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University of Derby The effects of weaponry and mating experience on the level and outcome of agonistic interactions in male field crickets, gryllus bimaculatus (orthoptera: gryllidae) Item Type Thesis Authors Gee, David Download date 28/09/2021 06:20:36 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10545/623533 UNIVERSITY OF DERBY THE EFFECTS OF WEAPONRY AND MATING EXPERIENCE ON THE LEVEL AND OUTCOME OF AGONISTIC INTERACTIONS IN MALE FIELD CRICKETS, GRYLLUS BIMACULATUS (ORTHOPTERA: GRYLLIDAE) David Gee Doctor of Philosophy 2019 List of Figures 1.1 A male Cyclommatus metallifer has some of the largest mandibles 7 in the animal kingdom and are classic examples of positive allometric growth under sexual selection [adapted from Wikimedia.org]. 1.2 Male Hemideina crassidens mandibular weaponry [Adapted from 10 Kelly, 2008. Photo credit: Phil Bendle]. 2.1 An adult male G. bimaculatus with damage to the right wing. 27 2.2 An individually housed adult male G. bimaculatus with food, shelter and 27 water. 2.3 A small spot of nail varnish approx. 2-3mm was applied to the pronotum 28 taking care to not touch the wings or antennae during application. 2.4 Body measure points on an adult male G. bimaculatus. 31 2.5 Mandibles from a single male G. bimaculatus with measure lines from 31 distal tip to lateral articulation marked in white. 2.6 The arena allows the animals room to move and allows observation 33 from above and wider angles. 2.7 A standard aggression escalation scale, from Hofmann and 35 Schildberger (2001). 2.8 An initial encounter between two male G. bimaculatus sees Male 1 38 approach Male 2 (F1), antennal contact is made (F2), resulting in Antennal fencing between the pair (F3). 2.9 An encounter between two male G. bimaculatus results in unilateral 39 mandible flaring from Male 1 (F4), and Male 2 choosing to retreat by beginning to break contact (F5). 2.10 An escalating encounter between two male G. bimaculatus results in 39 one male moving out of combat (F6) and beginning to retreat from his opponent (F7). 2.11 An escalating encounter between two male G. bimaculatus results in 40 one male escaping the combat area away from his opponent (F8), Male 1 begins victory singing (F9). i 2.12 Male 2 approaches his previously dominant opponent from 41 Behind. 2.13 Male 2 recognises his previous opponent (F11), and moves quickly 41 around him as Male 1 turns in response to contact with his cerci (F12). 2.14 Male 2 evades the opponent he has recognised from a previous fight 42 (F13), and Male 1 emits victory song (F14). 2.15 Male 1 and 2 meet again head to head (F15) and escalate to 43 bilateral mandibular flaring, with Male 1 also singing victory song as he displays (F16). 2.16 The crickets engage in high level displays of aggression at ES 5+ (F17) 44 and Male 2 is ejected from the fight (F18). 2.17 The pair return to grappling ES 5+ (F19) and Male 1 is then thrown from 44 the fight (F20). 2.18 High level fighting proves too costly for Male 1.Male 2 begins victory 45 singing (F21) and Male 1 breaks away from the fight in order to retreat (F22). 2.19 Male 2 continues his victory song (F23) as Male 1 retreats away from 45 his opponent (F24). 2.20 Male 2 approaches Male 1 from behind (F25). As Male 1 feels contact 46 he immediately begins to turn away from the source of the contact (F26). 2.21 Male 2 approaches Male 1 who flees from slight contact from behind 47 (F27) and Male 2 begins victory song production (F28). 3.1 Excised G. bimaculatus testes. 57 3.2 Boxplot showing median and interquartile range comparing 59 female and male mass (g). 3.3 Boxplot showing median and interquartile range comparing female 60 and male pronotum width (mm). 3.4 Boxplot showing median and interquartile range comparing female 61 and male head width (mm). ii 3.5 Boxplot showing median and interquartile range comparing 62 female and male mandible span (mm). 3.6 Scatterplot of mandible span modelled on head width, in female and 63 male G. bimaculatus, with linear regression lines fitted. 3.7 Linear regression of male G. bimaculatus head width modelled 64 against pronotum width (a), and linear regression of male G. bimaculatus head width modelled against pronotum length (b). 3.8 The relationship between adult G. bimaculatus testes mass and cricket 64 mass (a), and the relationship between adult G. bimaculatus mandible span and testes mass (b). 4.1 A pair of male crickets, individually marked on the pronotum, 76 placed either side of a dividing wall. Heat lamps maintain the arena temperature at 27˚C. 4.2 The right mandible from an adult male G. bimaculatus with measure 78 points labelled. The green lines indicate the measurement lines taken using ScopeImage 9.0. 4.3 Ventral view showing differing shapes of the Right (a) and Left (b) 79 mandible from the same specimen of adult male G. bimaculatus. 4.4 Edge structures visible from the ventral (a) as opposed to dorsal (b) 78 aspect on the same right mandible from an adult male G. bimaculatus. 4.5 A pair of male G. bimaculatus engaged in bilateral mandibular flaring. 84 4.6 A pair of male G.bimaculatus engaged in mandibular grappling. 85 5.1a Boxplot showing median and interquartile range of the mass ranges of 94 the large (n=54) and small (n=54) males used in this work. 5.1b Boxplot showing median and interquartile range of mandible spans of 95 the large (n=54) and small (n=54) males used in this work. 5.2 Probability of large male winning based on degree of weight 96 asymmetry with the smaller male. 5.3a Boxplot showing median and interquartile range of small male mandible 97 spans of losers (n=24) and winners (n=14) and of mandibular flaring. iii 5.3b Boxplot showing median and interquartile range of small male head 97 widths of losers (n = 24) and winners (n = 14) and of mandibular flaring. 5.3c Boxplot showing median and interquartile range of small male 98 head/mandible rf of losers (n=24) and winners (n=14) of mandibular flaring. 5.4 Bar chart of mean mass difference with standard error of small male 98 winners and losers of fights that ended with jaw flaring. 5.5a Mandible spans showing median and interquartile range of small male 99 winners (n=8) and losers (n=46) of grappling. 5.5b Head widths showing median and interquartile range of small male 100 winners (n=8) and losers (n=46) of grappling. 5.5c Head/Mandible rf values showing median and interquartile range of 100 small male winners and losers of grappling. 5.6 Bar chart of mean mass difference and standard error of small male 101 winners and losers of grappling fights. 5.7 Binary regression plot-curve of the probability of the first fight in an 103 encounter escalating to grappling as weight asymmetry between opponents increases. 5.8 Binary regression plot-curve of the effect of the small male winning the initial 104 fight and ending the encounter the winner. 6.1 The pair of holding tanks used for Treatment groups 1.1 and 1.2. 113 6.2 The female was gently placed within a few cm of the EM inside the 114 arena for Treatments 1.3 and 1.4. 6.3 The female was covered with a robust, opaque blue bottle lid after the 115 male had mate-guarded for two minutes. 6.4 SM and EM males in groups 1.1, and 1.2 were placed on either side of 116 the arena wall. 6.5 Ventral aspect of the head showing measurement points for the 117 maxillae span, MxS. Picture adapted from Judge and Bonanno (2008) 6.6 Fights escalating to grappling by treatment (Mounted or Mated to the 123 female, n=25 in each group). iv 6.7 Fights won by the experimental male (EM) by treatment (Mounted or 124 Mated to the female, n=25 in each group). 6.8 The effect of weapon difference on the probability of the experimental male 125 (EM) winning his fight against the stimulus male (SM) (in experiment 1). 6.9 Fights escalating to Grappling by treatment (Mated, with female) 126 contact, or, Mated, with female then covered, n=25 in each group. 6.10 Fights won by the EM by treatment (Mated, with female contact, or, 127 Mated, with female then covered, n=25 in each group). 6.11 First encounter mean fight escalation with standard error bars across 128 groups before treatment (n=25 in each group). 6.12 Second encounter mean fight escalation with standard error bars 129 across groups after treatment (each group n=25). Matching letters indicate a significant difference between groups. 6.13 Percentage of pairs showing pre-established dominance by the EM 130 in the second encounter (each group n=25). Matching letters indicate a significant difference between groups. 6.14 Percentage of EM males switching from subordinate to dominant position 131 in encounter 2 in each treatment group (each group n=25). 7.1 Percentage of fights that escalated to grappling by manner of spermatophore 155 removal and female presence or absence. 7.2 Mean contacts with standard error in each treatment group. “Absent” and 156 “Present” refer to the presence or absence of the female; “Mated” and “Tweezer” refer to the mode of spermatophore removal from the male.
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