11 CHAPTER II THEORITICAL FOUNDATION A. Understanding Of

CHAPTER II

THEORITICAL FOUNDATION

A. Understanding of Reading Comprehension

1. Language Learning

According to Oxford Leaner’s Dictionary, language is 1. System of

communication in speech and writing used by people of a particular country;

2. Language is the use by human of a system of sounds and words to

communicate; 3. Particular style of speaking or writing; 4. Ways of

expressing ideas and feelings using movements, symbols ad sounds; 5.

System of symbols and rules to operate a computer. So that, language is the

main instrument to communicate with another and cannot be replaced by

another way.

And in another source, Hughes (1962: 6) defines that language as a

system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which thought is conveyed from one

human being to another. Every human beings who is then developing into a

family, an ethnic group, and nation absolutely have their own language in

which one another is absolutely different whether seen from the point of the

way of pronouncing the words or seen from the point of the language rulers.

Someone’s language acquisition, ethnic group, and nation will happen

automatically by interaction or communication among the members of family

or among the ethnic group of a country.

Then, according to Bojovic (2010; 128) language learning (language acquisition) is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate. Language learning is one of the quintessential human traits, because nonhumans do not communicate by using language. Language acquisition usually refers to first-language acquisition, which studies infants' acquisition of their native language. This is distinguished from second-language acquisition, which deals with the acquisition (in both children and adults) of additional languages.

For example a newly baby born and at the age of 3 years old so, the baby will be a child and gets a native language from the members of a family especially, a mother so, he or she will be communicate with his or her members of family and members of a surrounding community. This is supposed to be a language learning process which is experienced by a child.

The example above indicates that a child is able to communicate with his or her members of a family and members of a surrounding communicate because he or she is able to understand the language which is use.

Such a child’s learning process of language should also be done by the students who are studying English at schools especially, at Senior High

Schools. By such a learning process, the students of Senior High Schools are hoped that they will be able to use English although in a simple sentence. But in reality, most of students of Senior High Schools are not still able to use

English although in a simple sentence both they are still in the process of learning and teaching or graduating from the schools.

Students who are learning English at school are obligated to learn from the basic lesson, such as; vocabulary building, reading, writing, listening and speaking. These basic components will be the main modal for learners to understand all English aspects. Even there are so many kinds of subjects in learning English, but when learners are able these basic components, they will easily learn in English in higher subject focus.

Words are supposed to be someone’s basic components of thought and speech, the signs, and symbols to be expressed to someone else. So, he or she is able to communicate with someone also by using the appropriate words. In this case, he or she has the words power that makes him or her uses the language precisely and economically.

In the activity of talking, someone will surely use words, phrase, and sentences to express his or her ideas, thoughts, and feelings to someone else.

Knowledge about words or vocabulary is supposed to be the root of a language, besides of course the rules of language themselves. The limitation of knowledge about vocabulary will be obstacles for someone to communicate using an oral language, say, talking. In other words, words are supposed to be the power for someone to use a language as its own function namely, an instrument of communication.

Language is the main instrument of communication. Extremely, language is the only instrument for human beings to communicate with the

other fellow human beings. The role of language in daily live is being premiere, because of its advantages. Language and human beings are not able to be separated each other such as body and soul. Therefore, language and human beings are one unity like body and soul. The writer has an opinion that language is meaningful sounds or groups of sounds produced by the organs of speech to express feelings, ideas, and thoughts of someone to others.

2. Reading

The definitions of reading according to Oxford Learner’s Dictionary

(2010; 356) is look at and understand something written or printed. In learning process we need to know then understand what we are reading, listening and speaking as well. And reading is the first method to get more vocabularies of these languages we are learning about.

Then, Cambridge Advance Learner’s Dictionary (2008: 312) state that reading is 1. the skill or activity of getting information from books: 2. an occasion when something written, especially a work of literature, is spoken to an audience: 3. the way in which you understand something.

There are four basic skills in learning English; reading, writing listening and speaking. All English learners must be mastering those four basic skills to improve their ability, also with students. Reading is very important for language learners, because by reading we are familiar with words, phrase, sentences, and paragraph of language we are learning. The importance of reading is representing in our elementary school study subject. There we

found that reading is the first study learnt by first grade of elementary school students.

According to Bojovic (2010: 23) Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols in order to construct or derive meaning (reading comprehension). It is a means of language acquisition, of communication, and of sharing information and ideas. Like all language, it is a complex interaction between the text and the reader which is shaped by the reader’s prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and language community which is culturally and socially situated. The reading process requires continuous practice, development, and refinement. In addition, reading requires creativity and critical analysis.

English has been spoken by people from all over the world. Everyone knows about this famous language even though they can or can not practice in speaking or writing the language well. There are four skills which must be mastered by the students. They consist of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Writing is a productive skill. However it must be through a process which is not easy to get it through. Students need more attention when they learn the rules or the steps from writing form.

Consumers of literature make ventures with each piece, innately deviating from literal words to create images that make sense to them in the unfamiliar places the texts describe. Because reading is such a complex process, it cannot be controlled or restricted to one or two interpretations.

There are no concrete laws in reading, but rather allows readers an escape to

produce their own products introspectively. This promotes deep exploration of texts during interpretation. Readers use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding and comprehension.

Readers may use context clues to identify the meaning of unknown words. Readers integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or schema.

Also according to Bojovic (2010: 65), there are several types and methods of reading, with differing rates that can be attained for each, for different kinds of material and purposes: a. Subvocalized reading combines sight reading with internal sounding of

the words as if spoken. Advocates of speed reading claim it can be a

bad habit that slows reading and comprehension, but other studies

indicate the reverse, particularly with difficult texts. b. Speed reading is a collection of methods for increasing reading speed

without an unacceptable reduction in comprehension or retention.

Methods include skimming or the chunking of words in a body of text

to increase the rate of reading. It is closely connected to speed learning. c. Proofreading is a kind of reading for the purpose of

detecting typographical errors. One can learn to do it rapidly, and

professional proofreaders typically acquire the ability to do so at high

rates, faster for some kinds of material than for others, while they may

largely suspend comprehension while doing so, except when needed to

select among several possible words that a suspected typographic error

allows. d. Rereading is reading a book more than once. "One cannot read a book:

one can only reread it," Vladimir Nabokov once said. A paper published

in the Journal of Consumer Research found re-reading offers mental

health benefits because it allows for a more profound emotional

connection and self-reflection, versus the first reading which is more

focused on the events and plot. e. Structure-proposition-evaluation (SPE) method, popularized by

Mortimer Adler in How to Read a Book, mainly for non-fiction treatise,

in which one reads a writing in three passes: (1) for the structure of the

work, which might be represented by an outline; (2) for the logical

propositions made, organized into chains of inference; and (3) for

evaluation of the merits of the arguments and conclusions. This method

involves suspended judgment of the work or its arguments until they are

fully understood. f. Survey-question-read-recite-review (SQ3R) method, often taught in

public schools, which involves reading toward being able to teach what

is read, and would be appropriate for instructors preparing to teach

material without having to refer to notes during the lecture. g. Multiple intelligence's-based methods, which draw upon the reader's

diverse ways of thinking and knowing to enrich his or her appreciation

of the text. Reading is fundamentally a linguistic activity: one can

basically comprehend a text without resorting to other intelligence's,

such as the visual, auditory, or even the logical intelligence. However,

most readers already use several intelligences while reading, and

making a habit of doing so in a more disciplined manner., constantly, or

after every paragraph can result in more vivid, memorable experience. h. Rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) reading involves presenting the

words in a sentence one word at a time at the same location on the

display screen, at a specified eccentricity. RSVP eliminates inter-word

saccades, limits intra-word saccades, and prevents reader control of

fixation times (Legge, Mansfield, & Chung, 2001). RSVP controls for

differences in reader eye movement, and consequently is often used to

measure reading speed in experiments.

Currently most reading is either of the printed word from ink on paper, such as in a book, magazine, newspaper, leaflet, or notebook, or of electronic displays, such as computer displays, television, mobile phones or e- readers. Handwritten text may also be produced using a graphite pencil or a pen. Short texts may be written or painted on an object.

Often the text relates to the object, such as an address on an envelope, product info on packaging, or text on a traffic or street sign. A slogan may be painted on a wall. A text may also be produced by arranging stones of a different color in a wall or road. Short texts like these are sometimes referred to as environmental print.

3. Reading Comprehension

After explaining about reading, now the writer is going to discuss about reading comprehension. According to Keith Rayner in Khusni (2012; 14)

Reading comprehension is the ability to read text, process it and understand its meaning. An individual's ability to comprehend text is influenced by their traits and skills, one of which is the ability to make inferences. If word recognition is difficult, students use too much of their processing capacity to read individual words, which interferes with their ability to comprehend what is read. There are a number of approaches to improve reading comprehension, including improving one's vocabulary and reading strategies.

Reading comprehension involves two levels of processing, shallow

(low-level) processing and deep (high-level) processing. Deep processing involves semantic processing, which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words. Shallow processing involves structural and phonemic recognition, the processing of sentence and word structure and their associated sounds. This theory was first identified by Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart (1981: 25) in Bojovic (2010:

202).

Learning to read in a second language, especially in adulthood, may be a different process than learning to read a native language in childhood. There are cases of very young children learning to read without having been taught. Such was the case reportedly taught to read and write at the age of five. There are also accounts of people who taught themselves to read by

comparing street signs or Biblical passages to speech. The novelist Nicholas

Delbanco taught himself to read at age six during a transatlantic crossing by studying a book about boats.

According to Tompkins, G.E. in Oman Ringgit (2012; 23) Reading comprehension is defined as the level of understanding of a text/message.

This understanding comes from the interaction between the words that are written and how they trigger knowledge outside the text/message.

Comprehension is a "creative, multifaceted process" dependent upon four language skills: phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Proficient reading depends on the ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. It is also determined by an individual's cognitive development, which is "the construction of thought processes". Some people learn through education or instruction and others through direct experiences.

Reading comprehension and vocabulary are inextricably linked. The ability to decode or identify and pronounce words is self-evidently important, but knowing what the words mean has a major and direct effect on knowing what any specific passage means. Students with a smaller vocabulary than other students comprehend less of what they read and it has been suggested that the most impactful way to improve comprehension is to improve vocabulary.

Most words are learned gradually through a wide variety of environments: television, books, and conversations. Some words are more complex and difficult to learn, such as homonyms, words that have multiple

meanings and those with figurative meanings, like idioms, similes,

and metaphors.

Reading comprehension is one of the pillars of the act of reading. When

a person reads a text he engages in a complex array of cognitive processes.

He is simultaneously using his awareness and understanding of phonemes

(individual sound “pieces” in language), phonics (connection between letters

and sounds and the relationship between sounds, letters and words) and

ability to comprehend or construct meaning from the text. This last

component of the act of reading is reading comprehension. It cannot occur

independent of the other two elements of the process. At the same time, it is

the most difficult and most important of the three.

B. Competence in Writing Procedure Text

1. Writing

Another main instruments of language learning is writing. It is

important to mastered writing method, because by writing learners can get

more vocabularies and improve their second language. According to

Tompkins, G.E. in Oman Ringgit (2012; 29) “Writing is a medium

of communication that represents language through the inscription of signs

and symbols. In most languages, writing is a complement to speech or spoken

language.” Within a language system, writing relies on many of the same

structures as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar and semantics, with the

added dependency of a system of signs or symbols, usually in the form of a

formal alphabet. The result of writing is generally called text, and the recipient of text is called a reader. Motivations for writing include publication, storytelling, correspondence and diary. Writing has been instrumental in keeping history, dissemination of knowledge through the media and the formation of legal systems.

In other source, Oxford Learners’ Dictionary (2010: 502) state that writing is 1. Mark letters or numbers on a surface, especially with a pen or pencil; 2. Produce something in written form so that people can read, perform or use it; 3. Put information, greetings, etc. in a letter and then send it to somebody. Writing

In another source, Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing) describe about writing system such as;

1. Logographies

A logogram is a written character which represents a word

or morpheme. The vast number of logograms needed to write a

language, and the many years of Chinese characters, cuneiform,

and Mayan, where a glyph may stand for a morpheme, a syllable, or

both; "logoconsonantal" in the case of hieroglyphs), and many have an

ideographic component. In Chinese, about 90% of characters are

compounds of a semantic (meaning) element called a radical with an

existing character to indicate the pronunciation, called

a phonetic. However, such phonetic elements complement the

logographic elements, rather than vice versa.

The main logographic system in use today is Chinese characters, used with some modification for various languages of China, and

Japanese. Korean, even in South Korea, today uses mainly the phonetic

Hangul system.

2. Syllabaries

A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables. A glyph in a syllabary typically represents a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone, though in some scripts more complex syllables may have dedicated glyphs.

Phonetically related syllables are not so indicated in the script. For instance, the syllable "ka" may look nothing like the syllable "ki", nor will syllables with the same vowels be similar.

Syllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Most logographic systems have a strong syllabic component. Ethiopic, though technically an alphabet, has fused consonants and vowels together to the point that it's learned as if it were a syllabary.

3. Alphabets

An alphabet is a set of symbols, each of which represents or historically represented a phoneme of the language. In a perfectly phonological alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the

spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling.

As languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language.

4. Abjads

In most of the writing systems of the Middle East, it is usually only the consonants of a word that are written, although vowels may be indicated by the addition of various diacritical marks. Writing systems based primarily on marking the consonant phonemes alone date back to the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt. Such systems are called abjads, derived from the Arabic word for "alphabet".

5. Abugidas

In most of the alphabets of India and Southeast Asia, vowels are indicated through diacritics or modification of the shape of the consonant. These are called abugidas. Some abugidas, such as Ethiopicand Cree, are learned by children as syllabaries, and so are often called "syllabics". However, unlike true syllabaries, there is not an independent glyph for each syllable.Sometimes the term "alphabet" is restricted to systems with separate letters for consonants and vowels,

such as the Latin alphabet, although abugidas and abjads may also be accepted as alphabets. Because of this use, Greek is often considered to be the first alphabet.

6. Featural scripts

A featural script notates the building blocks of the phonemes that make up a language. For instance, all sounds pronounced with the lips

("labial" sounds) may have some element in common. In the Latin alphabet, this is accidentally the case with the letters "b" and "p"; however, labial "m" is completely dissimilar, and the similar-looking

"q" and "d" are not labial. In Korean hangul, however, all four labial consonants are based on the same basic element. However, in practice,

Korean is learned by children as an ordinary alphabet, and the featural elements tend to pass unnoticed.

Another featural script is SignWriting, the most popular writing system for many sign languages, where the shapes and movements of the hands and face are represented iconically. Featural scripts are also common in fictional or invented systems, such as Tolkien's Tengwar.

7. Historical significance of writing systems

Historians draw a distinction between prehistory and history, with history defined by the advent of writing. The cave paintings and petroglyphs of prehistoric peoples can be considered precursors of writing, but are not considered writing because they did not represent

language directly. Writing systems develop and change based on the

needs of the people who use them. Sometimes the shape, orientation

and meaning of individual signs also changes over time. By tracing the

development of a script it is possible to learn about the needs of the

people who used the script as well as how it changed over time.

2. Writing Procedure Text

One factor which accounts for differences in text is the purpose for which the text is being used. When constructing a piece of text, the writer makes choice of words will depend again on the purpose and context of the text. According to Tanti’s book (2006; 67) “Bank Soal Bahasa Inggris Untuk

SMA Kelas X, XI, dan XII.” Procedure text is common factual genres that provide instructions on how to do something. A procedure is a piece of text that tells the reader or listener how to do something. The purpose of procedure text is to provide sequenced information or directions so that people can successfully perform activities in safe, efficient, and appropriate ways.

Procedure text is already familiar with people’s daily life, for example in giving instructions to make something, in games rules, in recipes, manual steps, directions of destination (Derewianka. 2004: 23-27). The context consists of three parts:

a. Title/goal

b. List of material

c. Steps/method/procedures

To arrange a good procedure text, we need the common text organization that should be applied in writing procedure text. Derewianka in

Bojovic (2010: 207) mentions, the text organization of a procedure text as follows:

a. The focus of instructional texts is on a sequence of actions

b. The structure is easily recognized

c. Each stage serves a particular function

d. The text may also include comments on the usefulness, significance,

danger, fun, etc.

e. Headings, subheadings, numbers, diagrams, photos are often utilized

to make instructions as clear and easy to understand as possible.

Writing a procedure text is one of the writing competence that the students have to produce or performed. However it is not easy to teach for the beginner as it is to the eighth grade students of MTs Sabilul Halim Kabupaten

Majalengka. Although they belong to conversation class, writing skill should also be supplementary covered because the skill will also contribute to the students speaking skill. They often feel confused about what they will write.

The text has purpose to instruct how to do something or make something in particular structures such as (goal, ingredients/materials, method and conclusion/evaluation). The language features that mostly used are imperative mood of verbs.

Then, Anderson & Anderson in Khusni (2008: 154) states that the generic structure of a procedure text contains:

a) An introductory statement that gives the aim or goal. This maybe the

title of the text or an introductory paragraph.

b) A list of the materials that will be needed to complete procedure:

a) This may be a list or a paragraph.

b) This step may be left out in some procedures.

c) A sequence of steps in the order they need to be done:

a) Numbers can be used to show first, second, third, and so on.

b) The order is usually important; such word as now, next, and after

this can be used.

c) Usually the steps begin with a command such as add, stir, or

push.

Using sequences must be considered important. Conclude that sequence or order is very important in either describing a process or reporting a procedure and they help to link the sentences. Sequences such as then, next, after this, make clear the sequence in which events or stages in a process occur. The sequences are usually placed at, or near, the beginning of a sentence. After looking the clarity principle, we might decide to use a sequence to make each step of the process clear. On the other hand, using the reality principle, we might decide that sequence are not needed because the process is described in natural time order and the readers knowledge of the world will make the sequence clear to her or him.

C. The Frame of Thinking

Reading as one of most important basic skill that must be delivered from

the first grade in formal education for every student, also when student learn

about second languages. How the student could learn second language

without learn from reading firstly. It is impossible to do it. Reading is a basic

life skill. It is a cornerstone for a child's success in school, and, indeed,

throughout life. Without the ability to read well, opportunities for personal

fulfillment and job success inevitably will be lost.

English has been spoken by people from all over the world. Everyone

knows about this famous language even though they can or can not practice in

speaking or writing the language well. There are four skills which must be

mastered by the students. They consist of speaking, listening, reading, and

writing. Writing is a productive skill. However it must be through a process

which is not easy to get it through. Students need more attention when they

learn the rules or the steps from writing form.

Therefore, writing skill is more complex and more difficult than other

skills to teach because it is not only requiring mastery on grammatically and

rhetorical devices but also on conceptual and judgement devices. Brown in

Bojovic (2010: 92) states, “As a method of communication, writing could be

used to establish and maintain contact with others, transmit information,

express though feeling and reactions, entertain and persuade”. In the teaching

and learning process of writing, the teacher has an important role.

For this purpose, a teacher should give much practice to improve student’s ability in English. They should be a model of English and should be able to choose the materials and methodology in presenting the materials to reach the objective of teaching and learning process. Using writing to teach can make visible the process students and teachers go through of as they learn.

Brown in Bojovic (2010: 110) states that writing is a process and that we write is often heavily influenced by constraints of genres, then these elements have to be present in learning activities. In genre-based approach, the focus of writing is to integrate the knowledge of a particular genre and its communicative purpose, these help learners to produce their written products to communicate to others in the same discourse community

In this research, the writer focuses in procedure text as one of the kind of text that should be mastered by students. It includes from the instruction and the standard in the course itself. In developing writing as a communicative skill, students should constantly be aware that particular topics in writing fit particular situations and confirm to particular conventions.

The text has purpose to instruct how to do something or make something in

particular structures such as (goal, ingredients/materials, method and

conclusion/evaluation). The language features that mostly used are imperative

mood of verbs.

To enable the students achieve the competence of writing procedure text,

the teacher should use an appropriate method or technique concerning this,

demonstration technique should be the appropriate one. It is based on what

De Porter and Hernacki (2004: 13) says that demonstration in particular, and

their contribution to language learning is to create an optimal environment,

either physical or mental. The demonstration step gives students the

opportunity to see and hear the details related to the skill being taught.

Therefore, the writer was interested to overcome the problems faced by

students in teaching procedure text through demonstration. It might create

new atmosphere for students because they might enjoy the activities and be

interested in the materials.

D. The Research Hypothesis

A hypothesis will be accepted if the fact is proved right and the writer

will rejected if the investigation is proved wrong. The writer has formulated

the hypothesis of the study as follows: There is positive and significant

influence between the students’ achievements in reading comprehension and

their competence in writing procedure text.