Politics and the Film in Tamilnadu: the Stars and the DMK Author(S): Robert L

Home , Dravida Nadu, Madras High Court, Nadodi Mannan, Padmini (actress)

Politics and the Film in Tamilnadu: The Stars and the DMK Author(s): Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr. Source: Asian Survey, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Mar., 1973), pp. 288-305 Published by: University of California Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2643038 Accessed: 05-08-2015 17:57 UTC

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This content downloaded from 128.83.205.78 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 17:57:19 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions POLITICSAND THE FILM IN TAMILNADU:THE STARSAND THE DMK / RobertL. Hardgrave,Jr.*

The Dravida MunnetraKazhagam (DMK), the rulingparty of Tamil- nadu Statein India, has splitin climaxto persistentrumors of intraparty discordand impendingschism. M. G. Ramachandran,DMK partytreasurer and popularTamil film star, was strippedof his partyoffices and suspended frommembership in the partyto whichhe had so long broughtsupport fromhis devotedfans. The crisis culminateda long feud betweenM.G.R. and ChiefMinister M. Karunanidhi.In theearly months of 1972, as Karunanidhi,in demands forregional autonomy, began to touthimself as the"Mujib of Tamilnadu," M.G.R. protestedKarunanidhi's "dictatorial methods" and called for a boycottof theparty's General Council in protestagainst one man rule.His criticismof Karunanidhi and theparty leadership mounted with his demand fora partyprobe intorampant corruption. M.G.R. called for a disclosure of all assetsof ministers,legislators, and partyofficials-and assets of their close relatives.Party careerists were alarmed: M.G.R.'s public utterances violatedparty discipline and, in discreditingparty and Government,created confusionin the publicmind. A memorandum,submitted by 26 members ofthe DMK CentralExecutive, called fordisciplinary action against M.G.R. His suspension,sustained by the GeneralCouncil, soon followed. M.G.R. appealedto partymembers to remainloyal to the ideals of C. N. Annadurai,founder of theDMK and ChiefMinister until his deathin 1969. To continuehis policies,M.G.R. announcedthe formation of a rival party, the Anna DMK, to challengethe legitimacyof Karunanidhi'sleadership. M.G.R. "fan clubs,"long adjunctsof the DMK, now became branchesof the new party.Many regularDMK branchesthroughout Tamilnadu also switchedallegiance to M.G.R. The star's fans paraded in the streets.In Madurai, theypulled down DMK flagsand stonedGovernment buses; in Vellore,they brought off a totalhartal; in Madras,rickshaw men wenton strikein protestagainst the party's suspension of theiridol and protector.

*I wish to acknowledgethe invaluable contributionof my research assistant in this study,Sriram Athri, whose initiativeand sensitivityto the researchproblems were major ingredientsof the project's successful completion.The study was made under a Ford FoundationResearch Grant. 288

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On theother side, M.G.R. posterswere defaced and torn,and theatersshow- ing his filmswere attacked, as wereM.G.R. fan clubs. Perhapsfearing re- prisal,the scheduled release of a filmstarring M. K. Muthu,Karunanidhi's son,was postponed.Muthu, who had onlybegun to act in films,had already incurredM.G.R.'s wrathby an allegedattempt to convertM.G.R. fanclubs intoMuthu Associations. The aging actor,no doubt,did not take thistoo kindly. The role of filmin the politicsof Tamilnaduhas been significant,and theinfluence of the"stars" on Tamil politicshas made politicalastrologers of thosewho would seek to understandit. During the course of the 1967 electioncampaign, the New York Times carriedan articledescribing film star involvementin thepolitics of Tamilnaduas having"a touch of Cali- fornia."Film has become increasinglypervasive in almostall aspectsof Tamil societyand perhaps most prominentlyin politicallife. Although Bombay is usuallyconsidered the capital of the Indian filmworld, it is withinSouth India thatfilm has made itsgreatest impact. The filmindustry in theSouth, centered in thecity of Madras,is thelargest in India-in the numberof studios,capital investment,gross income,and in the number of peopleengaged in theindustry. Since 1931, whenthe "talkie"was first introducedin the South,some 1500 filmshave been made in Tamil. Half of India's six thousandcinemas are located in the southernregion-and halfof these are in thestate of Tamilnadu. Virtually no villagein Tamilnadu is so isolatedto be beyondthe reach of film,and even thepoorest laborer can affordthe fewpice to see the latestproduction. EarlyTamil filmswere largely mythologicalls" but with the first "social" filmsin 1936 came an infusionof politics.The Congresssought to use the motionpicture for nationalist propaganda. One Tamil social, for example, dealt withprohibition, part of the Congressprogram, and it includeda popularsong about the importanceof the spinningwheel, strongly advocated by Gandhi. Sometimesa portraitof Gandhi would appear incon- spicuouslyin the backgroundin hope that it mightslip past the British censors.The Congressalso used filmstars to attractcrowds. K. B. Sunda- rambal,an actressfamous for devotional songs, regularly appeared on the platformof theTamil Congressleader, S. Satyamurthi.' While the Congressin Tamilnadu made early use of the film,most Congressmenlooked on the mediumwith contempt and sharedC. Rajago- palachari'sview of thecinema as a sourceof moralcorruption. It was only theparty of Tamil nationalism,the DMK, thattook filmseriously as a vehicleof political mobilization. With Lenin, the leaders of theDMK regarded filmas themost important art formbecause it was themost popular. Con- gressmennever realized the power of film,says Kannadhasan,song writer

'Interview,S. Punju,Tamil film director, Madras, January 1970.

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forthe Tamil screenand one of thefounders of the DMK. "They decried thecinema. We used it."2 The DMK's involvementin theTamil filmindustry is rootedin the Dra- vidian Movementfor non-Brahminuplift in South India.3 Writersand actorswho had maturedin thetouring dramatic companies associated with E. V. RamaswamyNaicker's Self-RespectMovement came to dominate the Tamil screen.From the "guerillatheater" of Tamil nationalism,they broughtanti-northern, anti-Brahmin themes. Their Tamil was purged of Sanskriticelements in assertionof Dravidian self-respect;the goldenage of the Tamil kingdomswas resurrectedon celluloid; Brahminswere de- pictedas sinisteror foolish. In organizingthe Dravida Kazhagam (or DravidianFederation) in 1944, E. V. Ramaswamysought to extendhis movementfor social reformand upliftto thedemand for a separateand independentstate of Dravidasthan. The DK, in spiteof its appeal to themasses, was a quasi-militaryorganiza- tionand basicallyelitist in character.Seeking democratic party organization and electoralinvolvement in thenewly independent India, a dissident factionbroke with E.VR. in 1949 and foundedthe Dravida MunnetraKaz- hagam (Dravidian ProgressiveFederation). The leader of the new party was a youngfilm writer, C. N. Annadurai.Among those joining him were M. Karunanidhi,another film writer, and a numberof filmstars, including K. R. Ramaswamy,S. S. Rajendran,and Shivaji Ganesan,who later left theDMK forCongress, to be replacedby M. G. Ramachandran.Their films introducedsymbols and referencesto the DMK, and the partyrode the risingpopularity of cinema. Film artists brought glamour and electoralsup- portto the DMK, and actorsgraced the platformsof partyrallies. Some stars,like M. G. Ramachandranand S. S. Raj endran,converted their popu- larityon thescreen into successful bids for seats in theLegislative Assembly. K. Kamaraj, formerChief Minister of Tamilnaduand thenpresident of theAll-India Congress Party, scoffed at the DMK's aspirationsto power: "How can therebe governmentby actors?"4In 1967,in a landslidevictory, theDMK withAnnadurai as ChiefMinister took control of theState.

2Interview,Kannadhasan, Madras, January1970. Kannadhasan left the DMK in 1962 to join E. V. K. Sampath's Tamil National Party and with Sampath in 1964, he joined Congress.In oppositionto the DMK, Kannadhasan has been out of favor with DMK filmstars like M. G. Ramachandran,but the popularityof his songs is so great that he is frequentlysigned forDMK films. 3See Robert L. Hardgrave,Jr., The Dravidian Movement (Bombay: Popular Praka- shan, 1965) and Eugene Irschick, Politics and Social Conflictin South India: The Non-BrahminMovement and Tamil Separatism 1916-1929 (Berkeley: Universityof CaliforniaPress, 1969). For an examinationof the DMK, see also Marguerite Ross Barnett,The Politics of Cultural Nationalism in South India (forthcoming); Mohan Ram, Hindi Against India (New Delhi: Rachna Prakashan, 1968); P. Spratt, DMK in Power (Bombay: Nachiketa, 1970); K. S. Ramanujam, The Big Change (Madras: Higginbothams,1967), and K. S. Ramanujam, Challenge and Response (Madras: Sun- dara Prachuralayam,1971). 'Erik Barnouw and S. Krishnaswamy,Indian Film, (New York: Columbia University Press,1963), p. 175.

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Withinthe DMK leadershipof the new Government were many associated in one way or anotherwith the filmindustry or withearlier dramatic ca- reers.Some had been no more than stagehandsor tickettakers for the troupesof the Dravidian Movement two decades before; others had become filmstars, producers,directors, or writers.The stars,like M.G.R., had mass appeal, but it was throughfilm writers that the DMK had made its initialimpact-through C. N. Annadurai,founder of the partyand Chief Ministerof Tamilnaduuntil his deathin 1969, and M. Karunanidhi,who succeeded"Anna" as ChiefMinister and partyleader. As a younglieutenant of theDravida Kazhagam,Annadurai had written a numberof dramasas vehiclesfor social reformand non-Brahminself- respect.After the DMK was founded,Annadurai, E. V. K. Sampath,and K. R. Ramaswamy,then Tamilnadu's most popular actor and filmstar, stageddramas in benefitperformances for the party. The DMK head office at Royapuramin MadrasCity was purchasedwith these funds.5 From plays, Annaduraientered the film world. He wrotesix screenplays-"witha view," he said, "to educatingthe people of Tamilnad.All my storiesand screenplays have, therefore,been on themesof social purpose."His firstfilm, Nalla Thambi ("Good Brother,"1948), featuringthe popular actor- comedianN. S. Krishnan,advocated prohibition, cooperative farming, and zamindariabolition. Velaikari ("Servant Maid," 1949) "made it clear that thegreed and avariceof therich did notpay in thelong run." Here Anna- duraiexplained "some of the elementary principles of socialism and stressed thatwe shoulddepend upon our ownlabor forour progressand wellbeing and not some unknownfactor."6 Velaikari,with its attackon religiousdogma, was regardedas a revolu- tionaryfilm. The storyitself, however, raises some serious questions.A landlordwas pressuringa debtorfor money, and theman, in shame,com- mitssuicide. His son, played by K. R. Ramaswamy,vows to punishthe landlordand devisesa plan by which,through impersonation, he marries thelandlord's daughter. By design,he thenmistreats the girl and develops a reputationfor drunkennessand gamblingso as to bringdisgrace upon his father-in-law.He then encouragesthe fatherto forbidan intercaste marriagebetween his son and a servantgirl and, to bringthe familyinto finalwreckage, succeeds in having the distraughtson thrownout of the house. With furthercomplications, our "hero" announceshis purpose. Overcomewith emotion, the fathersees the errorof his own ways. He blessesthe marriage of his daughterto therevealed son of thedebtor, and, in finalretribution, approves the marriage of his son to the servantmaid. The old man neverreally emerges as a villainbut thehero certainly comes

"Interviewwith K. R. Ramaswamy,Madras, January1970, and with E. V. K. Sam. path,Madras, February1970. Sampath was the nephew of E. V. Ramaswamyand the No. 2 man in the DMK until he bolted the partyin 1962 to found the Tamil National Party.He subsequentlyjoined the Congress. 'Interviewwith C. N. Annaduraiin Filmfare,May 10, 1968,p. 45.

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out as a dastardlycharacter. If personalvendetta designed to destroya man's familyis social reform,it is a curiousmoral indeed. The film,no doubt,had shockingaspects. After a scene in whichthe landlordoffers puja beforeKali, showingthe hypocrisyof religion,Ra- maswamy-whohad spentall his moneyin offeringsafter his father'ssui-- cide-upturnsthe offeringsbefore the goddess.He shakeshis fistat the deityand in a longmonologue says, "Just as therich man liveson thesweat of thepoor, you do likewise." Soon afterVelaikari, M. Karunanidhi'sParasakthi (1952) stunnedthe Tamil audience.The film,a screenversion of an earlierplay, was initially banned,but withits release,it became an enormousbox officesuccess.7 Karunanidhi,who wrote the screenplay, had been an earlyassociate of the DK and had writtenon thethemes of Dravidianself-respect. As a founding memberof the DMK, he lenthis talentto thenew movement. "My intention was to introducethe ideas and policiesof social reformand justice in the filmsand bringup thestatus of theTamil languageas theywere called for in DMK policies."Karunanidhi emphasizes the view of the partyon the role of film."We say thatart shouldbe for propaganda-for the people and for society."8 Parasakthi,according to its director,S. Punju, was designedto "create havoc.Of course,it did. We werechallenging the social law itself,the basic Constitutionitself."9 One of themost dramatic scenes of the filminvolved theattempted seduction of a younggirl by a priestof thetemple. Before the idol itself,the priest molests the girl. The hero (playedby Shivaji Ganesan) saves her and thenexpounds upon thesocial philosophyof the DMK. The sceneof the temple seduction was drawnfrom fact-a case thatwent all the way to theMadras High Courtand createda popularsensation. We don't objectto thetemple, Punju says of theDMK stanceon religion,but to the evil-mindedpeople who use it.The DMK believesin one god,but opposes the briberyof god throughpuja.10 The entryof the DravidianMovement into the filmindustry brought a new era in theTamil screen.In theyears before 1949-1950, film dialogue had been awkward-reallya Brahminicalslang. Annadurai and Karu-

7S. Punju, directorof Parasakthi, had wanted K. R. Ramaswamy,who was then get- tingabout Rs. 40,000 per film,for the pictureto ensurestar attraction.Ramaswamy and Karunanidhi,however, were at odds within the party,and Ramaswamyrefused to act in the film.Annadurai suggestedthat Shivaji Ganesan be cast as the hero. Althoughhe had never acted in film,Shivaji had been popular in Anna's dramas. Punju signed Shivaji for Rs. 250 per month-quite a bargain compared to what K.R.R. would have commanded.S. S. Rajendran, a young actor associated with the Dravidian Movement, was also introducedin the film.Interview, S. Punju, Madras, January1970. 'Interviewwith M. Karunanidhi,Chief Minister of Tamilnadu,Madras, February1970. 9Interview, S. Punju, Madras, January1970. "0Ibid.Ironically, for all of Parasakthi's anti-religiouscharacter, each day of produc- tionwas begun with the propitiousbreaking of a coconut and the burningof camphor. Most of the people in the filmindustry go on sentiment,says Punju, and while he has no use forpuja, "we are all businesspeople, so we let themhave it."

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nanidhibrought particular prominence to the spokenword, and in the earlyDMK films,dialogue was of a highlyliterary, "chaste" Tamil, almost like formalspeeches. Indeed, DMK partyspeeches are heavilyinfluenced by dramaticform. They are rich withalliteration and employa euphonic stagestyle-filled, according to its critics,with sound and furysignifying nothing.These speeches,whether from the platformor the cinemascreen, come as "4arain of words" (sorpozhivu) and have popularizeda highly ornateform of spokenTamil.1" Annadurai'sfilm dialogues tended to be ratherhigh-flown and lacked themore popular appeal of thoseby Karunanidhi,who in morethan thirty filmshas soughtto provideentertainment along withparty propaganda. Throughfilm, both Anna and Karunanidhibecame "'stars" in theirown right.People wantedto see themat publicmeetings, to have darshambe- forethem. Their films were vehicles for both social reformand partypropa- ganda. Their themeswere of widow-remarriage,untouchability, the self- respectmarriage (introduced by E.V.R. to eliminatethe use of theBrahmin priestin the weddingceremony), zamindari abolition, prohibition, and religioushypocrisy. "We wantedto bringrevolution in the mind," says DMK directorand Memberof theLegislative Assembly, Rama Aranganal, "and to some extentwe succeeded."12 The DMK filmsserved an audiencethe party could neverhave reached by othermeans. The ideologyof theDMK, explainsMurasoli Maran, faces boththe past and the future,and thisis reflectedin film.The Tamil past -its richlanguage and culture are glorifiedin storyand song.Rationalism and social reformare extolledin attackson caste,religious dogma, social injustice,and economicexploitation. Maran underscoresthe fact thatfor the commonman, the cinema is the onlyform of entertainment."So far as our partyis concerned,we have made use of it as a vehicleof our social reformpolicy. In everystory, we mix amusementwith instruction, and we explainour programs of social reform."13Some ofthe early "revolutionary" filmsof the DMK wereso heavywith social reformthat they were box office failures.DMK producers,says Maran, are now moresensitive to the story element,to the entertainmentvalue. "We selecta good storyand introduce our ideologywherever possible."14 The shiftaway fromthe more radical films-particularlythose of an anti-religiouscharacter-was in part a productof officialcensorship. The earlyDMK filmsmet little difficulty for all theircontroversial content. The partywas littleknown and censorsmade no connectionbetween film theme

"See Design, "Mass Media and the DMK," n.d.,pp. 34-36. 12Interview,Rama Aranganal, Madras, December 1969. Rama Aranganal was associated with E.V.R. in the 1940s and was assistant editor of the DK newspaper, Vidu- thalai.In 1949, he became one of the foundingmembers of the DMK and edited Anna- durai'sweekly Dravida Nadu. He enteredfilm as a dialogue writerabout 1950 and later became a producer.He has served as a Memberof the Legislative Assemblysince 1962. "8Interview,Murasoli Maran, Madras, December 1969. "4Ibid.

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and partyideology. By themid-1950s, however, it was evidentthat the DMK was attemptingto use themotion picture to advanceits politicalposition. Maran is convincedthat film censorship was consciouslyused by the gov- ernmentto undercutthe DMK. One technique,he says,was to censorand cutcritical elements of a filmso as to destroythe picture's coherence and thusensure financial failure. In theperiod of greaterconflict with the censors,the party turned again to drama."Under the Dramatic Licensing Act," Maranrelates, "we wererequired to give thescript to thepolice. We would give themsome ordinaryscript, then enact somethingelse in the drama." This didn'talways succeed, for three of Karunanidhi'splays werebanned by the stateCongress government.'5 In producingfilms under close censorship,the DMK turnedto subter- fuge.The use of doublemeanings in dialoguebecame a DMK forte.They also createda charactercalled "Anna"-the Tamil wordfor older brother and thepopular name for Annadurai-who appeared in almostall theDMK filmsas a wise and sympatheticcounsellor. In an historicalfilm, for example,the dialogue might go, "Anna,you are goingto ruleone day," at which the audiencewould break into wild applause.The historicalfilm was par- ticularlyuseful for the party, for it providedboth an opportunityto eulogize Tamil cultureand theglory of the Tamil kingdomsand, at the same time, to subtlycomment on currentpolitical affairs. Maran tellsthe story of one film,Kanchee Talaivar, about a Pallava king whose capital was the city of Kanchee (Kancheepuram).Not withoutcoincidence, Annadurai was fromKanchee, and he was knownas Kanchee Talaivar, "the leader of Kanchee." The censorsdemanded a change of title,but, afterall, it did referto a Pallava kingdom.The DMK gotthe title, but the censors so badly mangledthe film that it was a financialfailure.'6 The shiftfrom social reformas the dominanttheme of the DMK films, whateverconsiderations for government censorship, was primarilypolitical. As the partyentered the electoralarena, it soughtless obtrusivesubj ect matter.In courtingthe electorate,the DMK could no longerafford the iconoclasmof the old Self-RespectMovement, with its blatantattack on thesocial and religiousinstitutions of Hindu orthodoxy."The DMK films are no longerrevolutionary," says one disgruntledDMK Memberof the LegislativeCouncil. "We are now chasingvotes, and our principleshave been watereddown." Displacingcontent as the thrustof the DMK's use of the filmmedia, theparty now soughtto emphasizestar popularity as a vehiclefor political mobilization.The DMK now hitchedits politicalwagon to thestars of the silverscreen. The movement'sassociation with dramatic and filmactors, however,was not whollya new phenomenon.DMK actorshad grownup

:,,bid. "'Ibid.

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in theSelf-Respect Movement and theDK of E. V. Ramaswamy,and many wereamong the founding members of theDMK. In 1949, withthe foundingof DMK, the actorK. R. Ramaswamypro- vided financialsupport for the strugglingparty. "Only withmy earnings was the partyfounded," he says.17He had metAnnadurai through E. V. Ramaswamy,and it was his dramaticcompany which produced Anna's firstplay, Velaikari.When the play was later filmed,K. R. Ramaswamy was the star. At this time,Ramaswamy had reachedthe pinnacleof the Tamil filmworld. From his firstfilm in 1944 (Poompavai, "Lady With Flowers,"directed by S. Punju), K.R.R. rapidlybecame one of the most popularactors in SouthIndia. He could bothsing and act-a criticalcom- binationbefore "playback" and whena filmmight easily have thirtysongs ormore. Indeed, he was knownby thetitle, Nadippisai Pulavar, "the Acting- SingingPoet." Withthe "playback" dubbed into the sound track, however, a popularsinger could warbleto the silentmime of the actor,and Rama- swamybegan to lose out to risingyoung stars who had no need of singing talent.At about this time,in the early 1950s, personalproblems brought his careerinto ruin. Later, in rewardfor his servicesto theparty, Annadurai securedfor K. R. Ramaswamynomination as a Memberof theLegislative Council,the upperhouse of the stategovernment. Althoughhe was nevera memberof the DMK, N. S. Krishnanlent his enormouspopularity to the party.Krishnan was the greatestcomedian of theTamil screenand, as thetimes required, a veryfine singer. His appear- ancesensured a film'ssuccess. "Without him," says Maran, "there wouldn't be any picture."18 Krishnanwas particularlyfamous for his roles as the Brahminbuffoon, which he would recreateto the delightof his audience at DMK rallies.During the 1940s, the film industry was dominatedby Brah- min producersand by Brahminicalthemes. N. S. Krishnanwas a notable exception.Influenced by E. V. Ramaswamy,Krishnan introduced in his comicscripts-which he wrotehimself-the seeds of non-Brahminismwhich werelater to becomethe drivingforce of the DMK.19 In the last public functionbefore his death,Annadurai, on January14, 1969, unveileda statueof N. S. Krishnan,located at a busy Madras intersection.20 Althoughnever sympathetic with the DMK, one actorclosely associated withmany of the DMK leaderswhen they were still devotedfollowers of E. V. Ramaswamy'sDK was M. R. Radha. Radha, archvillain of theTamil

7Interview,K. R. Ramaswamy,Madras, January1970. "Interview,Murasoli Maran, Madras, December 1969. 19Interview,V. P. Raman, Madras, January1970. 20In the mid 1940s, N. S. Krishnan became involvedin a notoriousmurder case. He was finallyacquitted, but in order to raise money for his appeal, his friendsdecided to make a picture,Mad Man (1947). Punju, the directorhad been long involvedin the Dravidianmovement and had presidedover a numberof widow remarriages.This, Punju decided,was to be the theme of the movie (but, to be on the safe side, it was to be a virginwidow). It was this filmwhich broughtAnnadurai into association with Punju, who later directed Anna's firstfilm, Nalla Thambi ("Good Little Brother," 1949). Interview,S. Punju, Madras, January1970.

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screen,and would-beassassin of M. G. Ramachandran,came into contact withE.V.R. duringthe early 1940s throughhis dramaticperformances. Radha had one of the leadingtroupes in South India, the Social Reform Company,and he presentedplays on anti-Brahminand atheistthemes. Almostall of theDK-DMK peoplewere associated with Radha at one time or anotherduring this period, and the youngDK writers,Annadurai and Karunanidhi,both of whomwere in the dramaticcompany, often acted in theplays. Annadurai is oncereported to have said thathe reallycared only forthe acting of M. R. Radha and Shivaji Ganesan.2' V. C. Ganesan ("Shivaji"), like so manyactors of Tamilnadu,has been on thestage most of his life.22From the age of six, Shivaji touredwith va- riouscompanies, including the famous troupe of M. R. Radha,playing both male and femaleroles. In 1949, Ganesan appearedin a play writtenby C. N. Annadurai,Chandra Mohan, which depicted the triumphof theMa- rathahero Shivaji overthe Brahmins. Annadurai himself played a villainous Brahminpriest. Ganesan played the role of Shivaji. PeriyarE. V. Ramas- wamypresided over the firstperformance and was so impressedthat he bestowedthe name "Shivaji" on theyoung actor. In Tamilnadu,politics is a bedfellowof almostevery film artist. For Shivaji, it is a subsidiarybut clearlyapparent facet of his public image. Shivaji had beenpolitically weaned in theDK and was one of thefounding membersof theDMK. It was throughthe party that he gothis startin film. At Annadurai'ssuggestion, Shivaji was offeredthe leading role in thefilm Parasakthi.The "powerfuldialogues" and screenplaywere by M. Karu- nanidhi.Released in 1952,the film was an immediatesensation, and Shivaji, at theage of 24, was launchedon a stellarcareer. He made manycontribu- tionsto theparty coffers and servedas a drawingcard at politicalrallies, but Shivaji had neverreally been involvedin partyactivities, and its de- mandspressed upon him. If the D'MK had givenhim his initialboost in his filmcareer, it also servedto limithis horizons.A reputationof atheism, arisingfrom his associationwith E.V.R. and the movement,did not set well with a fundamentallyreligious audience. Perhaps feelingthat the oppositionparty was no longeran asset,Shivaji attackedthe DMK as a "glamour"party which exploited the Tamil filmindustry. In 1955, in a flurryof publicityin connectionwith the releaseof a new picture,Shivaji wentto Tirupathitemple. When he returned,he was publiclyabused by

"Interviewwith E. V. K. Sampath, Madras, February1970; with Thirumal,personal secretaryto M. R. Radha, Madras, February,1970; and with M. R. Radha-the interview conductedin February1970 in the Madras CenterJail, where Radha was serving sentence for the attemptedmurder of M.G.R. Details of the assassination attemptare discussed in Hardgrave, "When Stars Displace Gods: The Folklore of Cinema in Tamilnadu," in Charles Leslie (ed.), Asian Films and Popular Culture (forthcoming). 22For a discussion of Shivaji and other stars of the Tamil screen in their broader relationto Tamil society,see Hardgrave,"When Stars Displace the Gods: The Folklore ofCinema in Tamilnadu,"op. cit.

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DMK members,and his photographsand billboardswere defacedwith mud and dung. In 1961,Shivaji warned,"Artists keep awayfrom politics," but extended his supportto the new Tamil NationalistParty, a splitfrom the DMK,23 and stageda benefitdrama for the party'selection fund. When the party dissolvedand its leader,E. V. K. Sampath,joined Congress,Shivaji followed.Today he describedhimself as a "200 percentCongressman."S24 His lithographicportraits are emblazonedagainst the Congressflag, and he proclaimsKamaraj as his leader.During the 1967 elections,Shivaji toured throughoutTamilnadu for the Congress.With no interestin runningfor office,however, Shivaji is onlytangentially involved in Congresswork- almostentirely in electoralcampaigns. He keepshis politicsaway from art, and his filmsare generallyfree of politicalovertone. Amongthe founding members of the DMK was anotheryoung actor, S. S. Rajendran,who, like Shivaji,had been introducedin Karunanidhi'sPara- sakthi.S. S. Rajendranentered the stage at the age of nine,and soon was actingin thedramatic troupes of theDK. It was Annadurai,in 1950, who had askedhim to be in Parasakthi.25In his career,S.S.R. has actedin some 85 filmsand, like M.G.R.,plays the undaunted hero. Duringthe late 1950s and early 1960s,S.S.R. was among the mostpopular stars of the Tamil screen.He workedtirelessly for the DMK in collectingfunds, and in 1962, he was electedas a Memberof theLegislative Assembly. His filmsglorified the partyand wereheavily laden withsocial reform.Indeed, he became knownby thetitle Ilatchiya Nadigar, "Actor of Ideals." At theheight of his career,deepening personal problems brought S.S.R. intoserious difficulty, both with the filmindustry and the party.Audience attendancebegan to fall offand producers,tired of his failureto show up forshootings and of his temperdisplays, no longersigned him for films. Havinggiven most of his moneyto theparty, S.S.R. now wentdeeply into debt.Within the party,he had long been opposedboth by M.G.R. (with whomhe vied forthe same audience) and by Karunanidhi.Personal con- flictwith Karunanidhi now took on politicalcolor, and in 1967, in a bid to securea DMK ticketfor the Assembly,S.S.R. was passed over. Seeking to provehis partyloyalty, he threwhimself into the election campaign, and made a highlypolitical film, Tangaratinam, timed for release duringthe campaign.The film,dealing with the love marriageof an untouchablegirl and a high caste man, depicteda DMK conferenceand soughtto appeal directlyto the Harijan community. Duringthe campaign, S.S.R. announcedthat he had 'beenthreatened with murder,26and beforethe election,his healthbroke in physicalexhaustion. Afterthe election,S.S.R. became outspokenlycritical of the Karunanidhi

23See Hardgrave,The Dravidian Movement,op. cit.,p. 75. 24Interview,Shivaji Ganesan, Madras, November1969. 25Interview,S. S. Rajendran,Madras, December'1969. 26DinaThanthi (Madras), January16, 1967.

This content downloaded from 128.83.205.78 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 17:57:19 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2" POLITICS AND THE FILM IN TAMILNADU group.His publicstatements, increasingly embarrassing to theparty, finally culminatedafter Annadurai's death in the unofficialostracism of S.S.R. fromthe DMK. S.S.R., convincedthat people were trying to killhim, spoke of threatsagainst his life.On one occasion,he reportedan attackand beat- ing to thepolice, but the case was dismissedwhen an investigationof the evidencesuggested -that the woundswere self-inflicted.Abandoned by his fans and his party,S.S.R. was sustainedby his old friend,Shivaji, and dreamedof the comeback that would restore his stardomand his prominence in the DMK. But as bothstar and partystalwart, S.S.R. had been eclipsed by theDMK filmluminary, M. G. Ramachandran. M. Gopala Ramachandran("M.G.R.") has !been in Tamil filmsfor 36 years,with star billing in morethan 100 filmssince 1947, the year of his firstimportant role. M.G.R. came to cinemafrom a stagecareer, beginning at the age of six, whenhe enteredthe Madurai OriginalBoys Company, wherehe learnedacting, dancing, and sword-fighting-artsthat served him well in his latercareer.27 Knownas Vadiyar,("teacher"), Puratche Nadigar, ("revolutionaryac- tor"), and as MakkalThilagam, ("idol of themasses"), M.G.R. is thesym- bol ofhope for the poor in SouthIndia. He supportsorphanages and schools and is alwaysthe firstto give for disasterrelief. After torrential rains in Madras, he gave raincoatsto 6,000 rickshawmen. He is seen as "one amongthe people," "the incarnation of goodness,""the poor man'savatar." M.G.R.'s generosityis welladvertised, for it is thegrist of his fame.Every contributionto his philanthropicimage is an investmentin his continued popularityand followingamong the masses. The rickshawman is regardedas the archetypeof the M.G.R. fan, the poor man of thelaboring classes. For many,a substantialportion of their incomegoes forfilms, and to go on the openingday of a newM.G.R. film is the credentialof real devotion-a willingnessto pay a premiumfor a reservedseat or towait from early morning to brave police lathis for a chance at generaladmission. M.G.R. sees himselfas the "protector"of the commonman and is con- vincedof themoral purpose of his films."My roleshave been to showhow a man shouldlive and believe."28With a purityand integrityreminiscent ofthe classic American western, the M.G.R. filmis a moralityplay in which good inevitablytriumphs over evil. The villainis the embodimentof evil, unrelievedin his darknessexcept in the love he holds for his beautiful daughter.The hero (M.G.R.) is all virtuous:He maybe thecaptain of the guardin revoltagainst the tyrannies of a wickeddewan; a humbleclerk at odds witha corruptbureaucracy; a cowherderin strugglewith a cruel landlord.Whatever the role, it is alwaysthe same: The audienceexpects and demandsit. The heroneither smokes nor drinks,and is devotedto his

27See Hardgrave,"The Celluloid God: M.G.R. and the Tamil Film," South Asian Review,IV (July1971), pp. 307-314. 28Interview,M. G. Ramachandran,Madras, December 1969.

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sufferingmother. In love sceneswith the villain'sdaughter, he is almost invariablythe pursuedrather than the pursuer.The fightscenes, wildly cheeredby the fans,recall the swashbuckling Errol Flynn in a revisedand "Bonded" version.The climaxbrings the defeatof villainy,uplift of the poor, and fulfilledromance in a "self-respect"marriage. The filmsare filledwith references which blur the role and theactor into one. Indeed,for the M.G.R. fan, the man is a projectionof his screenimage. In Enga VittuPillai ("The Son of our Home," 1965), M.G.R. sings,"If you followme, the poor will neversuffer. First Christ came and preached; thenGandhi came and preached;but thepeople have forgotten.Now I will set thingsright." In Nam Nadu ("Our Country,"1969), thehero is introduced in a series of shortepisodes: He helps an old womanwalk across thestreet; captures a pickpocket;protects a younggirl from "eve teasers"; and savessmall children from eating unclean sweets. As thefilm progresses, thereis a long queue waitingbefore a rationshop. A richman arrivesby car and is immediatelysupplied with his quota. M.G.R. intervenesand asks the man to standin the line. Someonein the queue is heard to say, "If thereis one like thisman, then the countrywill be all right."Later, when ,ourhero agreesto help some slumdwellers, one of themsays, "Really you are a God." For M.G.R., "Art and politicsare the two sides of the same coin."29 The emblemof M.G.R.'s productioncompany shows the DMK flag,and his filmsare filledwith both directand indirectreferences to the party. Early DMK films,like Parasakthi,were basically orientedto social reform,but as the1957 electionsneared, the party chose less obtrusivethemes withmore of a specificallypolitical flavor. The demandfor a separatestate of Dravidasthan-thenthe cry of the DMK-would be couchedin "folklore" filmsin whichM.G.R. wouldstruggle against an evil despot.Dialogue wouldobliquely refer to contemporarypolitics and graduallyphrases were introducedto triggerapplause-a referenceto Anna or to the risingsun, symbolof the party. In the folklorefilm Nadodi Mannan ("VagaboundKing," 1958), there are numerousreferences in song and dialogueto "Dravida." In thefilm, an adaptationof The Prisonerof Zenda,M.G.R., crowned king, issues a decree thatcould easily pass for the DMK electionmanifesto. In Adimai Penn, theheroine points to therising sun and tellsM.G.R., "That is ourgod. Pray." Nam Nadu is perhapsthe ultimatein thisgenre. A remakein color of an earlierTelegu success, the film exposes administrative corruption and social eviland is givena particularDMK flare.M.G.R. makeshis firstappearance wearingthe party colors-a red shirtand blackpants. He holdsin his hands an openbook withthe pictures of both Gandhi and Annaduraion thecover. Throughoutthe film,the black and red combinationappears, Annadurai's

29Quotedin Kalaichelvan (ed.), M. G. R. Ponmozhigal ("Golden Words of M.G.R.) (Madras: Tamil Nilayam,1967), p. 13.

This content downloaded from 128.83.205.78 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 17:57:19 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 300 POLITICS AND THE FILM IN TAMILNADU portraithangs on the wall of almostevery scene, accompanied by pictures of Gandhi,and in one song,Anna is specificallycalled the "South Indian Gandhi."The hutsof a slumfly the DMK flag.When M.G.R., the sacrificing governmentclerk turned politician in the cause of thepoor, seeks election, his postersare in thered and blackform of theDMK. M.G.R.,in one scene, asksa slumdweller why grievances have not been brought to theCouncillor. The poor man replies,"They say 'AgattumParkallam' "-a referenceto thefavorite phrase of Kamaraj, theCongress leader-"We will see." With M.G.R.'s electionvictory, a song proclaims,"The sun is rising,history is changing,and now everythingwill be alright."The filmconcludes with a self-respectmarriage under a statueof Gandhi. In January1967, in an enactmentof roles theyhad so oftenplayed togetheron thescreen, M. G. Ramachandranwas shotby M. R. Radha, a classicalvillain of theTamil screen.Some have suggestedthat the shooting was politicallyinspired by Radha's devotionto the DK, but althoughthis seemsunlikely the events of thatday remainconfused in a backgroundof both personaland politicalconflict. Within hours of the shooting,some 50,000 people had gatheredat the hospitalwhere M.G.R. had been taken. People werecrying in the streets;shops closed. For six weeks,he lay in thehospital as fansawaited each reportof his health.He was visitedby the poorestpeople from the streets and by luminariesof Tamil filmand politics. At thetime of theshooting incident, M.G.R.'s popularityhad been in grad- ual decline.The shooting,however, brought him to new heightsof popularity.In a sense,it gave himnew life. From his hospitalbed, M.G.R. con- ductedhis campaignfor the Madras LegislativeAssembly. The day before the election,the Madras newspaperscarried an appeal fromM.G.R. to thevoters. With a largephotograph of theactor in bandages,M.G.R. called uponthe people of Tamilnadu to votefor the DMK. "I was to cometo your homes,but it could not be done. Now I am askingfor your hearts."30 In his constituency,he won twicethe number of votespolled by his Congress rival and the largestvote polled by any candidatefor the Assemblyin Tamilnadu. M.G.R.'s positionin theDMK has long been controversial.Some people have arguedthat M.G.R. was responsiblefor the party's1967 victory.He was at least a significantfactor. Murasoli Maran, a DMK Memberof Par- liamentand nephewof Chief Minister Karunanidhi, says that there is mutual reinforcementA31Others, both withinthe partyand out,negate any really significantrole forM.G.R. in theparty's advancement. Indeed, they believe

"Advertisementin Dina Thanthi (Madras), February 14, 1967. The Dina Thanthi is the most popular daily in Tamilnadu and has one of the highestcirculations of any newspaperin India. Its publisher,S. B. Adityan,supported the DMK for the firsttime in 1967 and was made a ministerin the new government.Before 1967, however,Adityan had been a strongopponent of the DMK-and particularlyof M.G.R. At one time,the paper's policy was to referto the actor as the "old hag" and to never carry his name or photograph. 8lInterview,Murasoli Maran, Madras, November1969.

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thathis enormouspopularity derives primarily from the party. During the late 1940s, M.G.R. had knownAnnadurai. M.G.R.-then a Congressman-wasreluctant to associatehimself with the movement.In 1954, however,Karunanidhi had unsuccessfullytried to get Shivaji for a newfilm. He thenturned to M.G.R.,who had beenmoving toward the DMK politically.The film,Malai Kallan ("Dacoit ofthe Mountain"), was a great success,and overnightM.G.R. was a top star and soon joined the DMK. Shivaji had been a reluctantpolitician, and in M.G.R. the partyfound a willingimage formass appeal. As M.G.R.'s popularitygrew to rival thatof the partyitself, there were rumblingswithin the DMK againsthim. M.G.R. may have feltas well that he no longerneeded the party and mightbenefit from official favor. In 1965 at a birthdaycelebration for Kamaraj, M.G.R. felicitatedthe Congress Presidentas "myleader." Though M.G.R. later denied that he had said this, Karunanidhi,with whom he had had long personalconflict, sought to make an issue of it. In a huff,M.G.R. resignedas a Memberof the Legislative Council.His seat in theupper house then went to a Congressman-infuriat- ing manyDMK members.At thattime an M.G.R. filmwas running,and whenthe news came of his resignation,attendance began to dropoff. People withinthe film industry and theparty admit that this was basicallya coin- cidence ("the filmwas a stinkerand would have failed anyway"),but it was widelybelieved that he had feudedwith party leaders and thatDMK supporterswere boycotting the film. His posterswere slashed and defaced. It was at thistime, amidst rumors that he was courtingCongress, that M.G.R. gave raincoatsto the rickshawmen, each emblazonedwith the red and black symbolof the DMK. Today M.G.R. says his resignationwas a "sac- rifice"for the party,32 although just how remainsunclear. Karunanidhi al- legedlydetermined to finishM.G.R., allocatedhim a predominantlyCon. gressconstituency for the 1967 electionswith the expectation that he would lose. He hadn'tcounted on M. R. Radha. Afterthe shootingand M.G.R.'s landslideelection, his positionwithin theparty was considerablystrengthened. He became partytreasurer, and afterthe death of Annaduraiin February1969, Karunanidhi,now Chief Minister,faced up to a trucewith the powerful actor in orderto maintain partysolidarity. The "honeymoon"was shortlived.By early 1972, M.G.R. and Karunanidhiwere in open battle,with M.G.R.'s accusationof "dicta- torship"and allegationsof widespreadcorruption among ministersand partyofficials. In October,M.G.R. was suspendedfrom the DMK. M.G.R. is virtuallyindistinguishable from the party."I am sacrificing mylife for the sake ofmy politics."33 M.G.R. has been an importantsource of financefor the party, although now thatthe DMK is in power,it is less dependenton him.He has financedcampaigns in a numberof constituen-

"2Interview,M. G. Ramachandran,Madras, December 1969. 3Bommai (Tamil filmmonthly), August 1967,p. 3.

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cies,but one DMK leader deniesthat he has made directcontributions to theparty. "M.G.R. has publicityvalue," he says,and "helpscollect money" forthe DMK, but "notfrom his ownpocket." Link magazinehas described him as the"DMK's prop."X34His presenceon theplatform of partyrallies and conferenceshas servedas a drawingcard forthe masses. At the time of the1968 WorldTamil Conference,M.G.R. presentedthe city of Madras witha statueof Annadurai,erected at a busy intersectionof MountRoad, thecity's main thoroughfare. M.G.R.'s hundredth film was releasedin 1968 to coincide with Annadurai'sbirthday. His film,Adimai Penn ("Slave Girl,") releasedin 1969, just afterthe deathof Annadurai,began witha viewof Anna's statue. Annaduraiis once supposedto have said, "Whenwe showhis face,we get40,000 votes; whenhe speaks a fewwords, we get 4 lakhs." M.G.R.'s fansare overwhelminglyDMK supporters,and some weresurely drawn to theparty by the starand co-optedas partyworkers. "I had no likingfor any party,"said one M.G.R. fan club member,but "since I like M.G.R., I beganto supportthe DMK. Whenwe workedfor him in the1967 elections, he used to give us the food whichhe himselfwould eat." In a randomsurvey on "filmand society"in Tamilnadu,film star pref- erencewas significantlyrelated to politicalparty support. In the broadest terms,M.G.R. fans were DMK-inclined;Shivaji fans, Congress-inclined. In theurban sample, 81% of M.G.R. fansvoted for the DMK in 1967, and only16% forCongress. Of the Shivaji fans,56% votedfor Congress and 29% forthe DMK. In the ruralsample, the same patternholds-73% of M.G.R. fansvoted for the DMK and only19% forCongress. On the other hand,71% of theShivaji fansvoted for Congress; 17% forthe DMK. In examiningthe relationshipbetween party vote and possible determinant variables,one variable,favorite star, accounted for 35% of the variation. In otherwords, whether an individualpreferred Shivaji or M.G.R. was the bestpredictor of how he votedin thetwo elections-Shivajifans for Con- gress; M.G.R. fans for the DMK. The relationshipbetween star preference and partyvote is confirmedin lookingat thesesame data fromthe party perspective. Of Congressvoters in 1962, 73% favoredShivaji; 16%, M.G.R. The star'sparty identification seemedeven more clearly evident in 1967. The Shivaji preferencerose to 76%, and M.G.R. declinedto 13%. In termsof DMK voterpreference, 39% of thosevoting for the partyin 1962 liked Shivaji; 61%, M.G.R. Withconsiderably greater numbers in 1967, DMK votersindicated a pref- erencefor Shivaji of 42%, as against58% forM.G.R. This mightappear, at firstglance, to suggestthat M.G.R. was losinghis hold over the DMK voter,but withthe increase of some 14% in popularvote from 1962, it is clear thatthe party had been able to attractnew supportfrom the Shivaji

"4Link,September 4, 1966.

This content downloaded from 128.83.205.78 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 17:57:19 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ROBERT L. HARDGRAVE 303 audience.In addition,a significantlylarger portion of theM.G.R. audience votedfor theDMK in 1967.35 The identificationof the filmstar and partyare reflectedin thepopular images of the stars. The relics and accoutermentsof fandomare omni- presentin Tamilnaduand are ofteninfused with political symbolism. Multi- coloredlithographs present dream images of thestars: M.G.R. againstthe embattledbanner of the DMK; M.G.R. in spacesuitwith DMK armpatch, as thefirst man on thesun; Shivaji,bleeding, as a Congressfreedom fighter in thestruggle for independence; Shivaji in conferencewith Kamaraj over thefate of thenation. Both M.G.R. and Shivaji pay considerableattention to theirfans, and fan clubs (rasigar manrams)have been organizedto advance the image of the stars. Shivaji claims threethousand fan clubs in Tamilnadu,and among theirvarious functions,political activity for the Congresslooms high. Some of the clubs are directlyassociated, even coterminous,with Congressorganizations. The letterheadstationery of variousclubs are print- ed in the orange,green, and whitecolors of the Congressand depictthe Congressflag. The partyflag flies from the officebuildings, and Shivaji's picturesshare the walls with those of Congressleaders. During the elections, theclubs organize public meetings, often with Shivaji's presence,and make personalcontacts to securevotes for Congress. The activitiesof themanrams forman importantpart of theCongress electoral effort in Tamilnadu,and thefans have been dedicatedpolitical workers. In 1970, a massiveall-India Shivaji Manramconference was held in Madras. WithKamaraj in attendance, Shivaji made an emotionalpledge to live and die forKamaraj.36 There are some fourto fivethousand fan clubs claimedfor M.G.R. in SouthIndia. Looselyorganized, in contrastto theShivaji clubs,an M.G.R. fan club would seem to formwhenever three or fourfans come together. Their devotionto thestar, however, is all-absorbing,and thefan is likely to subordinateall otheractivities to the manram. Like those of Shivaji, thefan clubs are politicallyinvolved, although apparently with little cen- traldirection. The clubsofficially have no politics,but most operate as loose adjunctsof theDMK and have been deeplyinvolved in electoralcampaigns. The 1967 electionsbrought film stars into the politicalarena for both Congressand the DMK. The Congresssought to followthe DMK in the use of propagandain film,and GeminiStudios produced one specifically politicalfilm for the Congressparty, Vazhaga Nam Thayagam ("Long Live OurMotherland"), starring Shivaji Ganesanand thepopular comedian Nagesh. Shivaji and the actressPadmini workedtirelessly for Congress throughoutthe "star-studded"campaign. Congress, however, was late in

""For a detailed examinationof the survey,see Hardgrave,"Film and Political Con- sciousness in Tamilnadu," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association,Washington, D.C., 1972. Also see Hardgrave,"Film and Society in Tamil Nadu: A Profile," MonthlyPublic Opinion Surveys of the Indian Instituteof Public Opinion,New Delhi, XV, (March, April,1970), pp. 1-62. "N. S. Jagannathanin The HindustanTimes, February 12, 1971.

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theact. The DMK had used thefilm and filmstars as a vehiclefor propaganda and politicalmobilization since the party'sinception. The cinema was a vitalelement in thelandslide victory that brought the DMK to power in 1967.37After the DMK's electoralvictory, the southerncorrespondent forFilmfare, India's premierfilm magazine, wrote, "The DMK . . . rose to prominenceand securedits vast popularitymainly through its script writers."38Two years later,Film/are reiterated that the Tamil filmindustry's"whole-hearted participation and completeidentification with the DMK partyin generaland Anna in particularwas responsiblefor the mass supportthe partyreceived and withwhich it ultimatelycaptured power in Tamilnad."39 In power,the party consolidated its positionwith the filmindustry. The presidentof the SouthIndian Film Chamberof Commercewas appointed by Annaduraito thehonorific position of Sheriffof Madras. Congresspro- ducersand filmdirectors now soughtto cash in on the popularityof the DMK, withthe introductionof DMK symbolsand referencesinto their films.The newgovernment gave emphasisto thefilm division of the state's informationdepartment. New documentaries,shown weeklythroughout Tamilnadu,depicted party leaders at everyopportunity. The 1971 assemblyelections in Tamilnaduagain broughtout the stars. Annaduraiwas dead, but Karunanidhiwas in fullcommand of the DMK. For threeweeks, the studios of Kodambakkam-"the Hollywood of Madras" -were silent.In thewords of Link magazine,"The entirestar billing was on deputationto politics"-and most had been mobilizedby the DMK. M.G.R., defendingthe recordof the DMK in office,addressed more than 1400 partyrallies. Shivaji, forthe Organization Congress, addressed some 2000 publicmeetings throughout the state.40The DMK held its own, and theparty of Tamil nationalismwas again returnedto power. The filmsof theDMK todayare unlikelyto shockor pose a seriouschal- lengeto traditionalvalues. The earlyplays and filmsof theDravidian Move- mentindeed had been revolutionaryin content,but since the mid,1950s, the themesof social reformhave been dilutedin electoralcompromise. Today, DMK filmsare less a catalystto reformand revolutionthan a catharsisof counter-revolutionarytension release. Situations of structural conflict(landlord v. landless laborer; capitalistv. factoryworker) are mediatedthrough romantic love. Sex becomesa social solvent.Villainy is defeated-and perhaps,like M.G.R., the poor rickshawman will be able to marrythe rich man's daughter. "The revolutionaryurges of themasses," writesMythily Shivaraman in Mainstream,"find a vicariousfulfillment in themovies while in realitythey are denieda real-lifeforum for articulation.

8"Foran analysisof the 1967 election, see S. K. S. Nathan,"The DMK andthe Politics ofTamilnad," Economic and Political Weekly, December 19, 1967, pp. 2133-40. 88Filmfare,May 12,1967. "Filmfare,February 28, 1969. '0Link,March 14,1971.

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The close identificationbetween the movies and the party. . . createsthe happyillusion among the people that the Government is on 'theirside.' "'41 Even in catharsis,however, the DMK's use of filmrepresents one of the fewself-conscious efforts to employthe mediumfor political purposes. In propagandaand mobilization,the film has playeda significantrole in the rise of theDMK, and, forgood or ill, thestars have influencedthe fate of Tamilsociety.

"Mythily Shivaraman,"DMK: Kisan's Friend or Foe? Mainstream,August 30, 1969, p. 29.

ROBERT L. HARDGRAVE,JR., is an AssociateProfessor of Governmentat the UniversityofTexas, Austin.

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