Vol. 11(8), pp. 582-588, 23 April, 2016 DOI: 10.5897/ERR2015.2614 Article Number: 5771DE158010 ISSN 1990-3839 and Reviews Copyright © 2016 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/ERR

Full Length Research Paper

Place of diversity in the current Ethiopian and training policy: Analysis of Cardinal dimensions

Tariku Sime1* and Gara Latchanna2

1Department of TECS, Jimma , 2Department of Education, Andhra University, India

Received 22 December, 2015; Accepted 26 February, 2016

The purpose of this paper was to investigate to what extent the diversity dimensions are addressed in the current Education and Training Policy. To that end, document analysis was employed. The major diversity dimensions were analyzed based on their cardinal features. The study demonstrated that there is an ambitious need to address issues of diversity into the Ethiopian Education and Training Policy. Nevertheless, there are missing dimensions in the document. Moreover, the specific elements of the dimensions are not exhaustively treated. Implications which are believed to advance fair representation of different groups based on the identified dimensions are indicated in the article.

Key words: Document analysis, diversity, education and training policy, diversity dimensions.

INTRODUCTION

Ethiopia is said to be one of the oldest nation in the world is important to formulate policies to address diversity at with rich mosaic composition of society. However, all levels of education to make accessible to its citizen in different writers claim there are challenges related with a fair way. This is because of the fact that education amalgamation of diversified groups. According to Semela especially in the 21st century underpins the assumption (2012), for instance, the reality in the country demands that goes beyond discipline based information transfer the adoption of democracy and the acknowledgement of (Masemann, 2007). both individual and group identity. He further calls for To put into effect such ideals, one would expect more intercultural understanding and respect for people formulating that entertains diversity as with different racial, ethnic, linguistic, and religious an important preliminary step. One fairly common backgrounds. Wagaw (1981) similarly explicated how the justification for addressing diversity in policy document amalgamation of the different interests, expectations and emanates out of a recognition that the diversity of a ambitions of the various diversified groups determine population and the rates of cross-cultural interaction, both both the immediate and long-term stability of the country. in local and across the globe is increasing dramatically. It Ethiopia, as a country in which more than 80 ethno- could be argued, therefore, that the education and cultural as well as linguistic groups (Semela, 2014) live, it training policy is expected to be responsive to diversity.

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This espouses that texts are not only signify how reality and current federal system of governance became fully is constructed but also influence the creation of operational after 1994.The major features of the triple knowledge that society has accepted as legitimate and governments adumbrated separately as follows. truthful (Apple and Christian-Smith,1991). When the current government came to power in 1991, reconfigured the country into different states based on Imperial period (1941–1974) ethnic dimension of diversity (Semela, 2014). In association with state formation, new constitution was This regime had run the education system of the country also promulgated in 1995. It enshrines diversity issues as for more than three decades. Like other sectors, “the government shall have the duty to support, on the education system during this time was characterized by basis of equality, the growth and enrichment of cultures the centrality as a vehicle of progress. Though there are and traditions that are compatible with fundamental arguments, it is said to be civilization that inspired his rights, human dignity, democratic norms and ideals, and majesty to give due concern for education. He heavily the provisions of the constitution” (Federal Democratic employed education as a means of coercive assimilation Republic of Ethiopia-hereafter FDRE, 1995, Article 91). In to create Amharanized central government (Kebede, addition, the same constitution underscores “education 2006). As the last emperor of , he shall be provided in a manner that is free from any made Amharic as medium of instruction in Primary school religious influence, political partisanship or cultural (1-3 grade) and the sole Ethiopian language after he prejudices” (Article 90). Similarly, the Education and came from exile which marked the huge expansion of Training Policy of Ethiopia pinpoints “... to provide education in privileged provinces (Wagaw, 1979). education that promotes democratic culture, tolerance Bandyopadhyay and Green (2008:6) superbly put the and peaceful resolutions of differences that raises the emperor’s real interest towards homogenisation based on sense of discharging societal responsibility” (FDRE, linguistic and religious dimensions as: 1994, p. 10). This implies that the policy developed for the country is Perhaps the best example of a regime that promoted expected to address the diverse needs and nature of the religious and linguistic homogenization was Haile Ethiopian society in addition to entertaining core Selassieís of Ethiopia, where Amharic became the sole international issues. This, in turn, is expected to contribute language of primary education in 1943 and literature was to the efforts being made by the government to ensure banned in all other languages. In a particularly clever sustainable development in the country (Egne, 2010). move Selassie also required missionaries to use Amharic: Nonetheless, researches conducted on diversity practices since they were already predominately located among (Hussein, 2008; Kenea, 2010) show that the Ethiopian non-Amharic speaker they thus became the “work horses education system is not sensitive to the diverse nature of of Selassieís national integration project. the country. In this study, however, the intention is to scrutinize the provisions of diversity issues in the current The above quotation depicts how brutal the regime was Ethiopian Education and Training policy. The close in suppressing not only the use of vernacular languages investigation of the matter would help to know whether in the formal education system but also the literature diversity is exhaustively addressed in the policy document produced in other nationality languages. Moreover, as promulgated in the constitution. In short, the article missionaries were also forced to use Amharic to preach attempts to answer the following basic question: How do the mass, in most cases, who were unable to speak major diversity dimensions addressed in the Ethiopian Amharic in many parts of the country where they were Education and Training Policy? sent to teach. With regard to education, the official and state religion was orthodox Christianity. Other denominations of Christianity were instrumental in the HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF MAJOR DIVERSITY assimilation process as they were using Amharic as ISSUES IN ETHIOPIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM medium of formal communication. Followers of other religions were not allowed to exercise any sort of To understand the current education system, it would be religious practices. meaningful to demonstrate the historical overview of the Alemseged (2004)’s statement espouses the policies. Accordingly, the education policies of three aforementioned narrations in the sense that the system regimes are presented below consecutively. According to was meant to facilitate the assimilation process at the Negash (2006), Ethiopia has experienced three systems expense of quality of education. The influence of Amharic of political governance, each distinguished by its was not limited to local languages only; it jostled English education policy since 1940s. The first system of as medium of instruction in primary education and junior governance was the Imperial system that started soon high school throughout the country during the early after WWII and lasted until 1974; the second was the 1960s. Above all, as the writer explicated, beyond the military/socialist system that lasted until 1991. The third use of , teaching of selective history

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which applauded only the dominant group was a good one of the major dimension of diversity-ethnicity/Ethnic example of assimilation policy of nation building during federalism. Therefore, the purpose from the very imperial Ethiopia. beginning was to recognize and provide full right all citizens in this regard. The other fundamental difference is that diversity is a superstructure for unity unlike the Dergue period (1974-1991) previous regimes taking diversity as a threat to national unity. The assimilation approach of previous As the government of socialist ideology, Dergue’s policy governments in the nation building process only led to was not serious about making language, religion and armed struggles by ethno-nationalist movements and other dimensions of diversity top concern of that time. eventually EPRDF came to power in 1991. Thus, it However, in the name of unity, it maintained Amharic as became clear that the Ethiopian unity was only rest on the official language of all sorts of formal communication. the acknowledgement and recognition of the existing In fact it did not seem affiliated with one ethnic, linguistic differences. Strongly believing this, FDRE constitution or religious group. The fundamental aim of education, as was ratified in 1995 fully granting the right to self- expressed by the Ethiopian government in the early determination up to secession. Astonishingly, Article 39 1980s, was to cultivate Marxist-Leninist ideology in the of the FDRE constitution states: young generation, to develop knowledge in science and technology, and to integrate and coordinate research with 1. Every Nation, Nationality and People in Ethiopia has production so as to enable the revolution to move forward an unconditional right to self-determination, including the and secure productive citizens (Negash, 2006). This right to secession. broad objective was later summarized into three slogans, 2. Every Nation, Nationality and People in Ethiopia has namely, “Education for production, for scientific research, the right to speak, to write and to develop its own and for political consciousness." Some specific aims of language; to express, to develop and to promote its this educational system were: culture; and to preserve its history. 3. Every Nation, Nationality and People in Ethiopia has 1. Eradicating illiteracy through the provision of universal the right to a full measure of self-government which education to the public masses. includes the right to establish institutions of government 2. Providing schooling to help citizens develop their in the territory that it inhabits and to equitable consciousness, participating in class struggle, and using representation in state and Federal governments. the principles of Marxism and Leninism. 3. Enabling students to acquire and own progressive cultures so that they abide by the principles of socialist The basic concept of diversity and its dimensions morality and discipline. 4. Providing education that would enhance scientific The concept of diversity encompasses acceptance and research and practice so that students would be able to respect. It means understanding that each individual is integrate theory with practice, know their environment, unique, and recognizing our individual differences. These and the society in which they live. can be along the dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender, 5. Providing education that liberates the society from sexual orientation, socio-economic status, age, physical primitive systems of production by producing manpower abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs, or other trained in various professional disciplines. ideologies (Cengiz, 2009). Therefore, diversity is the exploration of these differences in a safe, positive, and The imperial assimilation policy was replaced by a new nurturing environment. It is about understanding each version of “Ethiopia Tikdom”-literally means “Ethiopia other and moving beyond simple tolerance to embracing first” slogan. As a result, practically, it was during this and celebrating the rich dimensions of diversity contained period that Amharic as a sole of medium of instruction within each individual. gained much privilege. There was no state religion unlike Diversity as a value entails the notion of an inclusive the previous regime. Moreover, the recognition and society, with a vision of providing all citizens irrespective practice of other diversity dimensions such as ethnicity, of major social and economic differences and structural gender, age and economic status were very minimal. discriminations based on ethnicity, class, gender, religion, disability, and etc. These are common problems that should be counteracted with working national policies and Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front constitute a major concern for Ethiopia. This study, (EPRDF) Government-1991-current therefore, is based on the assumption that diversity education requires reforming the structural, procedural, The education system of the current government is quite substantive, and evaluative tenets of the educational different from the previous two regimes at least in two enterprise to reflect the social, cultural, ethnic, and major ways: the first one is that its formation is based on linguistic pluralism of a given society (Gay, 1995).

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The investigation is designed in terms of the common to a people who are of the same community or comprehensive understanding of diversity education nation, the same geographical area, or the same cultural involving approaches that promote the understanding of tradition. the diversified groups’ identity embedded in their cultures, histories, values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviours to shift Gender: Either the male or female division of a species, from ethnocentric to ethno relative perspectives (Bennett, especially as differentiated by social and cultural roles 1995). This indeed requires among other measures, and behavior. reforms of educational policies. The essential elements of the policy through the phases of planning, implementation Religion: set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and and evaluation are expected to entertain the needs and purpose of the universe, especially when considered as existing merits of all the beneficiaries. Accordingly, in the the creation of a super human agency or agencies, document issues of cultural, ethnic, religious, gender and usually involving devotional and ritual observances, and other related dimensions of diversity that help school often containing a moral code governing the conduct of children learn about themselves and others are given top human affairs. priority for the analysis. In Ethiopian context, policy provisions of diversity issues such as mutual respect, tolerance, living in harmony, equality, liberty, justice and METHODOLOGY moral values weigh important place in building pluralistic society which fits to the contemporary thinking of scholars As explained in the introductory part, the purpose of the study was to scrutinize thoroughly diversity issues treated in the current in the area are also tested with empirical evidences Education and Training Policy document. To this end, qualitative (Banks, 2004; Benett, 1995). content analysis was employed to study the issues with reference As diversity is about more than just differences, the to the meanings, contexts and intentions contained in the policy new diversity paradigm defines it as the process of document. Research using qualitative content analysis focuses on creating and maintaining an environment that naturally the characteristics of language as communication with attention to the content or contextual meaning of the text (Tesch, 1990). enables all participants to contribute to their full potential. Qualitative content analysis goes beyond merely counting words to The following model can be helpful to make crystal clear examining language intensely for the purpose of classifying large what it means to enable all persons to contribute their full amounts of text into an efficient number of categories that represent potential to the society. similar meanings (Weber, 1990). These categories can represent either explicit communication or inferred communication. The goal of content analysis is “to provide knowledge and understanding of Primary dimensions the phenomenon under study” (Downe-Wamboldt, 1992, p. 314). Since the existing theory or research literature on a phenomenon is The inner circle shows the primary dimensions of limited, the Conventional content analysis approach was employed. Here coding categories are derived directly and inductively from the diversity -- those that are fundamental to a persons' self- document taking in to account the major diversity dimensions concept or core self. These dimensions, though not treated in the study viz. Ethnicity, religion, language and gender. necessarily visible, are unchangeable in that they are not Accordingly, we employed Dey’s (1993) circular process of a matter of choice. They form the basis on which people qualitative analysis: Describing, classifying and connecting the make instantaneous judgments about one another, often elements of the identified dimensions. through the process of stereotyping. Here a person’s Regarding the material, the document is the working Education and Training policy promulgated in 1994 under the then Transitional primary dimensions of diversity are described as core . The document has four major parts viz. because they exert an important impact on our early Introduction, objectives, overall strategy where all important issues socialization and a powerful, sustained impact through of educational policy are treated and finally the areas of special every state of life (Figure 1). attention and action priority. The units of analysis, in this study, are words, phrases, statements as they relate or refer to the tenets of diversity such as Secondary dimensions ethnicity, gender, linguistics and religion. Words and sentences in articles, sections, topics, and paragraphs are also investigated in The outer circle consists of secondary dimensions of search of meanings that deal with the diversity dimensions of the study. Then, it is followed by the interpretation and implication of diversity. These are aspects of a persons' identity that are the meanings and messages bearing essential characteristics of important to a definition of self, but are not as fundamental diversity management such as equality, tolerance, mutual respect, as the primary dimensions. ethno relative thinking, harmony, conflict management and This study focuses on four major diversity dimensions: resolution, and other related issues.

Ethnicity: Identification with and feeling a part particular racial, national, or cultural group and observance of that RESULTS AND DISCUSSION group's customs, beliefs, and language. This part of the study presents the major components of Language: A body of words and the systems for their use diversity dimensions and their placement in the current

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education and training policy. Accordingly, the identified article 3.5.1 affirms the aforementioned intent and here it dimensions are: Ethnicity, language, gender, and religion. goes “Cognizant of the pedagogical advantage of the Moreover, equity and democratic cultures that bind all child in learning in mother tongue and the rights of dimensions of diversity are treated separately. nationalities to promote the use of their languages, primary education will be given in nationality languages” (p.23).Above all, the issue of language is boldly written in Ethnicity one of the fifteen objectives stated in the document as “To recognize the rights of nations/nationalities to learn in These days ethnicity is a buzz word in the contemporary their language….” (p.10).This is completely different from world, especially in developing nations, so called the previous practices where only one language used as underdeveloped countries by affluent western countries. a medium of instruction which is pedagogically not Like most African states, Ethiopia is ethnically diverse. advisable for learners, particularly elementary, to However it is not the result of colonialist design; rather th understand the contents at optimum level (Benson, resulted from the late 19 century territorial expansion of 2004). In general, the political changes of the ninety- the empire of Abyssinia (Vander, 2007). As the nineties in country were associated with a broad contemporary language of ethnicity is usually a political education reform and a transition from the use of only language in disguise, the current government of Ethiopia Amharic and English as media of instruction to a state has declared ethnic identity the ideological basis of where multi-lingual approach came in to being. Currently, political organization and administration, and has also 25 local languages are said to be in use at primary level been enshrined in the Federal Constitution of the country. as medium of instruction (Seidel and Moritz, 2009). In Education and Training Policy, ethnicity as an independent dimension is not clearly mentioned. However, it is implied in the objectives. For example, the Gender third general objective (Article 2.1.3.) quoted “Bring up citizens who respect human rights, stand for the well- Gender equality is a core development objective in its being of people as well as for equality, justice and peace, own right. It is also smart economics. Greater gender endowed with democratic culture and discipline”. If there equality can enhance productivity, improve development is equality, by implication there are diversified groups outcomes for the next generation, and make institutions meant for it among which ethnicity is one of the dominant more representative (World Bank, 2011). The 1994 dimensions. Moreover, for ethnic identity is a fundamental Ethiopian education and Training policy confirms the ideology of the country, most of the features are existence of gender related problems in the country and manifested in the language as another pillar diversity calls for the comprehensive relentless effort to change dimension. Therefore, issues treated under language in societal biases, stereotypes and prejudices through the policy document are also reflections of ethnicity and education. The policy acknowledges the contribution of ethnic group for two of them are usually inseparable in females to development endeavours and encourages this Ethiopian context. attitude to be cultivated in the society at large through the process of education. Article 2.2.13 of the policy as stated in the document posits the issue as one of the Language objectives and stated as “To gear education towards reorienting society’s attitudes and values pertaining to the Language plays vital role on students’ learning and role and contribution of women in development” (p.11). achievements; major aspect in the education system. In Moreover, the section of the policy that deals with this regard Banks and Banks (1997) explicated in clear Curriculum under overall strategy also suggests the statements “Language, as a system of communication, is preparation and development of curriculum and textbooks an indispensable bridge for sharing knowledge, skills, need to consider matters related to gender. It is written in values and attitudes within and across cultures…It has Article 3.1.3 as “…ensuring that the curriculum developed tremendous power as the paramount instrument of and textbooks prepared at central and regional cognitive development, and it can open or close the door levels…give due attention to…gender issues” (p.12). It to academic achievement”(p.272). Although Ethiopia is a can be deduced, therefore, that the education and multilingual country, a single language (Amharic) had training policy has given due concern to gender breaking been the medium of instruction at the elementary school the patriarchal traditions in Ethiopian culture. It enhances level throughout much of the country’s history. In relation female and women participation not only in education but to this, the current Education and Training Policy of also in other development sectors. Ethiopia dictates the importance of languages especially mother tongues, one form of diversity education, to learn and construct meaning out of the content. The policy, in Religion Article 2.2.12, states the recognition given to vernacular languages as media of instruction in schools. Moreover, As one of the most sensitive area of human life, religion

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Figure 1. Dimensions of diversity (Adapted from Martyn, 1996).

has very pressing influence not only on education but fundamental to realize pluralistic society. The Ethiopian also on all daily activities of our endeavour. In Ethiopian Education and Training policy posits the importance of case where the society is so diverse and different, the equity in Article 2.2.3 as “To enable both the policy is necessary and overdue to give full expression to handicapped and the gifted learn in accordance with their the invocation of religion in the constitution and the potential and needs” (p.9).As for the democratic cultures, principles governing religious freedom. In this regard, the the Introduction part of the policy states, 1994 Ethiopian education and Training policy dictates in “Education…plays a role in the promotion of respect for Article 2.2.7 that school should provide secular education human rights and democratic values, creating the in the country as the constitution proclaims the separation condition for equality, mutual understanding and of state and religion in Article 11 as “state and religion are cooperation among people” (p.1). This clearly depicts the separate, there shall be no state religion, the state shall role of education in enhancing respect and tolerance not interfere in religious matters and religion shall not among the citizens. The document further reiterates the interfere in state affairs”. It seems evident that in public issue in the General Objectives on Article 2.1.3 as schools where no particular religious ethos should be “Bringing up citizens who respect human rights, stand for dominant over and suppress others, the government the well-being of people, as well as for equality, justice ensures and protects the equal rights of all students to and peace, endowed with democratic culture and have their own religious views. discipline” (p.7).Similarly, the idea stated in the Specific Objectives addresses diversity vividly. It says “To provide education that promotes democratic culture, tolerance Equity and democratic cultures and peaceful resolution of differences and that raises the sense of discharging societal responsibility” (p.10). This At a rhetorical level, many people favour equity because expression is further supported by the provision in Article of the essential values of fairness and opportunity the 2.2.10 that specifies “To provide education that can concept suggests. Similarly, democracy, popular term at produce citizens who stand for democratic unity, liberty, least at abstract level, often deals with justice, equality equality, dignity and justice, and who are endowed with and human right (Banks, 2004). Both terms are truly moral values” (p.10).

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Conclusion Cengiz E (2009). Diversity in . Thesis. University of Applied Sciences, Northwestern Switzerland. Dey I (1993). Qualitative data analysis: A user-friendly guide for social Diversity issue is the top concern of many nations. It scientists. Rutledge Publishing. London. recognizes differences between people and acknowledges Downe-Wamboldt B (1992). Content analysis: Method, applications, that these differences are a valued asset. Because of and issues. Health. Women Int. 13:313-321. this, it seems there is a tendency to inculcate diversity Egne RM (2010). Washback effects of handouts on the teaching and learning process in the higher education institutions in Ethiopia: issues in all sectors of human development endeavour. Adama University in focus. J. Teacher Educ. Sustainabil. 12(2):130- To this end, the study investigated the responsiveness of 142. the 1994 Education and training policy of Ethiopia in FDRE (1994). Education and training policy.: St. George terms of its provisions of diversity of various dimensions. Printing Press. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1995). The constitution of the As presented in the discussion, most of the major Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: Berhanena diversity dimensions such as ethnicity, language, gender Selam Printing Enterprise and religion are articulated. Nevertheless, some of the Gay G (1995). Curriculum theory and multicultural education, In: J.A. dimensions are missing. For example, ethnicity as one of Banks & C.M. Ministry of Education (Ed.). (2002). The Education and Training Policy and Implementation. Addis Ababa. the major component is not explicated very well (Figure Hussein JW (2008). The politics of language, power, and in 1). Moreover, the dimensions are not treated separately Ethiopia: Addressing the past and present conditions of the Oromo so that their place in the document would be easily language. Austr. J. Linguist. 28(3):31-57 understood. Revitalizing, therefore, diversity issues of the Kenea A (2010). Education and diversity: Pupilsí perceptions of ëothersí and curricular responses at selected sites in Ethiopia. Ethiop. J. policy through various strategies is a timely call for Educ. 30(1):23-50. representation of different groups and identities creating Masemann VL (2007). Culture and education (3rd.ed.). In: R. F. Arnove a fertile ground for equality and equity of all citizens. & C. A. Torres (Eds.), Comparative education: The dialectic of the global and the local (pp. 101-116). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Kebede M (2006). The Roots and Fallouts of Haile Selassie’s Conflict of Interests Educational Policy. UNESCO Forum Occasional Paper Series Paper no. 10. The authors have not declared any conflicts of interest. Seidel K, Moritz J (2009). Changes in Ethiopia’s Language and Education Policy – Pioneering Reforms? 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