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Adventure Therapy

Current Theory and Future Orientation

Don Philpott

2010 2

Table of Contents

Foreword

Abstract

Setting the framework page 6

Introduction page 7

Learning-Taxonomy Page 11

Central Argument page 14

Influence-compliance page 16

Novelty page 18

Therapy as nature page 19

Therapy in nature Page 22 common factors page 23

Skills training –education page 25

Knowledge competencies- risk page 29

Virtual reality risk page 31

Therapy forms page 34

Freudian page 36

Spirituality page 40

Behaviourist model page 42

Humanist theory page 44

Solution focus page 48

The Politics of the Docile Body page 51

Eclecticism page 56

Emergent patterns page 59

Solitary pursuits page 60

Discussion page 63

Conclusion page 70

References Page 74

Bibliography page 72

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Foreword

What is the benefit of being out in nature?

A discussion illustrating some useful ideas- a new beginning, a journey of exploration, getting out of the comfort zone, challenge and an exploration of themselves. There is an idea of a cyclical return to nature from the striving and “rat race” of the city. The idea of physical exercise and change in diet allied to

“fresh air” and a broader vista. The physical element is integrated with a distance from technological distraction and a more basic lifestyle.

“Get you out of your closed circle of friend s because nowadays the people are just colleagues

- New beginning, different from normal environment –same as novelty of chat room.

- Different sides you your personality – good and confident and comfortable.

- The lack of stuff and technologies. Forced to be social and you communicate more – not

physically bound by houses and buildings and streets.

- time on your own with people but not stuck with the people

- adrenaline , sports activities and mood elevators , change in metabolism, more active more

positive totally different chemical reactions

- – for nowadays people the sense of freedom is enough- a personal thing , if you are a slave

mentality ,just need to get feel of it

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- The free people will not be so often the clients – because it’s a choice you make that makes you

responsible for every choice that you make, and then you are responsible for.

- Others need support, need leading, they need something – even if that thing is a recommitment to

where they were before and a hatred of the experience

- emerging change – magical place , ideation , imagination of the magical moment

- the idea of novelty, not always the magical

- Setting up different reality in a different place , nowadays can do it in more than one way- so

there may be no therapy in nature and there may not be an escape in it- the power may be in its as

amusement

- The novelty the attempt to control something that is always a step ahead of us I don’t know if this

part that helps you?

- there is a element that shows you that life is good because life just” is”– look at a tree and see it

is there for 100 years but it is there and alive,

- the beauty of life,

The tree is a reality, when I am in a beautiful place and I can enjoy a beautiful place and can enjoy nature- not so much obsessed by achieving or doing - it’s just nice to be there.”

Svetlana Mitova – Philpott (2009)

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Abstract

The purpose of this series of topics is to examine the use of talking therapy/psychotherapy models used to describe behavioural change in the outdoor environment. A wider cross discipline perspective was utilized to examine the process, effect and reasoning behind the application of therapy in the outdoors. The multiplicity of roles for nature and the concepts of naturalness applied to human beings are examined. Based on a literature research it is proposed that different perspectives arrive at similar goals and that key elements remain similar in action oriented models applied in nature, in the psychological arena, sustainable development politics, management, religion and military models; ―a secure base from which to explore,‖ adaptability, openness to experience and the learning of practical skills which bolster self efficacy. We do not advance a theoretical basis for the application of talking therapies/psychotherapy for ―change in the outdoors ―based on a wider appreciation of meaning making and problem solving. The conclusion is that all models provide ―maps‖ but the experiential aspect of outdoor therapy provides an opportunity to ―process‖ through ―play.‖ The play element is not viewed in a benign and simplistic fashion.

Neither are the conventions of therapy and ―nature‖ utopianism views as abstract

―goods‖. We conclude that words are not ―natural‖ and contact with a greater systemic reality than our own internal constructs is an awakening experience.

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Adventure therapy

―As man can produce and certainly has produced a great result by his methodical and

unconscious means of selection, what may not nature effect?

Charles Darwin (P65 1998)

Setting the framework

―Therapy-a microcosm of society‖ Silverstone (2003 p4)

―The deliberate, strategic combination of adventure activities with therapeutic change processes with the goal of making lasting changes in the lives of participants.

Adventure provides the concrete, action-based, experiential medium for therapy. The specific activity is (ideally) chosen to achieve a particular therapeutic goal.‖Gilbert and

Ringer (1999, chap. 4, p. 29) quoted by Beringer (2004) ―Nature, tasks, problems, games and reflections are being combined in outdoor education and used as the media to reach aims of changing behaviour, training, education, personal development and therapy Rehm, (1996, p. 144) ―Kimball pointed to the wilderness as an invaluable tool in ―psychological evaluation‖ quoted by Gatsemann, Sweitser and Hemmell (2003)

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Introduction

The purpose of this work is to investigate the different models used to describe the process of change in outdoor therapy and to see where a common factors approach may allow a form of technical eclecticism. Eclecticism argues for the inclusion of different models within the therapeutic approach without integration into completely new theory, utilizing the most suitable modes of delivery based on the needs of the individual or client group availing of the adventure therapy process ―…an estimated 20,000 adolescent clients and their families in the United-States turn to OBH [outdoor behavioural healthcare] every year for help Russell (2003a) quoted by Marchand

Russell & Cross (2009). If we take a path from ―talking therapy‖, we should look at what makes any therapy a success, what aspects can be applied outdoors and what additional advantages the change of environment brings. Interventions that are designed to be therapeutic can include different philosophies and modes of use outside the format of strictly defined talking therapies. ―There is no doubt that adventure and wilderness therapy has many impelling ways to offer clients a new window into experiencing and understanding the self, where relational connections are ripe and the physical and psychological metaphors are intense. However, there is a clear developmental need for this approach to therapy to continue to develop an integrated body of theory as well as practice‖ Richards & Peel (2005)

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―The effectiveness of adventure therapy lies in its focus on problem-solving, emotional catharsis, and immediate, unbiased feedback. The essence of adventure therapy is learning by doing‖ Sheldon &Arthur (2001). It is not the purpose of this work to define a theoretical integration of these models because the fields of endeavor include diverse applications. ―The use of the outdoors, adventure and wilderness for promoting personal and psychological development dates back to the earliest times of the formation of human family groups‖ Richards & Peel (2005). Many writers have suggested that the rupture between human communities and the natural world contributes to a lack of psychological well-being and ultimately to emotional problems and ill-health. ―It is time to advance a paradigm shift from an anthropocentric to an eco-centric in adventure therapy ―Beringer & Martin (2003) Kuhn, (2001) Pilisuk & Joy

(2001)Roszak, (2001) quoted by Berger &McLeod (2006). This is a very important distinction in this series of discussions and is central to the framing of issues within the therapeutic domain.

A few of the parameters of this research are bounded by figurative language. The language of therapy presupposes that to be therapeutic, an activity must be positive. It posits an educating or normalizing position for the therapist and an ―incongruent‖

Rogers (1951) role for the client. This idea is closely connected to the positivity inherent in the process of beneficial behavioral change. We suppose that beneficial change must be ―congruent with societal or group level changes in behavior‖ Rogers 9

(1951). The arguments within this piece of work will not encompass this tautology.

We propose that the key elements to therapy do not need to be an antecedent to nature in the construct. The therapy element comes after the nature element and makes a smaller contribution due to the inherent weaknesses of manmade constructions. A central conception is that the arrangement of adventure therapy, wilderness therapy, nature therapy or other outdoor experiential title is based on

―influence peddling.‖ The setting, the dramatic backdrop of high mountains, deep fast rivers and bellowing waves gives the therapist the aura of wise elder or battle hardened veteran. This mythic role may not reflect the reality of the ―therapist‖ in any way. The therapist has control of the scene, much as ―the great and mighty Oz‖. The client, being a neophyte, does not have the knowledge to make these distinctions.

Outdoor activities existed long before the current fashion for therapy and offer the imagistic associations of wildness, travel, pioneer, frontier, backcountry and a sense of back to basics living onto which therapy has been attached.

The strict focus of the therapy activity is to elicit behavioral change. ―A.T. is best defined as an experiential approach to counselling or psychotherapy that integrates adventure, or adventure-based, activities and experiences with more traditional forms of psychotherapy‖ Gillis & Thomsen (1996) Newes & Bandoroff, (2004). What the literature of counselling tends to use is medical and health jargon to define their processes, what the corporate outdoor activities providers do is tend to use 10

―leadership ―and ―dynamic experience‖ and for school groups the nomenclature of teaching or learning. ―Today many organizations provide a variety of outdoor adventure and outdoor development training courses claiming that individuals who participate in them experience a range of benefits, including improved interpersonal and cognitive problem-solving skills, a reduction in problem behavior, and an increase in self-efficacy and self-esteem‖ Richards & Peel (2005).

There are advantages of having a positivistic ethos, but the central argument will be that what a person undergoes within the experience will be some element of novelty and influence, the ―short, sharp, shock‖ Thatcher (1979) of wilderness experience is neither always positivistic nor uniformly positively received by participants.

―Every culture provides its members with appropriate beliefs, values and norms to carry out required activities...for directing and controlling the behaviour of its members‖

Ed. Biddle& Thomas (1966 p144) Ed. Biddle & Thomas (1966 p207) ―Ideas are not natural. On the contrary they arise from and can be explained in terms of, particular forms of society and culture.

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The key question for those interested in ideology in relation to semiotics is just how our

ideas fit into larger systems and structures of meaning that particular societies and

cultures create and enforce ―Hall (2007 p146) Torgovnick (1991 p13-14, 17)

―Learning- all processes that lead to relatively lasting changes of capacity, whether

they be of a motor, cognitive, psychodynamic (i.e. emotional, motivational or

attitudinal) or social character, and which are not due to genetic-biological maturation.‖

Illeris, K. (2003)

Taxonomy (Systems of Learning)

Bloom (1913-99) believed that education should focus on 'mastery' of subjects and the

promotion of higher forms of thinking‖ Chambers (2006-2009) He proposed a simple

matrix of knowledge attitude and skills. Asian societies also propose a matrix for

learning; five years to learn, ten years to master and fifteen years for expertise which is

echoed by Gladwell (2008) in a western context. The trouble with all models is that 12 they fall foul of the personal development principle. If one is to ―self actualize‖ it is

―internally directed‖ rather than ―cognitively applied‖ as strategy. One notes the lines of demarcation fall easily into the stagnant nature versus nurture debate. While steering clear of the sterility of stalemate, it is clear that both nature and nurture are considered in current evolutionary perspectives Dawkins (2006) Dennett (2003) Pinker (2003).

Donati &Watts (2005) argue that Kolb‘s (1976) experiential learning theory parallel

Mearns‘ (1997 p113) ―working at relational depth‖ theory an ongoing cyclical process that moves from concrete experience, to reflection upon that experience, to conceptualization of possible understandings of the experience and finally to active experimentation with these new understandings, which leads the individual back into further experiencing‖

Garner (2000) in a stirring attack on Kolb‘s ―learning styles‖ argues that Kolb‘s taxonomy introduces an association between Jungian models and process philosophy which does not exist. Gardner makes the point that Kolb‘s attempt to combine Jungian models with Tyler‘s‖ possibility processing‖ is flawed because ―Tyler‘s constant aim was to value the individuality of each person and to avoid presenting people as part of a group or unit.‖ Gardner (2000) Thus while one valued individuality the other proposed learning ―types.‖ He argues that Kolb ―misses the emphasis on individual differences;‖ on closer examination, the perceived rigor of Kolb‘s work falls away. ―In all three of the theories just reviewed [Lewin‘s, Dewey‘s and Piaget‘s], learning is described as a process whereby concepts are derived from and continuously modified 13 by experience Kolb (1984, p. 26) quoted by Garner (2000). I would argue similarly that stable styles, systems or taxonomies are not grounded in a developmental evolving emergent locus of evaluation, utilizing the tipping point analogy offered by Malcolm

Gladwell (2000) and Thomas Kuhn‘s ―paradigm shift‖ (1962), as well as the philosophical model of emergence Lewes (1875) in a person centered non judgmental form. ―I argue that it [humanistic psychology] has not overcome the structural errors of its origins in philosophical humanism. The result is an implicit derogation and distancing of non-humans vis-à-vis humans.‖

―Because human intelligence is the key to human success, the main task of the humanist is to assert its power and protect its prerogatives wherever they are questioned or challenged‖ David Ehrenfeld (1978) quoted by Kuhn, J.L. (2001)

Buadrillard (1994). ―Humanism, Ehrenfeld argues, is based on irrational faith in the limitless power of humans to dominate the world‖ Kuhn quoting David Ehrenfeld (1978 p6). This philosophical point addresses the reflexivity of human though and the ability of man to define himself only in the elipticisity of individual within a collective. Within culture theses symbols that we invented to define us, contain us and structure our world only because we as a collective do not have another language. These ―memes‖

Dawkins (1976) or social replicators do not afford us a return to ―nature‖ before exculpating ourselves first from the dictates of culture.

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Central argument

The argument posed by this work is that the retooling or skills application in a testing

environment can positively impact an individual‘s self perception. What is not claimed

is that therapy or adventure therapy specifically is a panacea or that it is a medium for

change in all cases. It is not necessary is to couch behavioral change in strictly

positivist terms to appeal to market sensibilities and the zeitgeist of positive

psychology, therefore widening the area of investigation into change process in human

behavior and utilizing the vast array of data available from other sources.

―Research on AT outcomes is sparse and methodologically flawed, although authors

claim that its effectiveness is generally accepted and that adventure and wilderness

programs can and do result in positive changes in the participants Bandoroff, (1989)

Gibson, (1979) Gillis & Thomsen, (1996) Moote & Wodarski, (1997). In addition, over

the past 25 years researchers have called for a new direction of research to answer

more specific process-oriented questions such as how these programs bring about

change and what components or activities are most effective Bandoroff, (1989)

Gibson, (1979) Gillis, (1992) Russell, (2004)‖ Durr, (2009). Hill (2007) quotes Gillis

(1995) ―a shift from dysfunction and failure to strength and competency in mental

health‖.

The B.A.C.P (British association for counseling and psychotherapy) quotes Ringer

2002; giving a broad operating definition on its website… ―Adventure therapy is usually 15 based on the principles of experiential education, but draws on traditions from counseling, psychology, social work, and education‖ They quote Gillis and Thomsen

1996, who use an eclectic mix of ideas to define the process, ―experiential‖, trust based, meaning making, and utilizing psychological or physical risk to change behavior.‖ It could be argued that this definition includes all of the major approaches to psychological treatment in an eclectic format. ―Adventure therapy is not a coherent field of endeavor that is recognized by the general public or by people in the helping professions (Berman, 1995). Considerable diversity of opinion also exists among practitioners as to the nature of adventure therapy‖. http://www.bacp.co.uk/5iatc/definitions.php

The need for a coherent definition stems more from a need to have a defined product to bring to market than from lack of therapeutic models but essentially a mode of training that markets itself as therapy needs to have a basis for this claim. Varley

(2006) argues for an ―adventure commodification continuum‖ His argument is for...―original adventure‘, drawn from Mortlock (1984), of risk, personal responsibility, elements of uncertainty and commitment‖ Varley (2006). These originating parameters will try to define the purpose of therapy and the possibility of effective therapy in the

―natural environment‖. The terms are value laden and it may be necessary to provide initial definitions of this philosophical position posed as it is between post modern and post structuralism, between different viewpoints on evolution and purposive evolution in the short term and the ancient and modern drivers for behavioral change and between perspectives on individual free choice and constructed group dynamics. 16

Influence-compliance

In his excellently written book on universally adopted ―influence‖ and persuasion

strategies Robert Cialdini (2001), shows that influence is a tool with no meritocratic

basis. In the broad fields of advertising, education and psychology the application of

models eventually meet a validation test whereas much psychological therapy theory

still remains within the province of subjectivity and conjecture. ―The human brain runs

first class simulation software. Our eyes don‘t present to our brains a faithful

photograph of what is out there or an accurate movie of what is going on through time‖

Dawkins (2006 p 112)

Whether influence is overt, covert or unexamined within the research material is not

central to the argument for change but it must be acknowledged that the modeling

power of the instructor, competent and confident has a corollary in the therapists

seeming composure, experience and ability to assist in development of the individual.

―Stealthy mindcraft, which depends for its success on being covert can not only fail but

seriously backfire if it is recognized‖ Kathleen Taylor (2004 p252). Research has

shown that what is important for influence is the establishment of a social relationship

that facilitates influence between the source and the target of influence‖ Pratkanis

(2007 p30).

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People desire to hold a correct attitude and relying on an expert and trustworthy source is rewarding in terms of meeting this goal‖ quoted by Pratkanis (2007) Petty &

Cacioppo (1986). ―Research finds that the mere presence of others, even when the nature of their character is unclear, can influence a target through conformity or what

Cialdini (2001) terms ―social proof‖ Pratkanis (2007 p30) ―groupthink‖ Janis (1972) quoted by Turner Pratkanis & Struckman (2007 p223-246) or ―social identity maintenance‖ Turner Pratkanis et al (1992, 1998, 2007 p230). Petty and Wegener

(1993) demonstrated how people use their beliefs about the influence of preceding judgements to correct subsequent assessments Bless, Feidler and Strack (2004 p140)

Cialdini (2001) showed that expert authority easily supervenes over personal judgement quoting the seminal work of Asch (1951/1955), Millgram (1974/1977),

Pratkanis (2007). Ontological security then is derived from a secure psychological and emotional state, as Giddens puts it a confidence or trust that the natural or social worlds are as they appear to be, including the basic existential parameters of self and social identity Giddens (1991) quoted by Higate in Richards et al (1997 p110) Bowlby

(1988) Bolsover ( 2007)

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Novelty

A view point may be that within the adventure process there is novelty and a change in

environment eliciting change so extreme that the original behaviours of participants

are subjugated into forms of functioning that could be categorised initially as didactic

and educational ―obedience is valuable for survival‖ Dawkins (2006 p205). This

position puts the person into a situation where initially they are reliant on the

knowledge and skills of another and this reliance is premeditated. Theories based on

this model encompass many aspects of shaping and directing behaviour following the

―operant conditioning‖ model. On any of the therapeutic paradigms it is possible to

place a person with an interest in a particular ―discipline‖ who thence become the

personification of his or her image, in essence becoming the desired object, be that

kayaker, climber, sailor or mountaineer with all of the modelled characteristics of that

persona, essentially ―what a man does becomes him.‖

A question arises whether self esteem increases post testing because of successful

completion of a task or whether the physical and chemical changes in the body result

in feelings of happiness and this proximate and minimal change is tabulated and

encapsulated into data, questions addressed by studies which address participant and

observer feedback independently in the same studies. ― One of the greatest

effectiveness analysis, an empirical study by Jagenlauf carried out from 1985 to 1989

by order of the Outward Bound Germany, has fallen under criticism even until today

and is considered a ―failed study‖ Hermann (1999c). 19

Therapy as nature

A question arises whether the naturalness‘ of the experience fits within the previous framework of thinking? For example, a child of the city may find the new image of life on the land sufficiently awesome to try to undertake a life in the county instead , notwithstanding that each set of situations has its own particular problems, dilemmas and skill sets –The continuum could be the simple farmer aspires to see the complex big city, not dependant on weather, with access to luxuries and experience and seeming better and easier job in town, later the sons and daughters of this independent landowner yearn for the simplicity, community and physical labour of country. Nature is seen as therapy in itself or ―romantic primitivism‖ (Sandall 2001) and offers a base for ―new age practices and discourses of some disaffected segments of contemporary post modern society‖ Payne (2005 p184). The ―back to nature agenda‖ can be seen as a contrast to our current trend of expansion into a cityscape. ―We spend 90 % of our time indoors (leech 1996) and we are 80 % urbanised (and have passed the 50% mark globally. This, the built environment is the principal-one might almost say almost ―natural‖- human environment‖ Hancock, T.

(2007). On a macro level some qualities of ―society‖ produce ―sick‖ people and sometimes sick people reside in a relatively efficient society. Within this debate is the return to the fundamental ―nature versus nurture‖ controversy which being linear and political Pinker (2003 174-194) neither convincingly advances the cause of either perspective, as Pinker puts it ...‖education is a technology‖ Pinker (2003 p222). 20

The question of ―community‖ remains due to the exigencies and paradoxes of city living. In the countryside there is a utilitarian desire to keep good communication with neighbours. One communication problem that exists in cities is that even when the people have lots of others around to communicate with they don‘t, arguably because city existence reflects the ―cost/benefit analysis of doing transactions with many kinds of other who have no vested interest in behaving honourably. It is noticeable that the

―honour system‖ is a commonly used compliance tool in small group models, argued convincingly by Wright (1994) in his aptly titled, ―The moral animal.‖ Pinker encapsulates the idea; human societies like living things, have become more complicated and cooperative over time. Again it is because agents do better when they team up and specialize in pursuit of their shared interests, as long as they solve the problems of exchanging information and punishing cheaters‖ Pinker (2003 p 167-

168)

He continues to paraphrase Wright that; ―three features of human nature lead to a steady expansion of the circle of human co-operators. One is the cognitive wherewithal to figure out how the world works...a second is language...a third is emotional repertoire- sympathy, trust guilt, anger self esteem‖ Pinker (2003 p168).

What emerges then is not an argument for the philosophical model of ―emergence‖ or completely new methods models or discoveries but the application of fundamental 21 elements which can be distilled within a practical experiential process in more ―natural‖ conditions simulated by the ―outdoor experience.‖

What is argued here is that the use of a wider cross section of models gives the possibility for emergent theories on adventure therapy based on the applied knowledge of human behaviour. What emerges is that some qualities of ―society‖ produce ―sick‖ people and sometimes sick people reside in a relatively efficient society.

Within this debate is the return to the fundamental ―nature versus nurture‖ controversy which neither convincingly advances the cause of either perspective, as Pinker puts it

...‖education is a technology...‖Pinker (2003 p222).

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Therapy in nature

Therapy in nature as an objective may have some validity for structured programs which use nature as a resource to teach or enact change. Simon Priest uses the term

―isomorphic connections‖ to pattern between old thinking and new. ―Nature is a live and dynamic environment that is not under the control or ownership of either therapist or client‖ Berger (2007) Elements of novelty, risk and challenge are key ingredients.

The application of an entirely new matrix of thoughts and ideas take hold when a person is removed from their ―normal‖ environment and placed into a situation of novelty. This new situation creates a condition in which the person is made to experience ―responsibility‖ for their decisions in a way which may be immediately reflected back to that person.

Conceptualizing man as a creature who is part of nature and who evolves is consistent with evolutionary theory. Considering the purpose of therapy is to exercise ―the actualizing tendency‖ (Rogers), allow insight (Freud) into behavior, ―shape‖ behavior

(Skinner) or build a ―preferred future‖ (S.F.B.T.) there is an element of change presupposed within the process. Our initial investigation offers that change is the goal of all psychological theories.

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Common Factors

The purpose of investigation would be to define in broad terms the purpose and form

of wilderness therapy, nature therapy or outdoor therapy. If we look for a common

factors approach which will mediate between different styles of work undertaken in the

outdoor environment we may have to discount certain approaches from major

therapeutic fields and adopt other approaches from diverse areas of expertise.

Considering that the common view of outdoor therapy is the application of experiential

education to groups of individuals we will look at some of the salient factors that

underpin this approach while not defining outdoor therapy solely in these terms

―Serious tensions exist between competing approaches to therapeutic work in the

outdoors (of which the character-building development work versus more process-

oriented therapy are two diametrically opposed perspectives)‖ Peel &Kaye (2005) I

will indulge in some ―schoolist‖ examination to derive underlying modalities within the

process of finding common factors but useful techniques could be gained from

disparate sources, ranging from educators, philosophers, psychologists,

management, church and business leaders or any other role model who provides

impetus for ―positive‖ change.

To define some element of ―nature‖ as being therapeutic is a questionable place to begin theorizing considering that it is the subjugation of nature that has progressed 24 mans annexation of territory and provided the grist for his mills and the food in his belly.

Let‘s imagine that we are looking for a starting point, a philosophical truth which will guide this investigation. If we begin by saying that therapy is the attempt to give someone insight or knowledge about how to live a better life then it should be possible to look down the telescope from the opposite end.

To look at therapy as a defined goal and activity in nature is a form of therapy, an environment where therapy may take place and an actor in the therapeutic ―alliance.‖

We therefore look to the purpose of therapy in nature rather than the application of nature as purpose. In this logic, therapy conducted in the outdoors has a reason for being and specificity. I would venture that the specific purpose is to draw a person out of patterns of being that are detrimental to health, mentally, physically and emotionally.

"Hahn believed that some separation from the existing human world, into the intensity of a journey-quest, confronting challenges and transforming opportunities for service, could change the balance of power in young people."James (2000)

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Skills training-education

The structure of outdoor pursuits training works through leveled skill acquisition. At an initial level the skills are taught as skill sets Nicholls 2004 quotes Morlock, (1984)

Priest (1991) and Hopkins and Putnam (1993) ―facilitated progression‖ as an ―upward spiral‖ Barnes and Sharp quoting Nicholls (p 35 2004) The pattern is directed attention to aspects of the techniques needed to perform in the specified environment.

Different environments support different types of training, it would be impossible to communicate by speech underwater and large groups of students are not appropriate for the minutiae of alpinism training.

It can be argued that the acquisition of physical skills is the rudimentary process behind these activities and in achieving goals a person increases their belief in their own capacities. This is true but the context is that the learning of these skills impacts on the way individuals relate following the process. ―Outdoor activities will be a wonderful medium for some young people and an effective catalyst but may not be a general panacea‖ Nicholls quoted by Barnes and Sharp (p41 2004). The main purpose here is to define the element that is therapy. It is possible to infer that each outdoor skill has an indoor educational module but it would be possible to include any outdoor activity that gained a therapeutic advantage. ―Therapeutic recreation encompasses a process which utilizes recreation services for the purposive intervention in some physical, emotional and /or social behavior to bring about a desired change in that behavior and to promote the growth and development of the individual‖ Gunn & 26

Peterson (1978;11) quoted by Pilgram & Jenkins (2006) To define the difference

between therapeutic and therapy is a area which initially seems rather simple but at

later stages draws us to question whether therapy is effective on any level and what

does therapy in the outdoor bring that is both different and impossible indoors. ―Hahn's

philosophy revolved around the importance of helping students to discover their true

capabilities by impelling them into experiences that would help them to find their

greater capacities.‖ (History of outward bound website)

―I remember so well when I was an undergraduate at Oxford I often went to see the

Magdalen deer walking about listless and content without any ambition to jump the surrounding fences—to me these tame deer were a sorry sight; but a psychologist might well have called them ―socially well adjusted.‖ Hahn (1947)

Ridley (2003) offers wide scope for the use of expressive arts as an unspoken medium

-his discussion of the non evolution of the hand axe (2003 p222 -226) in context of the

fossil evidence for manual dexterity being central to a timeline of creative adaptations

(2003 p227). His theory is that bipedal posture leads to free use of the arms as

expressive tools, whether it was throwing, tool making or gesture itself that first

enabled the ―perisylvian parts‖ of the brain to become accidently adapted for symbolic

communication, the hand undoubtedly played its part‖ (2003 P219) Navarro (2008)

calls it the ―limbic‖ brain, preliterate and nonverbal. The argument follows that symbolic 27 communication is a very early human adaption, ―our intelligence, imagination, empathy and foresight came into existence gradually and inexorably but with no help from culture ―Ripley (2003p226) until the advent of verbal and written communication see

McLuhan (2002) Wright (1994) ―Language has a constructive function with respect to thought...The principal form of thought is the judgment‖ Chomsky (1966 p30-33). ―The violence of the letter...the origin of the difference between nature and culture‖ Derrida

(1976 p101-140) ―Letters as agents of aggressive order...consciousness is not a verbal process‖ McLuhan (1964 p 88-96) McLuhan goes on to say that ―the inadequacy of words to convey visual information about an objects was an effectual block to the development of the Greek and Roman sciences‖ (2002 p171)

What is being argued is that words are a code and that code is contextualized. The former [power] continually seeks to perfect the reign of meaning‖ Baudrillard (1983 p38). This code of language, this map for the territory, is a significantly different thing to doing, both Wittgenstein (2009) and Derrida (1981, 1976) attest to this fact.

Nachmanoivch (1990) offers that creativity is not linear, that we have access to an infinity of forms and in a nice feminine touch [for creativity is the mark of the feminine in a world of linear male praxis] anything that can be ―conceived.‖ Edward De Bono

(1995) offers symbols as PO or ―possible outcome‖, their very mutability leading to both purposely adaptive uses and non intended outcomes. De Bono (1993, 2005).

This key point may be overlooked, what is argued here is that culture and not brain is a key differentiator Ripley (2003 p203) 28

Case Study

Management training and development is a key strut to outdoor centre advertising and promotional materials. Why ―management‖? What has the process of selling and making got to do with pretending to be frontier-―persons‖? The concept relates to group development, group cohesion, bonding, shared experience and a plethora of related personal social competencies. One of the interesting things is the processes are interdependent and circular. Originally psychology students earned their salary from ―managing‖ agrarian workers do their jobs more efficiently. Studies revealed that motivated workers performed tasks more efficiently with less wastage, consequently providing more profit. These efficiencies in turn lead to the imposition of a management class and psychological theories of management. These theories have spanned the gamut of human behavior modification strategies (and still do) while keeping a core ethos of ―motivation‖ strategies and ―team‖ ethics. The key tool of management is motivating workers to get the job done. In this way there is a strong corollary with psychological processes that have as their goal the objective of

―managing‖ the individual to be more ―productive‖ in civil society. This ethic extends very easily into education, business, management, religion, military and politics. See

Priest and Gass (1997 p48-60)

29

Knowledge-competencies- Risk

It is the case that nature has her own rhythms and that a person who ventures outdoors without being cognizant of weather, winds or tide is in danger of harm. This element of risk in the outdoors is a major point of study within the outdoor pursuit‘s community. By outdoor pursuits it is accepted that there are bearers of knowledge in disparate areas of outdoor activity, sailing, farmers, campers, botanists, archeologists or military who all have some connection to each other in some way either through technical information or shared use of space and skills.

Culture and terrain dictate the connection with the outdoors and the terrain has shaped the form of the people who inhabit these areas Gladwell (2008 p161-176). This statement implies a connection with the natural environment in disparate forms of human activity which is not specifically therapeutic. For example, it could be argued that military traditions use the outdoors in a specifically way, to reinforce new behaviors on recruits Ed. Hunt (p 96- 98). ―The severity of an initiation ceremony significantly heightens a newcomers commitment to the group ...loyalty and dedication of those who emerge will increase to a great degree the chances of group cohesiveness and survival‖ Cialdini (2002 p 80) 30

Alternatively outdoor activities borrow heavily from military knowledge bases. A useful example is the assault course used in most military training modules. Kurt Hahn‘s

―training for and through the sea‖ model of ships rigging faithfully reflects today‘s high ropes courses Hahn (1947). It is acknowledged that military training has specific functions within the outdoor environment but significantly the ability to navigate terrain, live effectively in difficult conditions and deal with inclement weather are prerequisites for effectiveness which correlates to a metaphorical therapeutic application.

31

Virtual Reality- risk

The way that we are organized as a group (culture) is an ―assimulated‖ Philpott (2011) thing Baudrillard (2004, 2003, 1985). The culture organizes the way of life and laws function to inhibit certain behavior and promote others Ed. Biddle& Thomas (1966 p144). In terms of outdoor pursuits the law is functional in the sense that group leaders comply with licensing requirements and insurers control the nature and function of risk in the activities. Langmuir argues that experience is the key value in a good leader whose objective is to ―manage risk‖…‖no substitute for actual personal experience and there are no short cuts for gaining it‖ Langmuir (2003 p319)

These control factors minimize true risk and introduce a form of virtual risk in which the client pays for an outdoor experience with a form of simulated danger proposed by the

―risk manager‖ who is the instructor Priest and Gass (1997 p123-131). Cialdini (2001) makes the point that ―scarcity value‖ means that the harder an item is to get the more worthy it becomes and the more an individual justifies the hardship in getting it. Thus the argument that could be made is that the human response is not to the perceived danger but to the particular scarcity values of the group. True risk, an oxymoronic concept (if risk is real it is danger) is reduced to a minimum but perceived risks are increased with specific focus on ―what could go wrong.‖ Duenkal quoted by Wurdinger

& Potter (1999 p200) argues that contrived adventure does thwart the process

―orienting towards escapism.‖ Escapism is used in this context in a negative manner 32 but it is a word with a multiplicity of concurrent meanings, values and subtexts.

Baudrillard in ―simulation and simulacra‖ 1981(1994) and Deleuse ―Empiricism and subjectivity‖ 1953 (1991) discuss opposing viewpoints on‖ simulacra.‖ Both books are late English translations of much earlier French ideas so also cast as simulations in a new culture. What these alternative perspectives offer is a movement away from a

―structuralist‖ ideology which ties into the post modern desire for paradoxical individuality and ―virtuality‖. It is paradoxical in that the conformity required for accessing a computerized world is a prerequisite for the simulated individuality of modern culture Rheingold (1995) Rifkin (2000) Bless Fiedler and Strack (2007).

We are getting closer to the argument of context. If the context of nature therapy is to induce a sense of danger then the objective is to thrill or titillate and the process is not about therapy in any sense but about games. Eric Berne would say games can be

―deadly serious‖ Berne (1964). ―…the vagaries of personality, experience and situation mean that adventure is an infinitely variable, malleable construct. Some would accept the idea that an ‗adventure experience‘ can be ordered, paid for and delivered by a professional service provider‖ Varley (2006). There is some idea here that the simulated experience of the outdoors is preconceived, that the experience is a simulation based on short term gains in self esteem which do not lead to longer lasting changes. ―..taking individuals out of their comfort zones in hopes that they experience a sense of disequilibrium that propels them to develop new and, ideally, healthier coping mechanisms to regain their equilibrium‖ Gass, (1993) Nadler (1983) Fletcher &

Hinkle (2002). 33

To clarify, while it is proposed that civil society may enervate and enfeeble some aspects of personality development, it is also possible that being in ―nature‖ may be deleterious to a person who is used to the structured environment of modern urban landscapes. Most research evidence points to the fact that there is little long term change through adventure therapy posing the notion that what adventure therapists offer is less a powerful agency for change, rather a more prosaic, novelty value ―day trip‖.

34

Therapy forms

I t should be possible to look at some aspects of common therapy strains and see if aspects of their structure can be applied. In Freudian terms we are driven by unconscious forces which cause us to behave in certain ways which are best understood by the interpretation of the therapist through conversation, free association and dream analysis. ―The human process of perception, physiology and cognition are intertwined to such an extent that our sensual impressions of the world "out there" always result in interpretations‖ Beard, (2002) Chambers, (1984) Timms,( 2001) quoted by Beringer (2004) It could be argued that landscape painters, contemplative types and those who are prepared to analyze their connection with nature using

Freudian techniques would be able to gain insight from their connection with the outdoors and use that material as grist for their analytical and creative mill.

There are questions- it may be argued that the more civilized the society the more repressed becomes the animalistic , instinctual part of us and in this transition from vibrant and energetic , from risk taking to risk averse is the path of the enervated human being . ―His instinctual id shackled by the societal super ego‖. In Freud‘s

(1923) view it is a libidinal or sexual drive which propels us through life and this sublimated drive emerges as the cause of most of our emotional and mental problems.

His delineation of the concept of the unconsciousness and sub conscious allows that the human being has levels of existence that are not conscious to that person, a 35 theory that has been borne out by modern neuroscience Ramachandran (1999). This conception of the individual driven by evolutionary forces beyond his control, while unpalatable in our modern individualist societies lends support to a position whereby naturalness is man can be explained causally through evolutionary and unconscious factors. ―Thinking is indeed nothing but a substitute for a hallucinatory wish.‖ Freud

(1997 p404)

Jung : ‖Instead of being at the mercy of wild beasts, earthquakes, landslides and inundations, modern man is battered by the elemental forces of his own psyche‖

Storr (1983 p201)

36

Freudianism

A Freudian viewpoint takes the perspective that childhood regression may occur and

the teacher or leader assumes a paternalistic role and any ―transference‖ behaviours

or ―acting out‖ in the new situation could be examined... ―Unconscious wishes are

always active.‖ (P414 1997) It may be argued that the more

civilized/simulated/symbolized the society the more repressed becomes the

animalistic, instinctual part of us and in this transition from vibrant and energetic, from

risk taking to risk averse is the path of the enervated human being,‖ instinctual id

shackled by the societal super ego‖. ―Unconscious wishes are always active‖….it is a

―peculiarity of the unconscious‖ that they are‖ indestructible‖ Freud (1997 p414).

It is a libidinal or sexual drive which propels us through life and this sublimated drive

emerges as the cause of most of our emotional and mental problems‖ anxiety‖ (1997

p418). Driven by unconscious forces which cause us to behave in ways which are best

understood by the interpretation of the therapist through conversation, free association

and dream analysis in ―an attitude of reflection‖ Freud (1997 p15).

―The process of perception, physiology and cognition are intertwined to such an extent

that our sensual impressions of the world "out there" always result in interpretations‖

Beard, (2002) Chambers (1984) Timms (2001) Quoted by Beringer (2004). 37

A Freudian viewpoint takes the perspective that ―regression‖ may occur and the teacher/ leader/counsellor assumes a paternalistic role and any ―transference‖ behaviours or ―acting out‖ in the new situation could be examined. ―Unconscious wishes are always active.‖ (P414 1997) ―Mahoney describes Freud‘s narrative style as one in which a brilliantly painted logical mask conceals inconsistencies and contradictions... either accept his interpretations as evidence of an accurate beginning toward a more complete explanation or recognize Freud‘s disclaimers as a literary device that ―spins‖ the reader‘s attention away from critically evaluating Freud‘s constructions‖ Sacks

(2005) ―The elevation of conjecture to science on the base of reported cures seems to be a common feature of most psychotherapeutic theories‖ Dryden & Feltham (1992 p139) Masson (1990) Frosh (1999) Webster (1996) Brinkema (2007). In a review study

I conducted last year on the evidence for Freud‘s Case study of Dora Anna ―O‖ the broad preponderance of evidence does not support Freud‘s contentions. See―Whatever

Happened to Hysteria?‖ Philpott (2010)

―The extraordinary spread of psychoanalysis between 1920 and 1970 owed more to

marketing than to therapeutic triumphs‖ Ridley (2003 p101). The sense of integrity and

propriety attached to this position is unexamined. Ripley (2003 p102) makes a simple

point which bears repeating, like all effective religions psychoanalysis redefined

skepticism as further need for its services Ripley (2003 p102) Masson (1990) Webster 38

(1996) Brinkema (2007) ~this element is key to the top down processing of hierarchical

patriarchy, questioning the decision of an expert is itself madness Driscoll (2009)

Poole (2007) Cohen ( 2005) Moore (2002) ―Bounded by extraordinary self deception

and confounded by religious, cultural and social conditioning, endeared by interest,

and palliated by all the artifices of self-deceit, gives us time to form distinctions in our

own favour‖ Johnson (1750) Baudrillard (1994) James (2001) Klein (2008).

A humanist perspective may include development mental models which may or may not include typical male symbolism and image modelling used in a positivistic manner based on meeting ―challenge‖...‖under the most adverse circumstances they [potatoes] were striving to become‖ Rogers (1996 p8). The trouble with much of the resulting research data is that it focuses on efficacy while indulging in qualitative research. This results in significant editorial material but little substantive data.

Similarly therapy itself with its focus on the individual and subjective individual change denies itself the useful and corroborative tools of objective psychological testing which clearly demonstrates that much human behaviour is a response to external cultural, social, genetic and environmental factors. Three ideas follow; that change is neither necessary nor useful but occurs ―naturally.‖ Knowledge or ―gnosis‖ may allow choice but these choices are conditional on larger forces operating on individuals and choices made may or may not be better than a previous existence. A definition of practice is 39 faced with theoretical models for ―psychological‖ or talking therapy models not fitting the physical changes brought about when action is the primary mode of change.‖Hill (2007)

An alternative argument also ―flows‖ from the perspective of first person perspective positive psychology related research carried out by Csikszentmihayli (1934-) in which

He details the complete immersion in a task as characteristic of a ―high action opportunity‖ which that can challenge and encourage growth. He makes the case for a form of involvement and immediacy available in active pursuits that require skill and a form of transcendence where the individual is not ―self conscious‖ but working to master the activity in process. The work of sports coaching in immediate feedback and monitoring against a competitive baseline offers an extrinsic reward for effort and analysis is objective. The field of occupational therapy and physical therapy has a strong background of practical applications for positive psychology processes. The corollary for positive psychology seems to be an acceptance of personal responsibility.

―To pursue mental operations to any depth a person has to learn to concentrate attention. Without focus consciousness is in a state of chaos. The normal condition of the mind is one of informational disorder... ―Csikszentmihayli (1997 p26)

40

Spirituality

Spiritual, moral and religious viewpoints are common perspectives taken on naturalness or nature ―contemplation of natures primitive forces‖ Corbin (1994) While respecting these aspects as valid perspectives of human ―nature,‖ It is accepted that this position leads to other areas of controversy when looked at in more depth. Therapy can be seen as a secularization of religious teachings, particularly in humanist traditions

Sherrard (1996). Where once there was the religious –salvation metaphor there is now a medical-psychiatric metaphor Ed. Biddle & Thomas 1966 (p207) It can be argued that a spiritual view of nature promotes in humans a respect and aesthetic feeling for what is natural. In the ―esthetic of the infinite‖ (Nicolson, 1997) the value of vastness was that it produced an ―expansion of the soul ― Lerner (2004 )―Spirituality is regarded as a performance component Urbanowski & Vargo, (1994) and is recognised as having a profound motivating and integrating effect on peoples actions Peloquin, (1997) ―As change in the efficacy and impact one has on one‘s life, must change the meaning by which one understands one‘s life, it is suggested that these activities be known as

―spiritual occupations‖. ..., implying a client centred position in which clients are recognised as being the experts about themselves, and therefore know what they want and need to do, but are unable to do‖. Levack,(2003) ―Prophets, poets and philosophers have gained essential truths in the past, truths that are essential for our continued survival‖ Csikszentmihalyi 1997 (p3) It is undoubted that religious thinking is a socially imbued form of behavior and from that basis to argue for its merit as a form of therapy. 41

While it can be argued that a spiritual view of nature promotes in humans a respect and aesthetic for what is natural but it can be argued as easily in the reverse.

― I would argue that the rise of humanist thinking allowed man to assume a ―self serving‖ central position in his cosmology and therefore denigrate the importance of the non human and result in images of man as somehow existing outside the ―natural order

―and man as ―manly‖ and beast as ―beastly‖ Baudrillard (1994)

―The trajectory animals have followed, from divine sacrifice to dog cemeteries with atmospheric music, from sacred defiance to ecological sentimentality, speaks loudly enough of the vulgarization of the status of man himself-it once again describes an unexpected reciprocity between the two‖

Baudrillard (1994 p134)

42

Behaviourist models

If we change tack at this point and look at the work of Skinner (1904-1990), Watson

(1878-1958) and Pavlov (1849-1936), we see the source of psychological training as external and achieved by cognition of the environment. This means of changing the person by studying and ―shaping‖ behavior through new patterning, utilizing action to change thinking is the epitome of the ―external locus of control‖. ―Seeing the world around them as a bigger influence than personal goals or desires and to know a person‘s circumstances is to have a good idea how that person will behave‖ Beck

1976 stated that cognitive behavioural therapy suggested individual problems were due to distortions of reality based on incorrect premises. Therapy helped the client create new ways to solve problems, which Beck called learning to learn or ―deutero- learning‖ Gillen (2003). Skinner believed that what is important is reinforcing behavior

(operant conditioning). It is the inclusion of action or external stimulus which introduces us to a connection between psychotherapy models and a physical reality;

―Fear played an important role in cognitive behavioural therapy‖ Gillen (2003). ―The potency of behavioural engineering can scarcely be overestimated‖ Skinner 1948

(2005 ed. p192)

This perspective on therapy can easily have an outdoor dimension. In a significant move away from Freud‘s internal world to one of external forces we had a philosophical benchmark which assists us in finding an anchor point for possible 43 theories of behavior rather than theories of ―mind‖ which now need not exist-as brain functions effectively without an immaterial mind Dennett (2003). In this instance the change of behavior happens when the person is conditioned by a new external force.

Kimball and Bacon (2003) ―posited that during the initial stages of a wilderness therapy experience the staff were directive, however, as time goes on, and skills developed in clients, the staff focused on empowering their clients‖. ―Although cultures are improved by people whose wisdom and compassion may supply clues to they do or will do, the ultimate improvement comes from the environment which makes them wise and compassionate‖ Skinner (1971) quoted by Bowden. Skinner famously wrote a book soon after the second world war on ―behavioral engineering‖ (2005 pvi) positing a behaviourist utopian parallel to Thoreau (1854) ―Walden two‖ in which he offered that we teach only the techniques of learning and thinking‖ (p110). He delineated a possible future without ―heroes‖ (p222) or ―history‖ (p223) ―personal favoritism like personal gratitude has been destroyed by our engineers (p220) and a new conception of man compatible with ―our ―scientific knowledge Skinner (2005 p294). While behaviourist models may sometimes seem laughable and Dickensian they surround us in the operation of prohibitive laws, the driving power of money and status and the physical construction of urban spaces. Far from being discarded these models underscore major mental health ―results‖ based programmes throughout the western sphere of influence whose focus is on ―control.‖ These programmes have morphed into EST (empirically supported treatment) and EMT (empirically based treatment) through the acceptance of behaviourist social schema under the guise of a ―top down‖ command and control ethos. 44

Humanist theory

Humanist theory holds that humans are rational and forward moving, human behavior

in its natural state is positivistic. The person centered therapy of Carl Rogers (1902-

1987) is a model that uses a non directive approach to therapy which allows that the

client is his own healer and the therapist is ―actively listening‖ to help that person reach

his own solutions. A humanist perspective may include development mental models

which may or may not include typical male symbolism and image modelling used in a

positivistic manner based on meeting ―challenge‖...‖under the most adverse

circumstances they [potatoes] were striving to become‖ Rogers (1996 p8). Humanist

psychology would emphasize the relationship between therapist and client. ―A major

goal is to move youth from external controls to self-control and empowerment. This

entails building what Bandura (1986) calls ―self-reflective capabilities‖—the ability to

think about, define, and evaluate one's behaviour‖ Aubry &Walsh (2007) Reason

(1998), and Hertz (1997) have highlighted the importance of ―reflexivity‖ Berger (2009)

.Martin et al. (2005 ) quote Dewey (1933) in defining reflexive thinking as a priority, a

form of analysis championed by the Greeks on the temple of Delphi as ―know thyself‖

as a basis for decision making.

To Rogers the organic nature of a person is in a process of self actualization or

―becoming.‖ ―Let us begin with the individual who is content with himself, who has no 45 thought at this time of seeking counseling help. We may find it useful to think of this individual as having an organized pattern of perceptions of self and self in relation to others and to the environment. Thoreau (1854): ―Such is oftenest the young man‘s introduction to the forest, and the most original part of himself. He goes thither at first as a hunter and fisher, until at last if he has the seeds of a better life in him he distinguished his proper objects as a poet or naturalist it may be and leaves the gun or fishing pole behind.‖ (p138 1995)

Rogers would call this the actualizing tendency, a continuous desire to grow naturally in a positive direction. ―This configuration, this gestalt is, in its details a fluid and changing thing but it is decidedly stable in its basic elements‖ Rogers (1951p191)

―An "autotelic" person is one who is motivated intrinsically, and thus, is more likely to pursue and achieve ―flow‖ experiences Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, (1999) quoted by Berman &.Davis–Berman (2005)

It can be argued that the rise of humanist thinking allows man to assume a ―self serving‖ central position in his cosmology and denigrate the importance of the non human resulting in both positive and negative images of technological man as somehow existing outside the ―natural order.‖ ―It is time to advance a paradigm shift from an anthropocentric to an ecocentric in adventure therapy ―Berger &McLeod

(2006) Beringer & Martin (2003) Kuhn, (2001) Pilisuk & Joy (2001) Roszak, (2001). 46

If word as Derrida quoting Saussure‖ (1976 p57) observes; language is a form and not a substance,‖ possible viewing or receiving perspectives are infinite. In the person centered model what is key is how the person themselves views the product of his or her endeavours, consequently the perspective offered is couched in a particular set of possible presuppositions, developmental, phenomenological, interpersonal subjective symbolism, the clients internal frame of reference. Rogers (1951 p 36) (1951 p240)

(1961) to the client, refraining from ―egging on‖ (1951p256) or judging, ―lessening the authoritative position of the therapist ―(1951 p237) ―to see [the clients] private world through his eyes‖ Rogers (1961, p. 34). Cepeda and Davenport quote Bohart and

Tallman (1996) in perceiving P.C. theory as having two parts, the first the setting up of a therapeutic relationship and the second phase which can be integrated with other therapies

Rogers on groups;‖.the most effective leader is one who can create the conditions by which he will actually lose the leadership‖ (1951 p334) Rogers argued that devolved leadership was the premier developmental model. The objective being to ―develop the groups independence and self responsibility‖ (1951 p337) Rogers is characterised by his insistence on autonomy. He offered that freedom of communication and a positive group climate (p346) will provide the framework for democracy (p382) one of his three framework models (autocratic, democratic and laissez faire‖ (p 346). In context a number of difficulties arise immediately. Because a group is a negotiated concept, the 47 members each have a personal agenda. The leader is answerable for the process elements and is usually under time constraints so true democratic styles cannot coexist with such directed experience. In essence, person centred work conflicts with goal directed models.

It is accepted across talking therapies that the person centred components of empathy, congruence and acceptance are key to eliciting meaningful change Cepeda

& Davenport (2006). Active listening has become a central component of management literature and some of Rogers‘s ideas forged the wedge between classical medical hierarchical dominance and universally applicable techniques of interpersonal communication. Rogers acknowledges that in early stages of group development participants are ego driven rather than group oriented (p378) but allows magnanimously that his is ―only one explanation for the change‖ (p388). A second perspective Taylor (1990) states that humanistic work takes place within ―a social context‖ and ―that the development of social, organisational and economic networks

[are needed] to support individual change‖ quoted by Ed. Bunton &MacDonald (2002)

Murphy & Bennett (2002 p46). I concur and would advance Barry Wellman‘s sociological perspective that though people think in terms of groups ―they operate in networks‖ Rheingold (1990 p56). While Rogers‘s broader agenda has not come to pass he has left a perfectly workable communication method in ―active listening.‖

48

Solution focus

Hill (2007) in her analysis of wilderness therapy offers a good definition of this theme,

―The focus is on solutions and success rather than on the problems‖ She quotes Rosol

―(2000). The therapeutic goal of programs is to promote feelings of empowerment,

responsibility, confidence, and group cohesion within participants‖ SF therapy is an

offshoot of family therapy following social constructionist theory. It follows a process of

ascribing a positive perspective, a perceived visualized future and a focus on solutions

rather than the presenting problem ―Cutcliffe (2003). The use of scales to define

behavior as a quantity allows goal setting and a means of gauging progress. ―Social

constructionism shifts the locus of meaning making to the dynamics of the group in the

public (re) negotiation of subjective understandings that in no way deny the inevitability

of individualized personal knowledge‖ Payne (2005 p188). Alvares and Stauffer

(2001) use a solution focused approach to defining their model as,‖ intentional‖, ―using

adventure tools and techniques‖, goal directed change.

I find a number of dilemmas within the solution focused model. The therapist is selling

a product. The client is usually not informed that they are the recipients of a script. The

therapist corrects/changes the client (dominant); the client does not get to correct the

therapist (submissive). The idea that the therapist is working in the best interest of the

client is unexamined. The idea of conflating an academic credential with a therapeutic

one advances a view of knowledge as power which diverges from De Shazer‘s co- 49 therapist concept. Moving therapy from medical intervention into a ―politico-practical‖

De Shazer (1994) game in which the therapist and client invent new realities through words is a process that follows the modeling of the social constructionist solution focused approach. The principal benefit for therapists is a lack of accountability in their role of ―consigliere,‖ not a discursive or theoretical affair but a practico-political one...‖De Shazer (1994 p34) (1991 p74).

In his book ―Words are magic‖ De Shazer makes reference to Freud‘s theories on the power of language and how language constrains the quality of thought. ―Once they see things differently they can behave differently‖ De Shazer 1982a quoted by De

Shazer‖ (1992 p55). ‖ De Shazer offers that by make believe (the miracle question) we can make real, what Baudrillard (1994 p16) alleges is that there is no real to exist within, the referent does not exist, simulation is characterized by ―a precession of the model‖ Rifkin (2000 p54) I am interested in the use by De Shazer of the phrase ―the death of resistance‖ De Shazer (1991 p 57) seeing it through a multiplicity of meanings and abstracting no specific positive bias from the word ―therapy‖ Goffman (1999)

...‖you can make words mean so many things‖ Carroll quoted De Shazer ...‖word is master‖ De Shazer (1991 p63). The only weapon of power, its only strategy against this defection is to re-inject the real and the referential everywhere, ―take your desires for reality!‖ Baudrillard (1994 p22)

50

―The Politics of the docile body” Foucault (1977)

The preceding chapter asks questions of therapy forms. It addresses the danger in all forms of ―therapeutic thinking‖, the notion of a superior position, the solution giver or answer provider, ―the powerful versus the powerless‖. This position is a key to the maladaptive notion of the therapist as ―better‖ which is the crux of the profession of orthodoxy in counseling. ―Every culture provides its members with appropriate beliefs, values and norms to carry out required activities...for directing and controlling the behaviour of its members‖ Ed. Biddle& Thomas (1966 p144) Simply put, certification and status are a means of legitimizing power in the therapeutic relationship. The therapists are trying to communicate a message, their subtext is power the context is healing, their denoted meaning is helper and their connoted meaning is expert,

―therapist (gentleman) and patient (madman)‖ Simon (1996 p15).

―One man in his time plays many parts‖

Shakespeare ―As You Like It‖ (Act II sc VIII).‖

51

The word persona describes a mask, a socially generated front for others. Even small children can adapt different personalities for different situations. Essential to the notion of presentation of self in everyday life is the belief that each of us in our life is playing a series of parts Burton & Dimbleby (1995 p153) Gofmman (1971) in Crookall & Saunders

(1988 p145) Role-a limited determinism that ascribes much but rarely all, of the variance of real- life behaviour to the operation of immediate or past external influences‖

Biddle & Thomas (1966 p17) The basis for the therapist role is the connotative meaning of academic degree which implies a link between erudition and therapy, linking thinking with knowledge and knowledge of words with the ability to treat. This question of an immutable aspect or a central component that could be defined as the ―essence

―of a person has elicited long historical conjecture, modern neuroscience has questioned and continues to probe for the core Ramachandran (1999) Le Doux (1998)

Sacks (1986, 1995) Dennett (1995, 2003). One possibility is that there may be no fixed essence, ―memory is more malleable than previously believed Ford (1996 p20). An individual tends to see himself or herself as responsible for desired outcomes but not for undesired ones‖ Greenwald quoted by Ford (1996 p 35). ―If you make yourself really small you can externalize virtually everything‖ Dennett (1984) quoted by Dennett (2003 p122) alluding to the idea that responsibility is a key element, the belief in self is a precursor for a belief in responsibility, or is it visa versa?

Foucault says all models of therapy (―rehabilitation‖) (1997, 1991 p302) are a form of social judgement. The metier is word (harking back to the Biblical power of myth, mystery and magic)‖ in the beginning was the word and the word was with God‖, John 52

1.1. (60 Ad) The distinguishing mark of the Christian epoch, its highest achievement, has become the congenital vice of our age: the supremacy of the word, of the

Logos...an infernal slogan capable of any deception‖ Jung quoted in Storr (1983 p385.

What can be garnered is that the research evidence is inconclusive on what makes a person change their behavior within the milieu of adventure therapy. A key point is that all models are firmly based in the didactic style of patriarchal systems, the notions of linear progress and goal directedness includes an unspoken corollary that models apply to systems of thinking, that without any conscious awareness are profoundly oriented to a male ethos. Mies (1998) makes the point that western culture we live in is one of,

―patriarchy and accumulation on a world scale.‖ Klein (2005, 2008) Chomsky (1993)

Ehrenreich & English (1978) Greer (1970) Stein (1997) Wilson, S.R. (2002)

―When a mystique is strong it makes its own fiction of fact‖ Friedman, B (1963 p 55).

The context is clarified by Friedman (1963),‖ is that all?‖ ―Can the image of a woman be cut down to the point where it becomes a trap?‖ Friedman (1963 p 59)

―Deconstructionist feminists... think that the political actor is somewhere between subject and agent‖ Voet (1998 p93) It is gendered language which feminists try to examine ―We cannot rely on existing ideologies‖ Ozick quoted in Ed Schneir (1995 p192-200). ―Their major task has been the exposition and criticism of our male centered heritage‖ Daly quoted Ed Schneir (1995 p283) Friedman (1963) What Betty

Friedman and others allege is that ―when a woman was seen as a human being of limitless potential, equal to man, anything that kept her from realizing her potential was 53 a problem to be solved ―Friedman (1963 p54). These ideas propose that culture may have a key role in how outdoor programmes, therapies and objectives are perceived differently by both genders. It is a core concept that therapists or therapies (whether ideologist or ideology) act upon the ―docile bodies‖ Foucault (1977). Being acted upon

(socially mandated in the case of women or through discipline in Foucault‘s case) is a fundamental tenet of feminist theory.

―It is quite misleading to think of femininity and masculinity as similar sorts of thing‖

Radcliffe Richards (1994 p183). ―Once one begins to explore the murky interface between medical discourses on this psychosomatic disturbance and its cultural construction over the past centuries‖ Bronfen (2000), one discovers a clear delineation between power, patriarchy hierarchy and the idea of women as submissive, decorative and facile. Psychoanalysis was not a key bulwark in the oppression of women, it was accepted that women as ―other‖ were chattels and sick creatures....,The extraordinary spread of psychoanalysis between 1920 and 1970 owed more to marketing than to therapeutic triumphs Ridley (2003 p101). The simple key to this structural narrative is that middle aged white men are offering the analysis. The ―white man‘s burden‖ is bounded by extraordinary self deception and confounded by religious, cultural and social conditioning, endeared by interest, and palliated by all the artifices of self-deceit, gives us time to form distinctions in our own favour‖ Johnson (1750) Baudrillard (1994)

James (2001) Klein (2008). ―we may be reaching an impasse – the end of a golden age of theorizing about sexual identity – because of the current limitations and 54 contradictions of psychoanalytic language and theory‖ Maguire and Dewing (2007)

Frosh (1999 p146).

The key question for those interested in ideology in relation to semiotics is just how our ideas fit into larger systems and structures of meaning that particular societies and cultures create and enforce ―Hall (2007 p146) Torgovnick (1991 p13-14, 17) ―Therapy-a microcosm of society‖ Silverstone (2003 p4). Within the construct of therapy we must look first at the powers and abilities of the therapist. What is the fundamental skill, gift or feature of his or her derivation of this title? Not so long ago the dividing line between therapy and quackery was very faint. Dryden and Feltham note that ―the elevation of conjecture to science on the base of reported cures seems to be a common feature of most psychotherapeutic theories‖ Dryden & Feltham (1992 p139). Wallis (1984) quoted by Sherrard (1996) simply states that the ―human potential movement‖ is religion.

Webster (1996) says psychotherapy is religion.

Social status alone cannot confer a superiority of mental quality in egalitarian democracies. Academic credentials cannot confer a de facto status of superiority where expertise is granted a spurious facticity. Modes of ideological thinking form a way of seeing the ―person‖, ―patient‖, ―client‖ or ―subject‖. Therefore the critiques of the all models, define a very real set of dangers when one person assumes a tacit ―mental‖ superiority over another. ―By combining hierarchical power, surveillance and 55 normalizing judgement…the more one possesses power or privilege, the more one is marked as an individual‖ Foucault (1997 p192). A key point and one often is missed is that the word ―therapy‖ is negative ―unspeak‖ Poole (2007) or ―disidentifier‖ Goffman

(1990 p60) which draws negative associations to the client and purposefully positive ones to the healer or ―magician.‖ ―In contrast to the ordinary person, the "layperson" in the magical sense, the magician is endowed with enduring charisma‖ Weber 1922

(1993). This enduring charisma is granted in the signifier of ―Therapist.‖

56

Eclecticism

The preceding section was a quick run through a number of psychological therapy theory models. The key point is that none of the models can claim ascendancy.

Different ideas appeal to different individuals and societies at different times. 'An eclectic approach to counseling is one in which the counselor chooses the best or most appropriate ideas and techniques from a range of theories or models, in order to meet the needs of the client. Integration, on the other hand, refers to a somewhat more ambitious enterprise in which the counselor brings together elements from different theories and models into a new theory or model... To be an integrationist, it is necessary... to weld these pieces into a whole‘ McLeod, (1993) quoted by Less (2004)

Eclecticism is the utilization of theory for practical purposes. If one imagines that taking appropriate elements from different theories is a utilitarian formulation then we get close to the point of using more than one theory to meet the needs of the individual. Noting the use of eclectic therapies to overlap and join theories without an overarching framework means that often the model itself becomes unwieldy. Schoel & Maizall

(2002) quote Bacon (1983) arguing for a Jungian ―basis for archetypal models of

―sacred space‖ where healing takes place. They base their model squarely within the

―affect- behavior –cognition‖ of behavioral models Bandura (1977) in modeling behavior and Piaget in relation to ―schema‖ as a means of applying theory. Eclectic theory as map may not relate to the reality of lived experience. Gardner states that Kolb‘s attempt to combine Jungian models with Tyler‘s‖ possibility processing‖ is flawed because 57

―Tyler‘s constant aim was to value the individuality of each person and to avoid presenting people as part of a group or unit.‖ Gardner (2000) Thus while one valued individuality the other proposed learning ―types.‖ Schoell & Maizall quote Bacon (1983) arguing for a Jungian ―basis for archetypal models of ―sacred space‖ where healing takes place. They base their model squarely within the ―affect- behavior –cognition‖

(p38) of behavioral models, they utilize Bandura (1977 p24) in modeling behavior and

Jean Piaget in relation to ―schema‖ as a means of applying theory. Noting the common use of eclectic therapies to overlap and join theories without an overarching framework means that often the model itself becomes unwieldy. A question then emerges whether theory applied is a form of map which may not relate to the reality of lived experience.

Similarly many models exist for action oriented process Adler (1870-1937), Hahn (1886

-1974), Baden Powell (1857-1941) which may have no specific therapeutic bias. The trouble with much of the resulting research data is that it focuses on efficacy while indulging in qualitative research. This results in significant editorial material but little substantive data. Similarly talking therapy with its focus on the individual and subjective individual change denies itself the useful and corroborative tools of objective psychological testing which clearly demonstrates that much human behaviour is a response to external cultural, social, genetic and environmental factors. Three ideas follow; that change is neither necessary nor useful but occurs ―naturally.‖ Knowledge or

―gnosis‖ may allow choice but these choices are conditional on larger forces operating on individuals and choices made may or may not be better than a previous existence.

A definition of practice is faced with theoretical models for ―psychological‖ or talking 58 therapy models not fitting the physical changes brought about when action is the primary mode of change‖Hill (2007).

It is recognised that the therapeutic relationship is a key factor and much of the

research data available for counselling utilizes this widely accepted supposition...‖ The

therapeutic relationship is the most important tool for client change Corey, (2001)

Kramer, (1995). Moreover, this ideal of the therapeutic relationship has been

―generally incorporated by most approaches‖ Watkins & Goodyear, (1984) quoted by

Cepeda & Davenport (2006) On a personal level I find Russell & Farnum‘s (2004)

concurrent model useful as it offers that different modalities are in action at one time ...

―Wilderness‖, refers to elements of the natural world that create student change....

―Physical Self‖ consists of activities or processes within wilderness that facilitates

learning and personal growth. ―Social Self‖ refers to variables associated with social

interaction. Therapeutic factors can be viewed as interrelated and mutually influential,

present throughout the experience and varying in intensity according to the temporal

progression of the trip.‖

59

Emergent patterns

Evolutionary psychology proposes than man has evolved from primate ancestors and our origins are to be found somewhere on the African savannah. This form of life existed for a long period of human history and the politics on modern human society are grounded in the same small group primate behavior today, (in group- out group, status, mate choice and dominance) are objectively verifiable human traits. There is a level of human functioning which is operant within this paradigm and leads us to a definitional split within our context area. A second question emerges with this multiplicity of roles, the word persona describes a mask, a socially generated front for others, Shakespeare alluded to it, when he said that in his life ―a man plays many parts‖ and others have understood how even small children can adapt different personalities for different situations, this question of an immutable aspect or a central component that could be defined as the ―essence ―of a person has elicited long historical conjecture, modern neuroscience has questioned and continues to probe for the ―core‖

60

Solitary pursuits

Single and group dynamics within human behavior have markedly different

trajectories. If we propose that the split between hunter gatherers and settled life

becomes a possible originating point we see a difference between the single human

and the group approach which defines how we address the issue of individuals in the

outdoors and their purpose of self sufficiency and the group and its harvesting and

hierarchical models. I would argue that because human evolution has advanced

through certain aspects of the settled group life of the community, factors associated

with this methodology are operant in our societies. A contrast is drawn with communal

living in cities. ―It is the luxurious and dissipated who set the fashions who set the

fashions that the herd so diligently follow Thoreau (1995 p23) ...‖the head monkey at

Paris puts on a travellers cap and all the monkeys in America do the same‖ Thoreau

(1995 p16). Because of the collective structure of cities, behaviours that are inimical

to that way of being are suppressed. Pinker makes the case for it being a myth that

tribal human as primitive societies were somehow more ―natural‖ than ―modern‖ man

Pinker (2002).

―With much material written about groups and the process of group forming, it is

important to look at both the individual within the group as a person and to look at the

place for solitary or one to one therapy in the outdoors Sugarman, quoted by

Wurdinger and Potter (p139-142). ―It is important to look at both the individual within 61

the group as a person and to look at the place for solitary or one to one therapy in the

outdoors‖ Sugarman, Quoted by Wurdinger and Potter (1999 p139-142).

It extant that communion with nature in a reflective manner is conceived as a means of

―cleansing‖ ―purifying‖ or ―releasing stress,‖ indicating as Sartre suggested that ―hell is

other people.‖ This reflective practice is consistent across all cultures and is a

fundamental staple of religious ritual. The pursuit of higher goals through solitude has

a long history. Vision quests, where a young member of a tribe would go on his own

into the wilderness had a symbolic as well as a practical reason for our forebears. The

rite of passage element which still adheres to outdoor adventure today has an element

of that awakening self sufficiency and trial of endurance, characteristic of these

historical models. Monks who choose to base themselves in the Himalaya or Skellig

Michael (off the west coast of Ireland) do it to get closer to God and away from man.

Thoreau who moved to a solitary life in the woods extolled that ―the mass of man lead

lives of quiet desperation‖ A principle sometimes applied to outdoor therapy sees the

person as experiencing a reconnection with nature both inside and outside.

―Recently, psychologists, too, have become interested in the positive aspects of solitude, particularly the opportunity it provides to engage in self-selected activities, relatively free of social encumbrances and expectations Burger, (1998) Larson,(1990)‖

Long et al. (2003). The pursuit of higher goals through solitude has a long history. The rite of passage element which still adheres to outdoor adventure today has an element 62 of that awakening self sufficiency and trial of endurance.‖ We don‘t really control nature we set up borders in nature and we set up borders between us and nature‖ Mitova

(2010).

63

Discussion

The key discussion comes down to the process of change within therapy. Taking the process of adventure activities as a means of applying theory we come to the principle that theory will be applied to elicit change. There are a number of preconditions to the idea that change is a result of a causal mechanism through therapy.

Meadows (2006)…

―Cause itself is an elusive and difficult concept: we are going to need to consider such things as what are the events or processes on which cognitive development is conditional, which are the sufficient causes (all that is required for it to proceed), or necessary causes (essential but perhaps not the only thing required) or contributory causes (essential but neither necessary nor sufficient)‖

Understanding that perceptions and cognitions are multifaceted and different for each person we will try to avoid straying into too far into the theory of mind while recommending the work of Ramachandran (1951- ) Sacks (1933- ) and Pinker (1954-) for readable and eminent perspectives. 64

It could be argued that ―experience‖ in nature is change. To imply that education in the form of sequencing experience is a key element remains a strong basis for the power of experiential change. Bolsover (2008) trying to resolve the ―dodo verdict‖, [that all talking therapies have similar levels of effectiveness] uses Bowlby‘s ―attachment theory‖ (1988). He proposes that talking provides a ―temporary secure base‖ and this form of attachment to the therapist allows a sense of security to explore issues relevant to that person. ―The therapeutic alliance and the talking... functioning as a secure base‖. Bolsover (2008) He offers that the relationship of client and counsellor is one that is inherently unidirectional, in that one is the ―care giver‖ and the other the

―care seeker‖ and while not overtly stating that any form of therapy model must contain these elements allows that a secure base may be the single most important factor in the relationship. What is obliquely argued is that continued exposure to this secure base should influence positive growth but behavioural change may be conditional on the availability of this attachment figure. ―For those people who are more troubled the temporary secure base of talking may only produce lasting improvement when experienced repeatedly‖ Bolsover (2008)

Evolutionary psychology proposes than man has evolved from primate ancestors and our origins are to be found somewhere on the African savannah Dawkins (2006) De

Waal (2005) Wright (1994) Dennett (1996). This form of life existed for a long period of human history and the politics on modern human society are grounded in the same small group primate behavior today. In group- out group, status, mate choice and 65 dominance are objectively verifiable human traits.‖Because phylogenetic evolution is quite slow it is reasonable to assume that the genetic makeup of contemporary humans remains adapted to gathering and hunting Powles (1992). ―In essence we are urbanized hunter gatherers and our diseases reflect that ―Marks et al (p116 2006)

Dennett‘s compatibilist position argues that ―humans have evolved the capacity to change their natures in response to interactions with the world‖ Dennett (2004) quoted by Taylor (2004), a basis for belief in emergent properties based on new supervening powers such as movement, thinking, tool use and even individual death, namely choice. Taylor quotes George Ainslie‘s idea of an‖ internal marketplace‖ where present and future conduct‖ intertemporal bargaining‖ (2004 p193) the point that this sense of freedom, [possibly an illusion] is emotional, ―our sense of freedom is an emotional signal which gives us the wisdom to know what things we can and cannot change‖ Taylor (2004 p 204) and that it is our ―reactance‖ that can be manipulated for good or ill. Other authors have advanced different views but a view of man as mutable may lend credence to psychological approaches having effect. It‘s precisely because the world is determined that choice is useful.

Taking the idea of temporary and extending it for a moment I would like to look at the wider context. ― As the domain of religion and the public sector has shrunk, as many tentacles of the new age movement have invaded medicine....obedience can be 66 viewed as ―meta ideological‖ ...compliance is rewarded, often by promotion to a higher rank in the social system, thus motivating the person and perpetuating the structure simultaneously ―Taylor,(2004 P74-75).

The 21st century western society we live in could be conceptualised as an extreme form of capitalism ―the American empire‖ Pilger (2007), bounded by expensive academic qualification for advancement which bind the individual to a ―debt‖ culture.

―Money like writing has the power to specialise and to rechannell human energies‖

McLuhan (2008 p145). An elite class of owners have increased the divide between rich and poor globally to a point where ―unspeak‖ Poole (2006) and duplicity are the modes of operation in controlling mass populations. By utilising a ―see no evil, hear no evil‖ approach positivistic models collude and capitulate to this status quo.

Counselling in its remit as individualist therapy avoids addressing the ―‖crazy making‖ society argument. It can be argued from the preceding broad sketch that temporary change would be a practical response, considering that individuals adapt within the changed context of an outdoor experience. In an interesting and prosaic example of this, Marchand, Russel and Cross (2009) quote Gass(1993);‖ the intense professional investment of working in the field can negatively affect interpersonal relationships‖

What they allude to is the practices of the outdoor health industry adversely affect the therapists who deliver the modules due to the fact that they are usually young, zealous and interested in working and living in the outdoors. Profiteers know this, thus they 67 are uniformly badly paid, work short term contracts, get laid off if they are injured on the job and live a quasi- nomadic existence.

―All technology has the Midas touch‖

McLuhan (2008 p151)

Meadows argues that ―predisposing factors, precipitating factors and factors that once development is on its way, sustain reverse, amplify, diminish or otherwise modify it‖

Meadows (2006 p 313). The best means of finding what is truly effective is to discover where the shortest chain is between the perceived cause and the effect that it generates. Where the difficulties lie are in the delineation of a proximate cause. If one view of change is a progressive adaption to an environment it may be necessary to argue that survival value is maintained by having good defenses and in situations where the environment is corrosive to healthy development a cognitive solution may be one that conflicts with ones biological, genetic or personal values, ―dissonance‖ Ed.

Pratkanis (2007). Bruno Bettleheim (1960) or Victor Frankl editorializing their concentration camp experience allude to a similar idea…‖with the majority of prisoners, the primitive life and the effort of having to concentrate on just saving ones skin led to a total disregard of anything not serving that purpose, and explained the prisoners complete lack of sentiment‖ Frankl, (2004 p44) ―all ruling prisoners were responsible for the destruction of some prisoners to save themselves, their friends or other members of their group‖ Bettelheim (1960 p183) ―Social learning theory,‖ 68

Bandura (1977) would offer an explanation, basing its ideas on whether a person is

―punished‖, ―reinforced‖ or ―observed ― Russell & Farnum (2004) Millgram et al

(1974/1977) quoted by Taylor (2008) also observed in the early ―human relations‖ management theories Lansburger (1950) Mayo (1924-1932).

Construction of experience, memory, and the thinking aspects of cognition may

―express‖, but emotion and feeling aspects of human evolution may ―impress,‖ and predate thinking, having a powerful hold on our responses to life situations Le Doux

(1998). Our genetic makeup has a combined mutative and fixed pattern response to the environment. Aspects of genetic variance promote ―cumulative selection‖ Dawkins

(2006 p45) advocating the idea that success is increased in the maximization of possibility. Evidence grants that our nature is to adapt and evolve. A relatively short

(individual) life span has allowed man to evolve quickly as a species into a creature with a specific bias towards thinking (in a similar way to selective breeding of dogs or plants). Genetically we are born to perceive the world in a particular way; we are a predatory social mammal that has a bipedal posture, forwarding facing eyes and a capacity to eat almost anything. ―An individual body is a large vehicle or survival machine built by a gene co-operative‖… Dawkins (2006 p192)‖ We are predisposed to look for patterns and from these patterns to develop knowable routines…the essential component of learning. Our ability to think, reflect and choose offer the response to a determined existence ―We alone on earth can rebel against the tyranny of the selfish 69 replicators‖ Dennett, quoting Dawkins, (1995 p 366) Is technology and progress contrapuntal to man as animal in nature and secondly, is it possible that what we mean by therapy is simply a reintegration of man with his ―natural‖ environment?

70

Conclusions

Research evidence shows different forms of talking therapy have similar

effectiveness rates Bolsover (2008). It may be argued that this behavioural change

is internally motivated or externally applied. Research shows that long term

evidence of ―change‖ in individuals who undergo outdoor therapy is not available

Gatzemann, T., Schweizer & Hummel (2008). Studies show little evidence that is

generalizable B. Blunsdon et al (2003) Larson (2007) Harper and Cooley (2007).

Lack of available evidence may be because the qualitative nature of studies

produces little workable statistical data. ―A wide range of studies has been

published in which qualitative methods dominate‖ Gatzemann, T., Schweizer, K.

and Hummel, (2008). Some studies show that soon after the ―event‖ a small

positive correlation occurs in some participants and this may be because a plethora

of unexamined factors.

Based on Bolsover‘s adaption of attachment theory, it is conceivable that at some level the ―care givers‖ role is important and that similar to talking therapy the relationship between client and counselor is preeminent. ―Thompson (1984) suggests that therapeutic clients generally demand more and give less,‖Quoted by Marchand,

Russell & Cross (2009) which gives credence to the idea that there is an implicit one 71 up-one down relationship. With all therapies the instructor takes the role of the

―competent‖ and the client the role of the ―incompetent.‖ Adventure therapy models tend to work on the basis of small groups, mirroring the size and quality of historical human collectives, governed by authority, seniority and experience. A key point is outlined by Priest & Gass (1997 p44) quoting Mitchell (1983) ―antecedents [to flow]; freedom of choice, state of mind, intrinsic motivation, outcome uncertainty and competence engagement‖ It is argued that Pinker and Wright hold the key to the puzzle in that paradoxically it is change that is constant. The objective of therapy is to reintroduce effective methods that deal best with increased and differentiated complexity; what the Japanese call ―zazen‖ – an open awareness to what is going on around one and adaptive, reflexive thinking rather than reaction, social co-operation utilizing accountable diffusion of labor and emotional stability in the face of challenge.

Based on the view that adventure therapy is an eclectic model it is not hard to see how different activities retain the core impetus aimed at many different purposes. From the talking therapies come different approaches to ―helping.‖ which returns us once again to Bowlby (1998, 2005) Roger (1951, 1961) and the commonality of a ―secure base‖ as a prerequisite for ―exploration.‖ Talking therapy models achieve a form of meaning making. Meaning making is a psychological causation narrative that encompasses all talking therapies.‖ By making ―meaning‖ Frankl (2004) a greater sense of ―efficacy‖ occurs contingent to an ―internal locus of evaluation‖ Rogers (1951 p150-157) or

―locus of control‖.

72

Conversely various criticisms apply to each model. However much a group leader is person centered, he is at base a ―compliance‖ professional, his basic endeavor is to create a unified purpose and in so doing the person centered elements of his role are mediated through the various motivations and needs of the whole rather than the individual participants. Donati and Watts (2005) quote Irving and Williams (1995) who make a critique of Rogers methods in that they are directed at what people can be but not yet are, a criticism that may be leveled on the basis that outdoor therapy is a directed model in most variants. Freudian models fail to deal with the immediacy of the outdoor experience as a lived phenomenology. Solution focused work and cognitive behaviorism have a use in that they apply rigid formulations based on directed models, but can be externally applied cognitive teaching strategies rather than whole person or integrative models. Where solution focused work and behaviorist models may fail is in the application of power within the relationship, it‘s perceivable that systems oriented models allow the imposition of strategies that may not be oriented to the success of the individual, operating instead to benefit the powerful rather than the disempowered.

A key element in all models is that the high status changes the lower status individual which implies that conformity and obedience are taught before change. This conclusion leads to an understanding of why outdoor therapy models are geared to adolescents. Winnett et al (1989) quoted by Ed.Bunton & MacDonald (Murphy &

Bennett2002 p40) ―modeling can therefore be used within health promotion as a way 73 of promoting normative health behaviors…‖ In conclusion, there is efficacy in all models but models are context driven.

The reality of the outdoor experience is in its immediacy and novelty what it most closely resembles is play, a game based environment in which to examine ―object relations.‖

‖Paradoxically it has taken the world‘s richest societies to ignore these basic facts.

Man and woman power devoted to the production of material goods counts as a plus

in all our economic indices. Man and woman power devoted to the production of

happy, healthy and self reliant children in their own homes does not count at all. We

have created a topsy-turvy world‖

John Bowlby (1988 p2)

74

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Marchand, G. Russell, K.C. & Cross,R. (2009) ―Empirical Examination of Outdoor Behavioural Healthcare Field Instructor Job-Related Stress and Retention‖ Journal of Experiential Education Volume 31, No. 3 pp. 359–375

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Nolan, S. (2008) ‗The experiencing of experience‘: a Pragmatic reassessment of 84

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Priest, P (2007) ―The Healing Balm Effect Using a Walking Group to Feel Better‖ SAGE Publications London

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85

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Soye, V. & Broekaert, E. (2005) ―Therapeutic Communities, Family Therapy, and Humanistic Psychology: History and Current Examples‖ Journal of Humanistic Psychology No.45 p302

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Thoma, H. (2004) ―Psychoanalysts without a Specific Professional Identity: A Utopian Dream?‖ International forum of psychoanalysis Vol. p213-236

Varley, Peter.(2006)‖ Confecting adventure with meaning, the adventure commodification continuum‖ Journal of Sport Tourism, Vol. 11 Issue: No. 2 p173-194

Vaughan, F. (2002) ―What is Spiritual Intelligence?‖ Journal of Humanistic Psychology Vol. 42 No.16

Walsh, J. & Aubry P. (2007) ―Behavior Management through Adventure‖ Reclaiming children and youth Vol. 15, No. 1 p39

Ed. Werhan. P.O. & Groff, D. (2005) “Research Update: The Wilderness Therapy Trail‖ The Journal of experiential education

YOSHITAKA IWASAKI (2006) ―Counteracting stress through leisure coping: A prospective health study‖ Psychology, Health & Medicine, Vol. 11 No.2 p 209 – 220

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Wikipedia.org (2010)‖Discourse‖http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse(26-3-2010)

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