from Law, Prophecy, and 1971) 7:524-525. passage from the Wisdom of Apocalyptic as sources for the divine 31S. Laws points out that James Solomon shows well how Judaism wisdom as much as the Wisdom actually avoids referring to this related the notions of Torah, wis- literature. “earthly” thing as “wisdom.” S. dom, and kingdom: “The beginning 41R. Bauckham, James: The Wisdom of Laws, A Commentary on the Epistle of wisdom is the most sincere James, Disciple of Jesus the Sage (New of James (San Francisco: Harper & desire for instruction, and concern York; London: Routledge, 1999) 34. Row, 1980) 163. There is only one for instruction is love of her, and 42Hartin, 64-69. wisdom, and that which is conten- love of her is the keeping of her 43Whatever that enigmatic verse 5 in tious, self-seeking, and boastful is laws, and giving heed to her laws ch.4 means, I, along with most com- not it. is assurance of immortality, and mentators, think it highly improb- 32W. R. Baker, Personal Speech-Ethics in immortality brings one near to God; able that the “spirit” is the Holy the Epistle of James (Tubingen: Mohr so the desire for wisdom leads to Spirit, whether or not it is the sub- [Siebeck], 1995). kingdom” (Wis 6:17-20; the transla- ject of epipothei (“desires”). The best 33This seems to be the particular con- tion is that of P. Hartin, in James and option is to give pneuma here the tribution of Sirach 24, particularly the Q Sayings of Jesus, 92). same meaning it has in its only other vv. 23-24. Later Judaism adopts this 36Luck, 17. occurrence in James (2:26), namely idea generally, e.g., Pirqe Aboth vi.7 37It seems to me inherently much the vivifying breath of life, a mean- gives a series of attributes of Torah, more sensible to take en prauteti, “in ing common in wisdom literature which in Proverbs are a description humility,” not with apothemenoi, (Job 27:3, 33:4, 34:14-15, Wis 12:1, of wisdom. Genesis Rabbah begins “laying aside,” (as the punctuation Eccl 1:14, 2:11, 4:4 etc., cf. also Gen with the words of Prov 8:30, and in NA27 suggests) but with the fol- 2:2, 7:15, Isa 2:22). applies it to Torah: By looking into lowing dexasthe, “receive.” Thus v. 44J. A. Kirk, “The Meaning of Wisdom Torah, God created the world. Cf. 21 is not a tautologous “receive what in James: Examination of a Hypoth- also Bar 3:9-4:4. you have received” but instruction esis,” New Testament Studies 16 34If there is such a thing as a “wis- on how to receive that which has been (1969) 24-38. dom” psalm, Psalm 19 is surely it, implanted, a sentiment echoed in 45The best explanation for “Father of moving from the creation theology 3:13. lights” is as creator of the heavenly of vv. 1-6 to the praise of God’s law 38It has been suggested that this may lights of Genesis 1. As creator of for its guidance and protection in vv. be an agraphon, a saying of Jesus that lights he is source of all light, and 7-10 to the warning and safety of was known to be such in the early hence cannot be shadowed or dark- Torah, which uncovers what is hid- church, but not written down and ened or mistaken. Referring to the den, in vv. 11-13. specifically attributed to him. creator as “Father” personalizes the 35It is likely that the “royal law” 39T. Penner, The Epistle of James and creator’s relationship even to the refers to Lev 19:18 quoted in James. Eschatology: Re-reading an Ancient non-human world, much as God’s The commandment is a royal Christian Letter (Sheffield: Sheffield relationship is personalized in wis- (basilikon) law probably because it Academic Press, 1996). dom literature by the personifica- is connected with the kingdom 40Certainly by the second century tion of wisdom itself, which is (basileia) of 2:5, which may in turn B.C., all or almost all of the books deeply involved in creation. 63 46J. A. Davis, Wisdom and Spirit : An jüdischen Weisheitsliteratur unter- Investigation of 1 Corinthians 1.18- scheidet, verbindet Jk mit der Ver- 3.20 Against the Background of Jewish kündingung Jesu. In der neueren Sapiential Traditions in the Greco- Forschung ist es klarer geworden, Roman Period (Lanham, MD: Uni- dass auch übernommene Weisheits- versity Press of America, 1984). worte durch die Verkündigung 47P. H. Davids, Commentary on James, 55-56. vom Reich Gottes und der eigenen 48Mussner, 48-50. Person in einem anderen Licht 49G. F. Moore, Judaism in the First Cen- erscheinen.” tury of the Christian Era: The Age of 55This is one reason why Hartin’s the Tannaim (New York: Schocken, view (James and the Q Sayings of 1927) 1:467-468. Jesus) of James’s direct dependence 50Bauckham, 37-47. on Q is not convincing. See R. 51D. Aune, The New Testament in Its Lit- Bauckham’s review of Hartin in erary Environment (Philadelphia: Journal of Theological Studies 44 (1993) Westminster, 1987). 298-301. 52B. Witherington, Jesus the Sage: The 56This would apply as well if any of Pilgrimage of Wisdom (Edinburgh: the sayings in James suspected of T. & T. Clark, 1994) 236-244; R. Stein, being agrapha are in fact such. These The Method and Message of Jesus’ possible agrapha are generally of the Teachings (Philadelphia: Westmins- form of a wisdom saying that is ter, 1978) 2-3. Witherington thinks unknown outside the church. 5:12 that James only used the tradition- is an example of a known saying of alist “orderly” parts of Jesus teach- Jesus that has been brought forward ing, or misunderstood Jesus in a by James, that also occurs in Mat- traditionalist direction, and failed to thew (I assume here that the saying grasp Jesus’ “counter-order” teach- in Matthew 7 is an authentic verbum ing (244-246). But Bauckham, pp. Christi). The sayings in James 4:17, 94-95, thinks this may stem from 5:20, 3:18 sound like they could be Witherington’s prejudicial construal references to traditional teaching of the nature of Jesus teaching, and stemming from Jesus. suggests that, instead of “counter- 57Bauckham, 97-107. order” versus order construal, it is 58Crenshaw, 3. better to speak of kingdom teach- 59Baasland, 124 ing, which does not fit into either category. 53Cf. Bauckham, 95, who then goes on to list several missing instructions, e.g., exhortations to work hard, advice on what kind of friends to have, good and bad wives, and rais- ing of children. 54Baasland, p. 126, “Was Jk von der 64