Biocontrol News and Information 26(1), 1N–16N pest.cabweb.org General News

Progress on Tackling Glassy-Winged Sharpshooter Booms in the South Pacific Sharpshooter Invasions in California and the High densities of H. coagulata are not only present in South Pacific California. In 1999, the pest was detected in Tahiti Glassy-winged sharpshooter, Homalodisca coagu- (French Polynesia in the South Pacific Ocean). Initial lata, is a major agricultural pest in California, USA. eradication attempts were apparently unsuccessful Inordinate densities of this exotic xylophagous as large populations were later detected there in cicadellid have developed in most of California where 2001 and in Mo’orea in 2002. In 2003 and 2004, pop- it feeds and reproduces on more than 300 species of ulations were discovered on the islands of Huahine, plants. Homalodisca coagulata is native to the south- Bora Bora, and Raiatea (all infested islands are part eastern USA and northeastern Mexico. The insect of the Society Islands group). Homalodisca coagulata invaded and established in southern California in populations in Tahiti are much higher than those the late 1980s, presumably immigrating from the observed in California. There are at least four rea- donor range on imported ornamental plants. After sons for this. undergoing a prolonged lag period, populations exploded in the early to mid 1990s and the insect rap- 1. Homalodisca coagulata breeds year round in idly increased its range, spreading from southern Tahiti as opposed to California where there are only California north through the Central Valley and into two generations a year, spring and summer. In Cali- areas around Sacramento in northern California. fornia, overwintering adults enter a reproductive quiescence during the late autumn and winter and Female H. coagulata lay eggs on the underside of sporadic egg laying occurs during warm periods over leaves. Typically, individual eggs are laid side by side winter. Reproductive quiescence is not observed in under the leaf epidermis which the female cuts with Tahiti owing to the mild year round climate. Popula- her ovipositor. The number of eggs in an egg mass tion fluctuations seem to be driven more by the wet can range from approximately two to 15 eggs with and dry seasons with H. coagulata being more com- around 7–10 eggs per egg mass being common. There mon in the wet season. are five nymphal instars and adult insects are quite 2. There is no effective natural enemy fauna in large, around 2 cm in length, and have an obvious French Polynesia attacking H. coagulata so popula- enlarged head that contains well developed muscula- tion growth is largely unchecked. ture and mouthparts. 3. There are no aggressive xylophagous (native or The major threat this insect poses to agricultural exotic) competitors excluding H. coagulata from crops, urban ornamental plantings, and some native resources in French Polynesia. plant species is through its ability to vector a xylem- 4. Feeding studies with generalist predators such dwelling bacterium, Xylella fastidiosa. The bacte- as endemic spiders indicate that H. coagulata rium is contained within the mouthparts of nymphs and adults are toxic to these upper trophic immature and adult insects. Each time nymphs level organisms. Incredibly, this insect may actually moult, bacteria are lost from the buccal cavity and be creating its own natural enemy free space must be reacquired from feeding on infested host thereby promoting its invasion success in French plants. Adult H. coagulata are infective for life but Polynesia. Mechanisms underlying toxicity to native transmission efficiency declines with age. Xylella fas- French Polynesian spiders are unknown but may tidiosa is a xanthanomid-type bacterium. It result from symbiotic bacteria that are harboured in replicates in the xylem and produces gummy xan- mycetomes, or perhaps X. fastidiosa, if this bacte- thum-like secretions. These secretions and high rium is present in French Polynesia. bacterial densities in xylem clog water-conducting vessels thereby impeding water flow which results in Consequently, densities of H. coagulata are so high the development of ‘scorch-like’ symptoms in suscep- in the Society Islands, that its densities in California tible hosts, which ultimately leads to death because appear inconsequential, and the amount of excreta of water stress. In California, one of the most impor- ‘raining’ from trees in Tahiti and Mo’orea have tant crops at risk from this novel vector–pathogen earned the pest the common local name meuche pis- combination is grapes. Wine, table, and raisin grapes seuse (‘pissing fly’). are multi-billion dollar commodities in California. Substantial disease damage, subsequent crop losses, In 2004, H. coagulata was detected in Hawaii and and greatly increased pest management costs for H. populations have reached high densities on Oahu, coagulata control to wine producers in southern Cal- approaching levels similar to those seen in French ifornia, and table and raisin grape growers in the Polynesia. Clearly, H. coagulata has demonstrated Central Valley do not bode well for California’s pre- high invasion ability and a propensity to spread glo- mier wine-growing regions of Napa, Sonoma, and bally, most probably transported long distances as Mendocino counties which are currently free of infes- egg masses on ornamental plants moved from tation but are now well within striking distance of H. infested areas (this life stage is largely immune to coagulata. insecticides unlike nymphs and adults which are

Are we on your mailing list? Biocontrol News and Information is always pleased to receive news of research, conferences, new products or patents, changes in personnel, collaborative agreements or any other information of interest to other readers. If your organization sends out press releases or newsletters, please let us have a copy. In addition, the editors welcome proposals for review topics. 2N Biocontrol News and Information 26(1) quite susceptible to systemic and foliar insecticide cies from Argentina was reared from H. coagulata applications). In the South Pacific, this insect must egg masses collected from Irvine County in southern be considered a major biosecurity risk and proactive California. How this undescribed Gonatocerus spe- incursion management strategies should be adopted cies arrived in southern California is unknown. by at risk nations. For example, New Zealand and Successful establishment was most likely facilitated Australia have climates that would favour H. coagu- by high densities of an exotic invader (i.e. H. coagu- lata establishment and both countries have major lata), that allowed small founding parasitoid agricultural industries, including grapes, which populations to readily locate and exploit suitable would be adversely affected if the pest established in resources needed for rapid establishment and prolif- these countries. eration thereby reducing the likelihood of stochastic events eliminating founders. Because abundant Ecological Mechanisms that Increase Invasiveness and hosts were present at its time of arrival, establish- Threats to Other Nations ment barriers were eased. Environmental resistance to invasion by this parasitoid would have been much High density populations of H. coagulata in invaded greater if highly abundant resources in the form of regions present major threats to agriculture, and an unexploited pest population were absent. There- perhaps more importantly native biodiversity for fore, invasions by upper trophic level organisms that three major reasons. establish because of high exotic pest populations may threaten endemic organisms through the develop- First, addition of H. coagulata to a new ecosystem ment of novel food web linkages with native species permanently changes the vector ecology and disease that could result in undesirable nontarget species prevalence of areas with endemic sharpshooters and impacts and trophic perturbations. X. fastidiosa. This is the case in California, where X. fastidiosa is endemic and there is a suite of native Third, high density populations of H. coagulata sharpshooters that vector the pathogen. Homalo- greatly increase the chances of accidental exporta- disca coagulata has permanently changed the tion from heavily infested areas because of the dynamics of X. fastidiosa transmission in California greater probability of contamination of goods being through its vector efficiency, parts of plants it can moved from infested areas to non-infested areas. feed on, and high number of species that are utilized This is particularly evident in Tahiti where large for feeding and reproduction. In areas such as numbers of H. coagulata are attracted to lights at French Polynesia and Hawaii where X. fastidiosa is night, especially around airport hangars and cargo not endemic, the bacterium could be present in orna- loading areas where they can drop into loading bins mental plants imported from the Americas. Xylella after colliding with lights. Additionally, yellow logos fastidiosa is native to the New World and some spe- on the sides of aircraft and yellow painted propeller cies of imported ornamental plants from this region tips attract large numbers of vagile adults to aircraft could act as ‘silent reservoirs’, by harbouring bacte- where they have been observed to fly into open doors rial populations without exhibiting disease and cargo holds. symptoms. Establishment of a competent vector in areas with silent reservoirs could result in the move- California: the Biocontrol Story So Far ment of X. fastidiosa out of reservoirs into susceptible uninfected hosts. If acquisition and dis- Homalodisca coagulata has the potential to derail semination occurs in such areas as described, this California’s agricultural economic trajectory akin to would increase the risk of exposure to native plant the impact that cottony cushion scale, Icerya pur- species that have no evolutionary association with X. chasi, had on the state’s fledgling citrus industry in fastidiosa. Such ecologically naïve plants could be the late 1880s. The economic cost to California highly susceptible to infection following feeding by caused by H. coagulata–X. fastidiosa is immense. infected H. coagulata nymphs and adults. Oleander leaf scorch has been estimated to cause damages in excess of US$52 million on 2000 miles of Second, high density populations of H. coagulata freeway median planting. In 2000, $6.9 million were present an abundant food source for invasive upper made available to supply pesticides to projects trophic level organisms, such as mymarid parasi- focused on area-wide spraying of H. coagulata habi- toids that use H. coagulata egg masses for tats in an effort to manage populations migrating reproduction. Gonatocerus ashmeadi is native to the into vineyards in Temecula and Bakersfield. Grape home range of H. coagulata, and the egg parasitoid growers in Riverside and San Diego counties in 1998 invaded and established in California independent of and 1999 accrued estimated losses of $37.9 million deliberate human assistance. Gonatocerus ashmeadi because of X. fastidiosa related diseases that can utilize native California congenerics, such as H. resulted from H. coagulata vectoring. liturata, for reproduction and such exploitation may have been essential to its establishment in southern Like the cottony cushion scale problem over a cen- California as it presumably was imported into the tury ago, state and federal agencies, and affected state in parasitized H. coagulata egg masses. commodity boards have made research funds avail- Museum records suggest that G. ashmeadi estab- able for work on H. coagulata and X. fastidiosa, and lished in California sometime before 1978, and classical biological control is seen as a feasible means populations of this parasitoid probably preceded H. for permanently suppressing H. coagulata densities coagulata by over a decade, therefore it had to have to much lower levels, perhaps to densities similar to utilized H. liturata before H. coagulata established those seen in the home range where populations of in California. In 2003, an undescribed species of this insect are orders of magnitude lower than cur- Gonatocerus which is closely allied to described spe- rently observed in California. News 3N

Classical biological control of H. coagulata is being garious endoparasitoid with more than one adult vigorously pursued in California and the programme emerging per host egg. All three parasitoids are bi- is a joint effort between the University of California parental with female biased sex ratios. Under no at Riverside (UCR), the California Department of choice conditions, these three parasitoids exhibit sig- Food and Agriculture (CDFA), and the US Depart- nificant differences in successful host egg age ment of Agriculture – Agricultural Research Service utilization. Gonatocerus ashmeadi has greater off- (USDA-ARS). Consequently, there are currently in spring output from host eggs 3 days of age, G. excess of 70 research programmes on H. coagulata or triguttatus from eggs 4 days of age, and G. fasciatus X. fastidiosa. Because of the serious nature of the from eggs 2 days of age. When host eggs of varying problem and the vast sums of money at stake, the ages that are all susceptible to attack are presented National Academy of Sciences (NAS), a US society of simultaneously G. ashmeadi (1–4 days utilized most distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and effectively) and G. triguttatus (3–6 days utilized most engineering research with a mandate to advise the effectively) utilize eggs across presented age catego- Federal Government on scientific and technical mat- ries with equal efficiency and show no preferences. ters, has subjected these research programmes to Gonatocerus fasciatus however, is highly restricted evaluation and assessment. Biological control of H. to very young host eggs just 1–3 days of age. Beyond coagulata in California was reviewed extremely this age, egg parasitism drops to extremely low favourably by NAS. levels. This may occur because G. fasciatus is consid- erably smaller than G. ashmeadi and G. triguttatus On the biological control front, UCR is leading the because of its gregarious habit (the more adults pro- effort in foreign exploration of the home range of H. duced per host egg the smaller the parasitoid) and its coagulata for mymarid egg parasitoids. Studies are ovipositor may not be strong or long enough to pene- being undertaken in biological control laboratories at trate a host chorion that is increasing in strength as UCR on the developmental and reproductive biology it matures. The day-degree requirements and demo- of imported parasitoid species, their searching and graphic statistics of these three parasitoids are oviposition behaviours, factors affecting sex ratio currently being studied to determine the likely allocation, attack rates under field and laboratory impact they could have on the target and the climatic conditions, pest and parasitoid phenology in citrus suitability for the parasitoids in areas in which H. orchards, utilization of nutritive resources in the coagulata has already invaded and established or field, and the risk exotic natural enemies released for has the potential to invade. H. coagulata control pose to native nontarget sharp- shooters (many of which are also serious pest species Most commercial agricultural environments in because of their propensity to vector X. fastidiosa). which H. coagulata thrives are unfavourable habi- tats for natural enemies because weed suppression CDFA is leading mass rearing, establishment and removes potential shelter and floral resources that redistribution of parasitoid species in California. hymenopterous biological control agents can use. In USDA-ARS is assisting CDFA with mass rearing the laboratory it has been demonstrated that honey- efforts and USDA-ARS scientists from Weslaco water and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) Texas have been investigating the feasibility of new- flowers significantly increased longevity of male and association biological control by studying in quaran- female G. ashmeadi, G. triguttatus, and G. fasciatus tine host utilization behaviours and host ranges of up to 94.6%, 92.4% and 93.1%, respectively, com- sharpshooter parasitoids collected from South pared with water. These results indicate that America. Studies on generalist predators and their resource procurement maybe extremely important role in biological control in citrus and urban ecosys- for enhancing parasitoid survival in agroecosystems. tems are being run by project leaders out of the Increased longevity of female parasitoids resulting University of California at Berkeley (UCB) and the from resource procurement may enhance biological USDA-ARS Cotton Research Laboratory in Phoenix control of H. coagulata because increased female lon- Arizona. In 2004, The French Polynesian Govern- gevity may increase encounter rates with H. ment funded and launched a classical biological coagulata egg masses and subsequently increase control programme against H. coagulata. The goal of parasitism. Field studies are planned to investigate the programme is to establish mymarid egg parasi- conservation biological control of H. coagulata more toids in French Polynesia that have been released in thoroughly. California. The biological control programme is a joint effort being led by UCR and the UCB Gump What Next? Research Station on Mo’orea in cooperation with French Polynesian scientists based in Tahiti. In September 2004, G. ashmeadi colonies were estab- lished in quarantine in Tahiti. Before parasitoids are In 2001 and 2002, G. triguttatus from Texas and G. released from quarantine they will be subjected to fasciatus from Louisiana, respectively, were estab- extremely rigorous host-specificity testing to deter- lished in California to complement the omnipresent mine the potential risk the parasitoid poses to G. ashmeadi. By 2004, over 90 separate recoveries of indigenous sharpshooter species in French Poly- egg masses parasitized by G. triguttatus or G. fas- nesia. To achieve this, the native ‘at-risk’ fauna ciatus had been made in 23 sites over seven needs to be identified and egg laying ecology deter- Californian counties suggesting these control agents mined by field surveys as the cicadellid fauna of are establishing and becoming widespread. Gona- French Polynesia is poorly studied. Efforts are tocerus ashmeadi and G. triguttatus are solitary underway to remedy shortcomings in knowledge of endoparasitoids with one adult parasitoid emerging Tahitian sharpshooters, enabling a thorough list of per H. coagulata egg. Gonatocerus fasciatus is a gre- nontarget species to be drawn up and decisions made 4N Biocontrol News and Information 26(1) on the need for testing them. It is likely that the non- By: Mark S. Hoddle, target risk posed by Gonatocerus species will be low. Department of Entomology, French Polynesia has no native sharpshooters in the University of California, Riverside, tribe Proconiini, and from exhaustive field studies in CA 92521, USA. the home range of H. coagulata, G. ashmeadi, G. Email: [email protected] triguttatus and G. fasciatus have only been reared from proconiin sharpshooters, a cicadellid tribe unique to the New World. A Minute Wasp to Tackle a Big Job: Control of Silverleaf Whitefly Biological control of H. coagulata is being considered in Hawai’i. However, this project is likely to proceed The Australian Government Departments of Envi- with extreme caution because of the past history of ronment and Heritage, and Agriculture, Fisheries unwanted nontarget impacts on some of Hawai’i’s and Forestry have granted permission for the release unique insect fauna. In February 2005, H. coagulata of a tiny parasitic wasp in Australia. After extensive and management of this pest will be the focus of an testing in quarantine in Brisbane, Eretmocerus entire session at the annual meeting of the hayati will be released in southeast Queensland to Hawai’ian Entomological Society. control silverleaf whitefly (SLW), Bemisia tabaci Bio- type B. It will be the battle of the midgets. In southern California, the key parasitoid attacking H. coagulata is the self-introduced G. ashmeadi, and SLW is a small (around 1 mm long), white, sucking despite the establishment of two additional parasi- insect related to aphids. It can be distinguished from toid species (G. triguttatus and G. fasciatus) to other closely related whitefly by the tent-like way it complement resident native egg parasitoids (e.g. the holds its wings. Females produce between 50 and 300 trichogrammatids Ufens spp. and Zagella spp. and eggs, depending on the host plant, and these are laid G. morrilli and G. novofasciatus), overall parasitoid on the underside of leaves. A generation lasts impact on H. coagulata still remains low. In southern between two and three weeks and there are four California, the spring generation of H. coagulata juvenile stages (three nymphs and a pupa from eggs sustains an average parasitism rate of just 12%, which the adult emerges). Only the first instar is while the summer generation of eggs suffers an mobile but it moves only a short distance from its average parasitism rate of 19%. At certain periods egg. Therefore, older instars tend to occur on older during summer when densities of host egg masses leaves with eggs on new leaves. A crop under attack are low, parasitism rates will reach 100% for short can host billions of whitefly. periods. Of the egg masses discovered by Gona- tocerus spp., 17% on average have at least one egg Eretmocerus hayati is a tiny parasitic wasp, less than parasitized in spring, compared to 30% of discovered 1mm long. The female lays her eggs under a SLW egg masses utilized at some level in summer. Para- nymph. The wasp larva, when it hatches, bores into sitism rates, especially of eggs of the spring the nymph slowly developing along with the generation of H. coagulata, need to increase substan- whitefly. Once the whitefly enters the final develop- tially to bring the pest under effective control. ment stage the parasite kills the whitefly and completes its development and the adult finally Interestingly, even though one of the key natural emerges through a hole it chews in the surface of the enemies of H. coagulata, G. ashmeadi, was estab- whitefly. lished in California well in advance of H. coagulata arriving, it did not prevent the pest establishing, Despite its size, SLW is considered one of the major reaching high densities, and spreading over wide global pests of vegetables, cotton and ornamental areas. Establishment of two exotic Gonatocerus spp. production. It is found across Europe, Asia, Africa, in California has so far had no obvious impact on H. the Americas and several Pacific Countries and is coagulata populations, but it may still be too early to known to attack more than 600 plant species. It assess the ultimate impact G. triguttatus and G. fas- arrived unnoticed in Australia in 1994, probably ciatus will have. One aspect that deserves attention from the USA, and carried with it resistance to many is assessment of potentially adverse interactions insecticides. between competing parasitoid species. An argument that periodically surfaces in the biological control lit- SLW liked it in Australia, spread quickly and is now erature is: ‘how many natural enemy species should causing severe problems in Queensland, northern be released to control an arthropod pest?’ The self- New South Wales (NSW) and parts of Western Aus- establishment of G. ashmeadi may have prevented a tralia. It is a major problem for vegetable and more effective natural enemy (e.g. G. triguttatus?) soyabean producers in most parts of Queensland and from realizing its full potential following deliberate for cotton growers in the state’s Central Highlands release in California. Clearly, there is much more where it threatens the viability of cotton production. that needs to be done (e.g. life table studies of H. The large quantities of honeydew produced cause coagulata and detailed field studies on the role of ‘sticky cotton’ which can bring a cotton gin to a stand- brochosomes (particles produced by the Malpighian still. Sooty mould, which grows on honeydew, tubules of cicadellids) covering H. coagulata egg necessitates the costly washing of produce and fouls masses on parasitism rates) and careful evaluation cotton. The pest is still spreading with a recent out- before factors influencing the success of biological breaks occurring in the Carnarvon area of Western control of H. coagulata will be fully understood. Australia and the Darling Downs of Queensland. News 5N

Outbreaks cost growers dearly. In 2000, more than main threat to cotton growing in Egypt. Joint Au$6 million extra was spent on SLW control in the research involving the French organization IRD coastal strip from northern NSW to the Burdekin in (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Paris) Queensland. In 2001/02, it caused an extra $3 million the University of Cairo at Gizeh (Egypt), the Univer- to be spent on control on cotton in Queensland’s Cen- sity of Quebec at Laval (Canada) and the University tral Highlands. of Montpellier II (France) has been evaluating the potential of the densovirus MlDNV as a new biolog- The only means of control currently available to ical control to add to the IPM toolkit. growers is pesticides and the capacity of SLW to develop resistance makes reliance on chemical con- Between 400,000 and 500,000 ha in Egypt are trol unsustainable. This makes biological control an planted with cotton, accounting for one-sixth of all attractive option. After a long search for a suitable cultivated land. The cotton sector employs over one potential biocontrol agent, Dr Paul De Barro and his million people and is a crucial foreign exchange team at CSIRO Entomology began evaluating E. earner. It has seen changes in recent years, with a hayati. This wasp, originally from Pakistan, has transition from government to private control. Egypt been used successfully against SLW in the Lower Rio retains its position as a foremost producer of quality Grande in south Texas – an area very similar climat- cotton, although exports are under threat from ically to coastal and Central Highland areas of changes made to trade agreements at the beginning Queensland. In the Rio Grande, the numbers of SLW of 2005. have been reduced to a level where they are readily managed by existing programmes. Spodoptera littoralis is one of the most intensively studied insects in Egypt. It attacks not only cotton The process of finding and getting approval for the but also cereal crops and lucerne, the country’s prin- release of a potential biological control agent is long cipal fodder crop. In cotton, it is a major constraint to and complicated with each step requiring unanimous production because it causes both yield loss and approval from 21 independent agencies representing quality degradation. all Federal and State Departments of Environment and Agriculture. Once permission is given to import Densoviruses are a small group of DNA viruses that a potential agent into quarantine in Australia, the infect arthropods. Densovirus MlDNV was isolated long and sometimes tedious process of assessing its for the first time in 1995, in Egypt, from another leaf- suitability begins. This is to ensure that the agent feeding noctuid, Mythimna loreyi, on maize1. Results attacks only the pest it is intended to control and that of subsequent field research plus genome analyses it will not move on to other species. indicated its potential as a component of biological pest control strategies, attacking an array of pest It is hoped that once this agent becomes established species, on a variety of host plants, and in all sea- it will have the same effect here as it had in the Rio sons. The research team characterized the biology, Grande and growers will be able to manage SLW virulence and propagation of the virus in relation to more easily. population fluctuations of insect pests. It was found in seven noctuid species, including S. littoralis. It The research on SWF was completed by CSIRO was isolated throughout Egypt, from cotton planta- Entomology and the Queensland Department of Pri- tions in the Nile Delta in Lower Egypt to lucerne and mary Industries and Fisheries and supported by clover fields in Upper Egypt and the oases in the Growcom, Horticulture Australia Ltd, the Grains West. Moreover, it occurred at all times of the year, Research and Development Corporation and the with large infections developing in Agrotis ipsilon, A. Cotton Research and Development Corporation. segetum, A. spinifera and Spodoptera exigua in winter and spring, and Heliothis armigera, By: Louise Lawrence, CSIRO Entomology Autographa gamma and S. littoralis in summer and Contact: Paul De Barro, CSIRO Entomology, autumn. Long Pocket Laboratories, Brisbane, Australia. Email: [email protected] Characterization, partial cloning and sequencing of Fax +61 7 3214 2885 the densovirus MlDNV genome provided informa- tion on the mechanisms that govern the virus’s multiplication2. Samples collected in different parts Egypt Unearths Prospective Agent for Cotton of Egypt were all shown to be the same species of Pest densovirus, MlDNV, although some corresponded to genetically distinct strains. This genetic biodiversity A virus of local origin may provide a new tool for con- could explain the wide distribution of the virus and trol of Spodoptera littoralis (Egyptian cotton its high virulence in different species of noctuid. One leafworm) on cotton in Egypt. IPM has been imple- strain has been selected for development for biocon- mented in the country’s cotton-growing areas for trol of S. littoralis, and it is hoped it can be used for many years. Against S. littoralis, measures include other pests in the long term. collecting egg masses, microbial pesticides (although the pest is not susceptible to all strains of the most Potential nontarget effects are being investigated. commonly used biopesticide, Bacillus thuringiensis In-vitro cell-infection experiments showed that the [Bt]), insect growth regulators, and pheromone- virus was unlikely to infect mammals and other non- mediated mating disruption and mass trapping. target species in agricultural areas including Nevertheless, even with these measures and chem- earthworms and snails. Further research is contin- ical sprays where they fail, S. littoralis remains the uing in Egypt to verify the harmlessness of the virus 6N Biocontrol News and Information 26(1) for nontarget insect species, with a view to its environmentally benign agriculture, consumers still authorization. Such ratification would be the first expect cheap food. step towards the development of a densovirus-based biocontrol agent. The third question aims to identify common factors affecting the success of augmentation, and to ascer- 1 Fédière, G., El-Sheikh, M.A.K., Abol-Ela, S., Salah, tain whether conclusions can be drawn about which M., Massri, M. & Veyrunes, J.C. (1995) Isolation of factors might be manipulated to improve success. a new densonucleosis virus from Mythimna loreyi Dup. (Lep. Noctuidae) in Egypt. Using the AGRICOLA database the authors identi- Bulletin of the Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo Univer- fied more than 140 published scientific case studies sity 46, 693–702. on augmentation from which they selected a subset 2 included in the review. Most selected papers pertain Fédière, G., El-Far, M., Li, Y., Bergoin, M. & to the USA, although Brazil, Canada, France and Tijssen, P. (2004) Expression strategy of densonucle- Switzerland are also represented. A key part of the osis virus from Mythimna loreyi (MlDNV). Virology review is a critique of various methods used in pub- 320, 181–189. lished studies of augmentation. For this reason alone, the paper is an invaluable aid to anyone set- Contact: Gilles Fédière (current address), ting out to assess the efficacy of augmentation. Représentation IRD, BP 2528, Bamako, Mali. Stringent requirements for inclusion in the review Email: [email protected] ensured that the selected studies could be inter- Fax: +223 221 64 44 preted in a scientifically rigorous way. However, the authors note that this stringency led to some types of augmentation being excluded and that: “The review Why Food Producers Disregard Augmentation therefore applies best to small plots in open field sit- uations” rather than greenhouses or entire Augmentative biological control has the potential to agroecosystems. be one of the cornerstones of sustainable agriculture, yet there has been limited use of the technology in commercial crop protection, particularly in the USA. The basic approach for the review was developed in part from a study of classical biological control by Limited use has been ascribed to lack of farmer 2 knowledge, failures in government policies, poor Stiling . For some studies, determination of the effi- public perception, etc. But is the technology itself cacy of augmentation was based on author also wanting? A recent paper in the journal Biolog- assessment of whether pest densities or crop damage ical Control1 analyses the success of augmentative were suppressed to specified target levels. Pest pop- biological control in field food crops, discusses how ulations were reduced to target densities in five of 31 the results might explain limited adoption of the studies analysed. In six cases, the impact was technology, and suggests whether the future could described as ‘mixed’ because the results varied bring about a reversal in the situation. (between sites or years, or depending on the market). Augmentation was described as failing in the Augmentative or inundative biological control remaining 20 (64%) cases. Seven studies explicitly involves releasing large numbers of artificially compared augmentation and conventional pesticide reared natural enemies with the aim of augmenting application. In these, pesticide treatments achieved existing natural enemy populations, or inundating a target pest densities in most (but not all) cases. Aug- pest population with natural enemies. The aim is to mentation was typically less effective. suppress pest populations to non-damaging levels. Economic data for both augmentation and pesticide The review, which deals with releases of predators use were frequently inadequate for analysis. Few and parasitoids in agricultural food crops, focuses on studies presented costs of augmentation versus con- three key questions about augmentation: ventional pesticide application or explicitly included cost–benefit analyses. The review authors note that • Does it work? information on costs should always be included in • Is it cost effective? studies of augmentation. Without such information, adoption of any technology is doomed, however effec- • What ecological factors affect it? tive. For studies that included appropriate data, analysis showed that pesticides were usually more The first two questions are key to farmer decision- cost-effective. However, in some case, costs/benefits making. For decades, broad-spectrum chemical pes- of augmentation were comparable to those of chem- ticides have been the mainstay of crop protection, ical control, and integrating chemical and biological and this has been the baseline against which other control showed potential for greatest net benefit in a technologies are measured. The augmentative few systems. approach has to compete with chemicals in terms of the degree (and predictability) of efficacy as well as The review authors conclude that augmentative bio- cost. Farmers tend to be risk-averse. They depend on logical control: being able to market their crop, and decisions are weighted in favour of reliability of result. This is par- • Was usually less effective than treatment with ticularly important in the context of food production conventional pesticides. for a market (public) that has high demands in terms of quality and acceptable pest damage. Farmers also • Was often more expensive than the chemical have to make a living. Despite growing pressure for alternative, and sometimes much more so. News 7N

Under these circumstances, it is not hard to see why farmers persist in favouring chemical control. Can Towards a Green and Pleasant Land: Biocontrol anything be done? Do the answers to the third ques- in UK Agriculture tion provide any insights? It is becoming axiomatic that less pesticide is good – To identify ecological factors limiting augmentation, good for the environment and good for health. Gov- the review authors again relied on the views of the ernment and consumers alike are pressing for less authors of the original studies (some of which fell pesticide use in UK agriculture. But how realistic is the goal? As the article above (‘Why food producers into the ‘failing’ category in terms of efficacy, see disregard augmentation’) indicates, ‘alternative’ pest above). Twelve factors emerged as affecting success, management strategies are not necessarily as effec- with “environmental conditions unfavourable for the tive or cost-effective as chemical control – in which natural enemy” the most frequently cited, followed case farmers are unlikely to implement them when by “natural enemy dispersal”, “natural enemy preda- left to their own devices. This is part of the reason tion”, “availability of pest refugia”, and “mutual that, despite intensive research into development of interference/cannibalism”. Some factors clearly war- various biological alternatives to chemical pest con- rant further research to mitigate their effects, trol, these strategies represent in total less than 1% particularly through the release of multiple enemy of a global pest control market worth some US$30 species. Integration of the augmentative approach billion. What can the UK do to break the mould? with other pest management methods (cultural and A UK£1 million project funded by the RELU (Rural chemical) also has the potential to overcome limita- Economy and Land Use) programme, supported by tions, although few studies investigated this. Research Councils UK, Defra (Department for Envi- ronment, Food and Rural Affairs) and SEERAD The review authors conclude that poor efficacy is cur- (Scottish Executive Environment and Rural Affairs rently a major shortcoming of augmentation, and Department), is to look at the obstacles to and oppor- consequently this technology is not likely to replace tunities for biological control strategies in UK broad-spectrum pesticide use in food crops in the agriculture. ‘Re-bugging the system: promoting USA, in the short term at least. Acceptance of this adoption of alternative pest management strategies perhaps unpalatable conclusion, however, sets a in field crop systems’ is a collaborative project clear challenge for researchers. The crucial question involving Imperial College, London, the Game Con- is whether augmentation can achieve pest suppres- servancy Trust and Rothamsted Research and will sion comparable to applications of one or more of the focus on UK cereal systems. pesticides available for pest control, and if not, why? To aid in the further development and commercial uptake of alternative strategies, information will be This paper identified factors limiting the adoption of gathered in UK cereal systems concerning: augmentation, but the authors acknowledge some shortcomings in their methods that may make the • Social benefits of reduced pesticide use, com- picture more hopeful. New technologies in rearing pared with current costs of chemical control. and release of natural enemies will hopefully tip the • Constraints to and incentives for adoption of balance in favour of augmentation. In addition, the alternative technologies. growth of organic agriculture, the withdrawal of • Social, economic and environmental/technical cheap ‘high-risk’ pesticides and the introduction of factors determining the current level of pesticide more environmentally benign and more expensive ‘lock in’. chemicals levels the playing field. Integration of aug- mentative biological control with other pest Research will focus on two strategies that can affect management measures is seen as the most prom- the activity of natural enemies and their effective- ising avenue. ness as biocontrol agents: habitat management and semiochemicals. They will be considered independ- Willingness to recognize shortcomings and to try and ently and together by assessing: rectify them is a sign of maturity in any applied sci- ence. This review is the latest in a series of • The relative importance of natural enemy diver- significant publications which illustrates how biolog- sity and abundance (temporal and spatial) in pest ical control stakeholders (researchers and control in cereal-based systems. practitioners) are examining all areas of the disci- • The roles of semiochemicals in crop–pest–natural pline with a view to improving the performance of enemy interactions and new opportunities for prac- this well founded and exacting science. tical exploitation. • How to integrate habitat manipulation and semi- 1Collier, T. & Van Steenwyk, R. (2004) A critical ochemical technologies. evaluation of augmentative biological control. Bio- • The effect of applying these alternative strategies logical Control 31, 245–256. on a landscape scale. 2 Stiling, P. (1993) Why do natural enemies fail in The key questions are how much land needs to be classical biological control programs? American manipulated to create good habitat before you Entomologist 39, 31–37. encourage beneficial insects sufficiently and over 8N Biocontrol News and Information 26(1) what scale of adoption, field/farm/landscape, such Email: [email protected] manipulations become effective and cost efficient. To Fax: +44 207 594 2640 answer these, the project will conduct one of the UK’s largest-ever field studies. Field trials beginning this Dr John M Holland, Head of Entomology, spring focus on the addition of 6-metre flower-rich The Game Conservancy Trust, mixed-grass strips at field margins. The effect of Fordingbridge, Hampshire SP6 1EF, UK. these on the impact of ground- and crop-active pred- Email: [email protected] ators (hoverflies and predatory beetles), parasitoids Fax: +44 1425 651026 (parasitic wasps) and entomopathogens (fungal dis- eases of insects) on cereal aphids will be monitored to Prof. John Pickett, Head of Biological Chemistry identify the contribution that each species makes to Division, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, cereal aphid control, and to what extent this is influ- Hertfordshire, AL5 2JQ, UK. enced by the scale of habitat manipulations. Later in Email: [email protected] the project, semiochemical manipulation designed to encourage natural enemies and deter pests within the crop will be added to the system and effects monitored. GM Arthropods: Trapped in a Policy Vacuum Given the debacle associated with the introduction of As a groundbreaking initiative in the UK, the Re- genetically modified (GM) crops, many in the biolog- bugging project has the additional objective of ical control sector have sought to distance defining a framework within which future develop- themselves from biotechnology. Others believe that ment of alternative technologies can take place, the new technology has the potential to complement integrating scientific and socioeconomic research, to and enhance biological control, and may be able to maximize impact and ultimate uptake. solve some intractable pest problems. Genetic modi- fication using recombinant DNA can now be used, Recognizing that the scientific literature is littered almost routinely, to transform pest and beneficial with good ideas that failed to make the lab-to-field arthropods (i.e. insects and mites). Goals include: transition, the Re-bugging project will address some possible obstacles to the adoption of alternative pest • Mosquitoes (and other vectors) unable to trans- control technologies. Adverse policies, high costs and mit diseases. inappropriate marketing have been implicated else- where in their failure. To address how these might • Sterile males or female-only lines for genetic con- affect their success in the UK, the project will trol programmes. consider: • Disease-resistant honeybees. • The role and design of agri-environmental policy. • Silk moths producing new types of silk. • Consumer demand for differentiated ‘pesticide- • Arthropods producing drugs or vaccines. reduced’ food products and the feasibility of passing such a price signal to the farm gate. • Natural enemies with enhanced effectiveness for biological control. • The potential for retailer-led initiatives (e.g. con- tractual requirements). Arguments persist on how realistic these goals are, or how safe the methods, but the greatest impedi- The ultimate objective of this project is to use the ment to their implementation may not be science but results of the scientific and economic research to lack of regulatory structure. A workshop in the USA create a robust bioeconomic model that takes into in September 20041 led to an unambiguous call for account all relevant agricultural, economic, political public involvement in developing risk assessment and environmental factors. The model will function and regulatory procedures on an international scale. at several levels:

• Aiding optimal policy design and adoption deci- Research intended to underpin the process goes back sions. to 1982, when the common fruit fly, Drosophila mel- anogaster, was first modified using a P-element • Forming the basis of a practitioners’ decision- vector. The first (contained field) release of a trans- support system. genic arthropod natural enemy was 9 years ago. It • As a vehicle for dissemination of research results. took place against the background of a series of con- sultations with stakeholders holding a variety of Contacts: viewpoints, including a workshop2 that explored the potential risks of a GM natural enemy release. A Dr Alastair Bailey, Senior Lecturer in model system was designed to mitigate identified Agricultural Economics, Imperial College, risk issues. A beneficial rather than a pest arthropod London, Wye Campus, Wye, Ashford, was considered likely to arouse less concern. The spe- Kent TN25 5AH, UK. cies was selected because a good deal was already Email: [email protected] known about the ecology and performance of (non- Fax: +44 207 594 2838 transgenic) genetically improved strains from their development and successful deployment against Dr Matt B. Thomas, Senior Lecturer in Ecology, pests. Avoidance of a vector for the gene transfer was Imperial College, London, Wye Campus, Wye, thought to minimize the risk of horizontal transfer, Ashford, Kent TN25 5AH, UK. and the marker gene (a lacZ construct) had been News 9N used previously without significant concern in other • Even in the USA, where public acceptance of GM releases. crops has been far greater than (for example) in Europe, there has been more unease about develop- A transgenic strain of the predatory mite Meta- ing and releasing transgenic animals such as fish. seiulus occidentalis (also called Galendromus or • Given their greater mobility, GM arthropods Typhlodromus occidentalis) was created by microin- have greater potential than GM plants to escape jection of plasmid DNA into or near the ovaries of from the laboratory or from field trials or release adult female mites. The injected DNA contained a plots. microbial gene (lacZ open reading frame) with a pro- moter (Drosophila heat shock protein 70) to initiate • Some projects require the GM arthropod to dis- transcription, and was intended to serve only as a perse and mate with wild populations (some GM molecular marker. Many eggs of injected females mosquitoes, for example). In such cases, many GM acquired the injected DNA, some in the nuclear individuals must be released into the field and genome (stably transmitted through several genera- establish on a permanent basis for the scheme to tions) and some as large extra-chromosomal arrays, work. Other projects propose releasing ‘drive ele- which were destroyed. The transgenic strain was ments’ such as active transposable elements or released into an experimental site on the campus of microbial symbionts such as Wolbachia to drive the University of Florida in 1996 after extensive desired genes into wild populations of arthropods. reviews by relevant state and national authorities. • Particularly where the aim is to establish a per- The purpose of the release was to document the per- manent and self-disseminating population, there is sistence of the molecular marker in a field population an international dimension to the debate. GM and to demonstrate that the transgenic population arthropods could potentially disperse to other coun- could be contained. All material associated with the tries by any of the pathways by which pests move release was removed at the end of the trial and mon- around the world. itoring gave no evidence for the transgenic predators escaping from the trial. As an added safety factor, One of the recommendations of the meeting in Rome3 this species, from the western USA, is unable to sur- was that consultations should be made with coun- vive the hot and humid summers in Florida, thereby tries into which the GM organism could spread providing ecological containment of the GM strain. before making a release and participants debated whether there could be a set of international risk This was just the first project to share the common guidelines for GM arthropods. However, the feeling purpose of beginning the process of assessing poten- was that no organization was prepared to take this tial risks of releasing transgenic arthropods into the on yet. environment. Another project, the first to release a GM insect, assessed tethered, caged pink bollworms Research on GM arthropods has now reached the (Gossypiella pectinophora) modified to contain a stage where it is possible to begin to consider their green fluorescent protein gene. The research and the use in practical pest management programmes. (The process of obtaining permission for these projects, actual timescale will depend on the system: a sterile together with the results of deliberations at other [irradiated] arthropod with a marker gene and meetings since (e.g. in Rome3 and Beijing4) have unable to establish in the wild is likely to be ready helped to clarify the potential risk issues to be long before anything intended to establish perma- resolved. These include whether: nently.) Arguments about whether they should be released cannot easily take place in the current • The inserted gene(s)/trait(s) is(are) stable. policy vacuum. • The traits (especially pesticide/antibiotic resist- As indicated above, a large number of questions have ance) might be horizontally transferred to other pop- been identified that need to be answered when devel- ulations/species. oping a genetic manipulation project, if it is to have any chance of leading to successful deployment of a • GM arthropods will perform as expected in terms GM natural enemy. It has become clear that prospec- of spread and distribution, host/prey specificity and tive releases will need to be evaluated on a ‘case by other biological properties. case’ basis as there is no one set of issues for all GM • They will have unanticipated environmental arthropods. Over time this would build up a body of effects. knowledge to inform subsequent decision-making, and could modify data requirements. However, • (For short-term releases) they can be recovered although a good deal of effort has gone into identi- from the field. fying the questions to be answered, how they will need to be answered remains unclear. It is unclear Risk assessments of fitness and host specificity can which, if any, countries have explicit information as be conducted in the laboratory, even adapting proto- to what data would be required to allow a GM cols developed for testing ‘conventional’ biological arthropod natural enemy to be released into the field control agents, but the potential risks of horizontal with the aim of permanent establishment. gene transfer and unintended effects on ecosystem function present more challenges. Both nationally and internationally, there has been a ‘cart and horse’ problem. Regulators have been hes- It has become clear that GM arthropods raise new itant to make elaborate regulatory provisions before risk issues to add to those associated with GM a GM arthropod was ready to be released, and scien- plants. tists have been concerned about investing time and 10N Biocontrol News and Information 26(1) funds on a GM project only to have it stalled while November 1993. See: regulatory procedures were put in place. Other con- www.isb.vt.edu/brarg/brasym95/hoy95.htm cerns include who will pay for the risk assessments Also: Hoy, M.A. (2000) Transgenic arthropods for because most scientists doing this research are in the pest management programs: risks and realities. public sector, not in commercial companies. Experimental and Applied Acarology 24, 463–495. Hoy, M.A. (1995) Impact of risk analyses on pest The last thing researchers involved in genetic modi- management programs employing transgenic fication of arthropods want to see is a repeat of the arthropods, Parasitology Today 11(6), 229–232. very public disagreements between scientists that marked the GM crop debate. In November 2004, an 3FAO Consultants meeting: Status and Risk Assess- online conference on biosafety in relation to the use ment of the Use of Transgenic Arthropods in Plant of genetic modification to manage animal popula- Protection, Rome, Italy. 8–12 April 2002. Report of 5 tions focused on mammals and arthropods . A wide the Joint FAO/IAEA Division and Secretariat of the range of stakeholders contributed, and messages IPPC, IAEA-314.D4.02CT01532. Limited Distribu- that emerged reinforced calls for regulation, wide tion. 48 pp. consultation and risk assessment. Unless such issues can be addressed in a way that involves all 4Seventh International Symposium on the Biosafety stakeholders, research on transgenic arthropods of Genetically Modified Organisms, Beijing, China. may founder. Whether any GM arthropod will be 10–16 October 2002. See: judged sufficiently safe to release remains to be seen, www.edpsciences.org/articles/ebr/abs/2003/01/04/ but without effective regulatory and risk assessment 04.html procedures, and the funding to develop the regula- tions and funding for the research on the potential 5 risks of specific GM arthropods, it will not be possible Biosafety Considerations in the use of Genetically to find out. Modified Organisms for the Management of Animal Populations. Online conference hosted by the Further Information Biosafety Clearing-House of the Convention on Bio- logical Diversity, 18 October – 15 November 2004. 1Biotech Bugs. A Look at the Science and Public See: Policy Surrounding the Release of Genetically Modi- http://bch.biodiv.org/onlineconferences/ fied Insects. Workshop hosted by the Pew Initiative gmoam.shtml on Food and Biotechnology (PIOFAB), Washington, DC, USA. 20–21 September 2004. See: Contact: Marjorie Hoy, http://pewagbiotech.org/events0920 Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, 2Workshop on Risks of Releasing Transgenic Florida 32611, USA. Arthropod Natural Enemies, Gainesville, FL, USA. Email: [email protected] IPM Systems

This section covers integrated pest management field edge, the success of conservation biological con- (IPM) including biological control, and techniques trol depends upon the wider landscape in which that are compatible with the use of biological control fields are embedded. In Central America, slash-and- or minimize negative impact on natural enemies. burn agriculture, deforestation and inappropriate management of natural resources have affected this landscape considerably and can compromise IPM to IPM in Honduran Subsistence Agriculture: a varying extents. Quantifying the contribution of the Multi-Focal Perspective agro-landscape will therefore help us explain farmers’ degree of success in adopting IPM within In many Central American countries, agrochemicals their respective field settings. are commonly used in both subsistence and intensive agriculture. For resource-poor farmers, reliance on The successful adoption of many IPM technologies pesticides for pest management can engender signif- depends on farmer knowledge and on enabling eco- icant costs, and can also instigate pest problems in logical conditions in their field settings. Where their production systems. In an effort to discourage farmers’ knowledge is deficient, adoption of such farmers from irrational pesticide use, various insti- technologies can be increased through delivering tutions have introduced them to the key principles of essential information to farmers by means of IPM integrated pest management (IPM). Several IPM training workshops. This information can contain methods offer cheap and sustainable pest manage- both technical and non-technical components. Con- ment options, considered attractive to resource-poor necting farmers’ knowledge with the ecological farmers. IPM technologies include conservation bio- conditions of their production systems can help logical control which encourages the use of explain farmers’ actions, including their adoption of indigenous natural enemies for suppression or pre- IPM. This understanding could also help identify vention of pest outbreaks. Since many natural needs for IPM extension and the limits of some IPM enemies have ecological requirements beyond the technologies like conservation biological control. News 11N

In our research we proposed to investigate the poten- and carabid beetles, reached high abundance levels tial for conservation biological control in Honduran in fields located within later successional environ- small-scale maize cropping systems. Influential fac- ments (broadleaved/pine forest). Although the tors for success of conservation biological control composition of the agro-landscape affected natural were identified relating in-field natural control to the enemy abundance and diversity, it generally did not specificities of the agro-landscape. Our work also set compromise the suppressive potential of the in-field out to assess the importance of farmer knowledge in natural enemy. determining farmer pest management behaviour, specifically their exploitation of the available poten- Farmers’ Actions and the Farming Environment tial for biological control within their respective field settings. Farmer knowledge systems were validated Although farmers had a limited understanding of by comparing them to ecological conditions as pest biology and ecology, they correctly assessed pest observed within the farming environment. Lastly, severity in their farm plots. Most farmers considered we quantified the effect of IPM training history on FAW to be of low or sporadic importance and few farmer knowledge and pest management behaviour. farmers felt a need to adopt curative pest manage- ment techniques. Farmers’ agroecological Fieldwork was conducted during 2002/03 in rain-fed, understanding was surprisingly broad. Natural ene- hillside areas of southeastern Honduras, where local mies most commonly enumerated included small-scale farmers cultivate maize as their primary vertebrate and invertebrate predators. Evidence was staple crop. In the region, fall armyworm (FAW) weak for farmers’ appreciation of the role of parasi- (Spodoptera frugiperda) is a key pest of maize. toids and entomopathogens. Conspicuous and culturally important insects were more often men- We took a threefold approach. tioned, thereby confirming earlier findings in the same region. (In 1993, Jeffery Bentley an anthropol- • Firstly, we quantified pest severity and dynamics ogist then at the Panamerican School of Agriculture within farmers’ fields and related those to the abun- (Zamorano) noted that farmers have an extensive dance and diversity of natural enemies as observed. knowledge of various phenomena. He determined • Secondly, we measured the contribution of the that folk knowledge was largely built on the princi- agro-landscape to in-field conservation biological ples of cultural importance and ease of observation.) control and the associated potential for sustainable Farmers’ understanding of biological control was pest management. Agro-landscape composition was consequently related to the ecological specificities of assessed through combining aerial imagery analysis their farming environment. Farmers’ appreciation of with in-situ vegetation classification. natural enemies was related to their respective in- • Lastly, adoption of IPM practices was evaluated field abundance. It was found that abundant, con- through farmer surveys, conducted in communities spicuous natural enemies were better known than that were typified by differences in training history species that were less common. IPM training signifi- and historical pest severity. Farmers’ appreciation cantly influenced farmer knowledge. Trained of key biological and ecological concepts was deter- farmers had more extensive agroecological knowl- mined and related to their associated pest manage- edge and were likely to try out new technologies. ment behaviour. Linkages with the ecological Training had the additional impact as key agroeco- characteristics of the farming environment were logical concepts were spread through the community explored. through friendship, work or family ties. Since both trained and untrained farmers perceived no acute Pest Severity and Natural Control need for pest management intervention in maize, they responded in a rational manner and did not FAW infestation levels were low during both years, apply pesticides. and remained below the action threshold (30% plants infested) in most farm plots. FAW infestation appeared influenced by abiotic conditions (altitude, Conclusions weather) and natural enemies. Levels of FAW para- Our research found that subsistence production sys- sitism and disease incidence were low, while the tems are characterized by high abundance and arthropod predator complex was extremely diverse diversity of natural enemies, which adequately affect and abundant. Infestation patterns indicated that pest population dynamics. In-field natural enemy earwigs, carabid beetles and spiders significantly abundance is directly related to the extra-field envi- impacted FAW population establishment and ronment. Even though alterations in agro-landscape growth. Fire ants (Solenopsis spp.), a key predator in composition and management lead to shifts in the many maize-growing systems, seem to be of lesser natural enemy community, its suppressive potential importance in hillside agriculture. was rarely compromised. Such findings could facili- tate the design of multi-functional landscapes and Agro-Landscape Contribution the promotion of more drastic measures for environ- In-field natural control was linked to features of the mental mitigation. Landscapes can ultimately be broader agro-landscape. Abundance levels of several designed where natural resources (soil, water, etc.) natural enemies were related to the composition of are conserved while resilience of the maize cropping the surrounding landscape mosaic. Some natural system is maintained. Landscape management could enemies, such as earwigs and fire ants, were associ- thereby modify the extra-field environment without ated with early successional habitats (grasslands, negative impacts on pest abundance in this subsist- shrublands, etc.). Others however, including spiders ence cropping system. 12N Biocontrol News and Information 26(1)

We also discovered that farmer knowledge is adapted On a general level, the effect of fluctuations in the to the agroecological conditions of the farming envi- world market can be marked, generating a certain ronment. Ecological processes occurring at a field amount of instability in the production system for level are being observed by farmers, and individual organic cotton in Peru. Also, the small-scale farmers experiences are consequently propelled through the are disadvantaged by their economic conditions and community. When introduced to new concepts and the characteristics of existing interrelationships. theories (through IPM workshops), farmers tend to However, the organic cotton system continues to be cross-check acquired information by using their field dynamic, as demonstrated by the new proposed settings as a touchstone environment. In the case of projects in Pucallpa and Chincha. Honduran small-scale maize cropping, many of the key agroecological processes were easily observable Agroecological Context and farmer knowledge reflected in-field conditions. In cases however where inconspicuous ecological Cotton is grown in two distinct areas of Peru: the processes (parasitism, insect disease) determine pest desert coast and the tropical rainforest. Along the dynamics, IPM extension would need to supplement coast, organic cotton is grown mainly in the Cañete existing farmer knowledge systems with key agr- Valley, but has also been produced in Arequipa, and oecological concepts. Our work highlighted the is now recently being promoted in the Chincha linkages between farmer knowledge, within-field Valley. ecology and the larger agro-landscape and how those elements operate together in determining farmer Tangüis cotton (Gossypium barbadense), a long- practices and facilitating IPM adoption. Ultimately, staple variety with white fibre, is cultivated in these our research showed that, by introducing farmers to areas, south of Lima. Pest management is based on IPM and key agroecological concepts, irrational use the principles of integrated pest management (IPM), of pesticides could be prevented. although clearly in these cases synthetic chemical pesticides are excluded. Pest management continues By: Kris A.G. Wyckhuys and to be one of the bottlenecks and is one of the topics Robert J. O’Neil, Department of Entomology, receiving most attention within agroecological Purdue University, Smith Hall, research. 901 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2089, USA. According to Vreeland (1999), on the northern coast, Email: [email protected] Web: www.entm.purdue.edu/bclab despite its prohibition by state law between 1930 and 1990, small producers continue to grow native col- oured cotton (brown and green), using a traditional cropping system with perennial and associated Organic Cotton in Peru: a Retrospective and crops, certified but in small quantities. Since prehis- Future Look panic times, a specific plant whose scientific name is Efforts have been underway over the past few years Lippia alba (according to Ceroni [2002]), has been to produce organic cotton in Peru. This has not been sown and burnt, and the smoke repels the cotton an easy venture and a more detailed analysis of the stainer Dysdercus peruvianus. Peruvian socioeconomic and agroecological context is required for future development, particularly con- In the rainforest, some farmers grow a native cotton, cerning pest management systems. Áspero (Gossypium barbadense), a short-staple variety with white and light brown fibre. The Socioeconomic Context farmers in the area surrounding Tarapoto grow cotton in a traditional cropping system with maize, In Peru, the organic cotton processing plants, which beans and bananas as associated crops, and without export to the USA, Europe and Japan, provide incen- the use of agrochemicals. Due to the resistance of the tives for organic cotton production, paying an organic native variety and the biodiversity of the area, the certification based on international standards. At a few pests which do exist are at a manageable level. national level, a future Law for the Support and Pro- New projects for organic white cotton are projected motion of Organic and Ecological Agriculture is for Pucallpa, in this case as an alternative to the under discussion, and enterprises which process and illicit production of coca. export organic cotton are working with farmers and some NGOs, with the following main objectives: Cotton Pests in Peru • Maintain and develop sustainable agricultural Tangüis cotton has a variety of pests. According to systems, reducing damage to the environment and González (2000) the main pests are earthworms, a human health caused by agrochemicals, by efficient stem borer weevil (Eutinobothrus gossypii), the pest management. cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), and Lepidoptera such • Improve the economic conditions of the small as Anomis texana, Alabama argillacea, Heliothis producers, generating ecosystem diversity and tak- virescens, Pococera atramentalis, Bucculatrix thurb- ing advantage of market opportunities. eriella and Pectinophora gossypiella. Additional pests are the Peruvian boll weevil Anthonomus ves- The NGOs are involved in developing and promoting titus) and the cotton stainer (Dysdercus peruvianus), agricultural research, particularly in the area of pest Mescinia peruella (Lepidoptera) and to a lesser management, and in some cases support the extent some thrips, mealybugs, mites and a leaf- strengthening of farmers’ organizations. hopper (Empoasca kraemeri). News 13N In organic cotton, these pests are controlled by cul- Further Reading tural methods (elimination of secondary hosts, CABI Bioscience (2000) Learning to cut the chemi- sowing in moist soils, suitable irrigation manage- cals in cotton; case studies and exercises in farmer ment, destruction of damaged organs, periods of focused cotton IPM form around the world. CABI fallow, crop rotation); legal measures (sowing and Bioscience Technical Support Group to the Global harvesting dates, elimination of crop residues, com- IPM Facility, Ascot, UK / PAN-UK, London, 92 pp. pliance with quarantine requirements); biological control (mainly facilitating the development of bene- Ceroni, S.A. (2002) Datos etnobotánicos del poblado ficial fauna under natural conditions); and the use of de Huaylingas. Cuenca la Gallega. Morropón. Piura. sex pheromones for the control of the pink bollworm. Ecología Aplicada 1, pp. 65–70.) The overall aim is to implement a system of preven- tion rather than control (Morán et al., 1999). González, B.J. (2000) Manual de evaluación y control de insectos y ácaros del algodonero. Fundeal (Fun- dación Nacional de Desarrollo Algodonero), Lima, One of the comparative advantages for the develop- Boletín Técnico No. 1, 80 pp. ment and management of organic cotton in Peru is the absence of the cotton boll weevil Anthonomus Morán C., Ugás R., Lizárraga A. & Gomero L. (1999) grandis, the Colombian pink bollworm Sacadodes Organic cotton in the Cañete valley of the Peruvian pyralis, and the Ecuadorian worm Catarata lepisma. coast. In: Myers, D. & Stolton, S. (eds) Organic SENASA (Servicio Nacional de Sanidad Agraria) cotton: from field to final product. PAN-UK/ITDG considers the cotton boll weevil an exotic pest of Publishing, London, pp. 136–146. quarantine importance, and its introduction and establishment in cotton-producing areas would cause Van Houtte, F. (2004) Approaches to organic cotton considerable losses to Peruvian agriculture, from an EC perspective. In: 04 Cotton Proceedings, A European Conference on Developing the Cotton decreasing yields and returns, which would result in Market, Hamburg, February 2004. PAN-Germany, an increase in cotton imports to satisfy the national pp. 11–13. industry. The new methodologies of ‘knowledge transfer’ are also beneficial. Some technicians have Vreeland, J.M. (1999) The revival of colored cotton. run farmer field schools, emphasizing knowledge of Scientific American 280(4), 112. the life cycles of pests, methods for conserving biolog- ical control agents, etc. (CABI Bioscience, 2000). By: Elisabeth Saint-Guily1 and Alfonso Lizárraga- Travaglini2

These are important aspects to consider for gener- 1 ating greater synergies and promoting organic cotton MSc Student in Rural Development Sociology, in Peru, without losing sight of three important Wageningen University, Netherlands. Email: [email protected] aspects: the need for coherent policies, the sustain- able management of natural resources and 2Coordinador Nacional Técnico de la Red de Acción promotion of the production and consumption of sus- en Alternativas al uso de Agroquímicos (RAAA) and tainable products; all these in relation to the Professor of Entomology, Universidad Nacional Fed- strategies for sustainable development within the erico Villarreal, Peru. European Union (Van Houtte, 2004). Email: [email protected] Announcements

Are you producing a newsletter, holding a meeting, • The IOBC Internet Book of Biological Control to running an organization or rearing a natural enemy build up a body of free, accessible information on the that you want other biocontrol workers to know success of biological control around the world. The about? Send us the details and we will announce it book is aimed not just at the biological control sec- in BNI. tor, but at policy makers, the press and the public. A printed version may follow but the priority is to make it available free on the Internet. Much of the Fresh Ideas from IOBC information is thought to be ‘grey’ literature and bio- control workers are encouraged to contact IOBC Biological control researchers and practitioners are with details of these hidden successes, or with offers recommended to take a look at the new website of to write country or regional reports. IOBC (International Organization for Biological Control of Noxious Animals and Plants): • Writing partnerships to help starting-up scien- tists from developing countries where English is not www.iobc-global.org the first language, by providing them with a partner to help prepare a research paper. (If interested in In its 50th anniversary year, IOBC aims to stimulate helping or needing help, contact IOBC.) regional sections and working group activities and boost an already growing membership. Amongst new The site also has pages for global working groups and initiatives it is planning: the regional sections and their working groups, with 14N Biocontrol News and Information 26(1) links to their and other biocontrol-related websites. The Center for Biological Control facilitates the The new membership fee system is explained and the implementation of biological control through IOBC newsletters can be downloaded. The December research, training and extension programmes, pro- 2004 issue (IOBC Newsletter No. 76) includes a suc- vides and supports forums for intellectual cinct summary by IOBC President Joop van discussion, and provides a structure for the develop- Lenteren of six major initiatives regarding regula- ment of interagency cooperation within California tion of the import and release of exotic natural and the western USA. The activities of the centre enemies. include promotion of the benefits of biological control and sustainable development, which will greatly Contact: Prof. Dr. Stefano Colazza, improve public understanding of the importance of General Secretary IOBC, this pest management tool and facilitate cooperation Section of Entomology, at all levels. Specific goals include increasing capacity-building through funds for graduate stu- Acarology and Zoology, University of Palermo, dent training in biological control within the Viale delle Scienze, 13 90128 Palermo, Italy. University of California system and coordinating Email: [email protected] and sponsoring biological control conferences, Fax +39 091 7028826 working groups and lecture series.

The website keeps visitors up to date with biocontrol IOBC-NRS and Canada Biocontrol Network news, a diary and links to biocontrol journals. A Meeting ‘showcase’ section features a biological control project. It also provides a virtual home for ‘W1185’, A joint scientific meeting of the International Organ- the Western Regional Biological Control committee ization for Biological Control of Noxious Animals and ‘Biological Control in Pest Management Systems of Plants – Nearctic Regional Section (IOBC-NRS) and Plants’, including research conducted by members of the Biocontrol Network of Canada will be held in the committee. Magog, Quebec, Canada on 8–11 May 2005. Contact: Lynn LeBeck. Covering all aspects of biological control, the meeting Email: [email protected] will include a symposium on ‘Trophic and guild inter- actions in biological control’ featuring invited keynote speakers. They will discuss modern concepts Asian Plants in the USA of direct and indirect interactions among natural enemies in natural and agricultural ecosystems – a A new publication from the US Department of Agri- field that has become a hot topic in ecology and bio- culture - Forest Service summarizes existing logical control. A book of papers from the proceedings information on 40 plant species found in Asia that is to be published by Springer. A special session is were introduced either purposefully or accidentally also scheduled to celebrate the IOBC Global 50th into the USA, and have established and in many anniversary. cases become invasive. Natural enemies are listed for each species in its native range. The book is particu- The conference will be followed by a summer school larly valuable because it provides a synthesis in intended for graduate students and postdoctoral fel- English of information about these plant species that lows who share an interest in biological control (11– was previously either unpublished or relatively inac- 13 May). The school will include lectures and cessible and scattered through the Chinese literature. The book contains background informa- informal discussion groups. tion on the biology of each plant species, an image to help with identification, a map of its distribution in Conference information: www.biocontrol.ca China, indexes of scientific and common names for plant species and a bibliography of over 200 refer- Contact: Lucie Lévesque, The Biocontrol Network, ences. Also included are maps of US distribution for Building Paul G. Desmarais, Département all plant species. This book is intended to serve as a de Physiologie, Université de Montréal, resource for regulatory and plant protection agencies Room 3156, 2960, Chemin de la Tour, worldwide. Montréal, Québec H3T 1J4, Canada. Email: [email protected] Zheng, H., Wu, Y., Ding, J., Binion, D., Fu, W. Fax: +1 514 343 6631 and Reardon, R. (2004) Invasive plants of Asian origin established in the United States and their natural enemies, Berkeley Biocontrol Website Vol. 1. USDA Forest Service, FHTET, Morgantown, WV, USA. 147 pp. The aims and activities of the Center for Biological Control (co-directors: Kent Daane and Nick Mills) at Contact: Yun Wu, Forest Health Technology the University of California, Berkeley are described Enterprise Team, USDA Forest Service, on its new website: 180 Canfield St., Morgantown, WV 26505, USA. Email: [email protected] http://nature.berkeley.edu/biocon/ Fax: +1 304 2851564 News 15N Conference Report

Have you held or attended a meeting that you want impact and risk assessment as well as prevention other biocontrol workers to know about? Send us a and control with 40 oral and 84 poster contributions. report and we will include it in BNI. Although the main emphasis of this meeting was (as in previous Neobiota meetings) on the ecology of invasive species, new themes were also addressed, Neobiota including aspects of biological control of invasive spe- cies and associated questions concerning risk The 3rd International Conference on Biological Inva- assessments and legislation. For example, Dirk sions, ‘Neobiota – From Ecology to Control’ was held Babendreier (Agroscope FAL Reckenholz, Zurich) on 30 September and 1 October 2004 at the Zoolog- gave an excellent presentation on ‘Risk assessment ical Institute, University of Bern, Switzerland. of natural enemies used in inundative biological con- trol’ outlining a general framework of a risk Neobiota, a working group concerned with biological assessment methodology for biological control agents invasions, was founded by 25 German ecologists developed during the EU Project ERBIC (Evaluating during an initial meeting in Berlin in 1999. The Environmental Risks of Biological Control Introduc- group aims to collect data on non-native species in tions into Europe). Europe, to enhance communication and collabora- tion between scientists working in various relevant The Neobiota meetings series now provides a Euro- research fields and to coordinate theoretical and pean forum on invasive alien species and has clearly applied aspects of this research. The 2-day meeting gained in importance in terms of both number of par- ticipants and (European and non-European) in Bern was attended by around 200 delegates from countries represented. It has become a key venue to most parts of Europe, and also from Canada, Iran learn about research undertaken in different parts of and Japan, reflecting the growing European aware- Europe concerning non-native species, and to estab- ness of the threat posed by non-native species to the lish links with European scientists and practitioners. indigenous fauna and flora. The meeting had a very full programme addressing the ecology of invasive Web: www.tu-berlin.de/~neobiota or species, covering many taxonomic groups, and www.neobiota.unibe.ch/ Proceedings

Developing Quarantine Facilities in India antine facilities, followed by a summary of previous classical biological control attempts in India. A series Classical biological control, by its very nature, of papers provides a synthesis of a variety of topics involves the introduction of biological control agents (guidelines, protocols, procedures, techniques, con- (BCAs) into areas outside their native range. The tainment facilities) relating to the assessment in process of introduction includes a number of key quarantine of various types of BCA (fungal, safety issues, principally host specificity, contami- arthropod parasitoids and predators, pathogens of nants and potential hazards to human health. arthropods and nematodes, entomopathogenic nem- Another key issue is the quality of the introduced atodes, arthropods for weed control, weed pathogens, material and how good genetic stock can be genetically modified organisms). Case studies on the maintained. classical biological control of Mikania micrantha and Cryptostegia grandiflora using rust pathogens make It was to address these issues that the Indian special reference to quarantine issues. This section Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) provided ends with the recommendations of the workshop. funds through the National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) for a workshop on quarantine proce- Details of the quarantine facilities for BCAs were dures and facilities for BCAs, followed by a developed during the subsequent consultancy. This consultancy (conducted by CABI Bioscience) to section begins with an outline of the facilities’ pur- finalize the specifications and infrastructure pose, followed by detailed recommendations for their required for new quarantine facilities. The outputs construction, equipping and operation, together with have been collated in a publication*, which will also plans, showing how they were modified to meet be a useful resource for other countries considering requirements. The final plans for the quarantine such a facility. building at the Project Directorate of Biological Con- trol, Bangalore are appended. Portions of the Quarantine techniques for BCAs were developed Government of India legislation relevant to the during the workshop and through recommendations import and release of BCAs are also included. arising from a visit to the proposed site and discus- sions. Papers in the proceedings include an overview *Ramani, S., Bhumannavar, B.S. & Rabindra, R.J. of protocols and regulations worldwide, and how (2004) Quarantine procedures and facilities for bio- these apply to the principles and operation of quar- logical control agents. Proceedings of the ICAR– 16N Biocontrol News and Information 26(1)

CABI Workshop and Consultancy on Development of usefulness in biological control (including some Quarantine Techniques for Biological Control already registered in Kenya), together with registra- Agents. Technical Document No. 54, Project Directo- tion requirements and suggestions for increasing rate of Biological Control, ICAR, Bangalore, India, their use. The final paper considers ‘Green Muscle’ 149 pp. in a case study on the development, registration and commercialization of a biopesticide. • Registration in Africa: The first paper summa- Biopesticide Registration in Kenya rizes the properties of pyrethrum, and makes pro- The proceedings have been published of a work- posals about registration requirements for botanical shop*, held in Kenya in November 2003, to discuss pesticides. In the next paper Trichogramma is used ways of formulating protocols that would facilitate as a case study on regulating quality in mass-pro- amendment of the relevant legislation and thus duced macrobials, with detailed recommendations enable fast registration of biopesticides, as a key step on regulatory guidelines for Kenya. This is followed towards facilitating widespread use of this pest con- by papers outlining the Kenyan regulations on the trol alternative. importation of biological control agents, the registra- tion procedures for pesticides in Kenya, and the pro- The workshop was held in response to challenges posed guidelines for registration of biopesticides in presented to the horticultural industry by changes in Kenya. The section ends with a report on the Pan- European Union (EU) legislation regarding pesticide Africa Workshop on Biopesticide Registration, and residues, which affects many ACP (African, Carib- includes the harmonized guidelines it developed. bean and Pacific) and other countries. Harmonization of maximum residue levels (MRLs) • Registration in the rest of the world: This section permitted in agricultural produce imported into EU contains contributions about development and regis- countries has led, in the absence of data, to MRLs for tration of biopesticides in India and Thailand, most of the conventional older pesticides being set at Europe and OECD (Organisation for Economic Co- the limit of detection. As detection techniques have operation and Development) countries, and Cuba. improved this functionally means a zero level in These countries have considerable, but differing, many cases, and severely restricts or even prohibits experience with biopesticides. The Cuba paper the use of these products on crops intended for export includes annexes listing the information that must to the EU. However, strict sanitary and phytosani- be supplied at various stages in biopesticide devel- tary standards prohibit the presence of many pests opment, registration, importing, exporting and man- and acceptable crop damage is also severely limited. ufacturing. In Kenya as in many countries, IPM is seen as the key to overcoming the paradox of export horticul- Annexes to the publication contain current Kenyan tural crops needing to be both pesticide residue free application forms for registration of microbial, and pest free for the EU market. Papers in the pro- macrobial and biochemical pest control products. ceedings are organized under four themes: The EurepGAP (Global Partnership for Safe and • Demand from the horticultural industry: This Sustainable Agriculture) standards came into force section begins with overviews of the flower and the in January 2005, making the publication of these vegetable and fruit industries in Kenya, outlining proceedings timely, and of interest to those in the threats from the legislative changes and what is horticultural sectors of many countries besides needed from biopesticide registration. These are fol- Kenya. lowed by an introduction to commercial opportuni- ties for biopesticides. The section ends with papers *Wabule, M.N., Ngaruiya, P.N., Kimmins, F.K. & on implementing IPM and the role of regulatory Silverside, P.J. (2004) Registration for biocontrol authorities in facilitating it, and how neem-based agents in Kenya. Proceedings, Pest Control Products pesticides demonstrate the need for appropriate Board/Kenya Agricultural Research Institute/ biopesticide registration requirements. Department for International Development Crop • Contribution of research in Africa. The first Protection Programme Workshop, Nakuru, Kenya. paper provides an overview of types of biological con- 14–16 May 2003. KARI/PCPB, Nairobi, Kenya and trol agents and their use. Next is a detailed discus- Natural Resources International Ltd, Aylesford, UK. sion of baculoviruses and bacteria and their 230 pp. ISBN 0 9546452 2 7