Evidence from Clinical and Subclinical Samples

Journal of Abnormal Psychology

Prospection Deficits in Schizophrenia: Evidence From Clinical and Subclinical Samples

Zhuo-ya Yang, Dong-jie Xie, and Ying-min Zou Yi Wang Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China, and University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, China

Ying Li Hai-song Shi Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, North China Electric Power University, Beijing, China China, and Haidian District Mental Health Prevent-Treatment Hospital, Beijing, China

Rui-ting Zhang Wen-xiu Li Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, Haidian District Mental Health China, and University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Prevent-Treatment Hospital, Beijing, China

Eric F. C. Cheung Ann M. Kring Castle Peak Hospital, Hong Kong Special Administrative University of California, Berkeley Region, China

Raymond C. K. Chan Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China, and University of Chinese Academy of Sciences

Previous research has revealed anticipatory pleasure deficits in people with schizophrenia and people with social anhedonia but who do not have schizophrenia. Prospection is an important component of anticipatory pleasure, but little is known about the role of prospection in social anhedonia. In 2 studies, we investigated prospection and anticipatory pleasure in people with schizophrenia and people with social anhedonia using an affective prospection task and a self-report measure, the Temporal Experience of Pleasure Scale (TEPS). In Study 1, we found that people with schizophrenia (n ϭ 31) reported less TEPS anticipatory pleasure, generated less rich and vivid prospections, and reported less preexperiencing of future events than people without schizophrenia (n ϭ 29). In Study 2, we found that people with social anhedonia (n ϭ 34) reported less TEPS anticipatory pleasure, generated less rich prospections, and reported less pleasure and preexperiencing for future events than people without social anhedonia (n ϭ 33). Taken together, prospection impairments and decreased anticipatory pleasure were observed in schizophrenia and social anhedonia.

Zhuo-ya Yang, Dong-jie Xie, and Ying-min Zou, Neuropsychology and ogy, University of California, Berkeley; Raymond C. K. Chan, Neuro- Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of psychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Acad-

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its alliedBeijing, publishers. China, and Department of Psychology, University of Chinese emy of Sciences, Beijing, China, and Department of Psychology, Uni-

This article is intended solely for the personal use ofAcademy the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. of Sciences; Yi Wang, Neuropsychology and Applied Cog- versity of Chinese Academy of Sciences. nitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental This study was supported by the National Science Fund China Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, (81571317), the National Basic Research Programme of China (Precision China; Ying Li, Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Psychiatry Programme, 2016YFC0906402), the Beijing Training Project Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psy- for the Leading Talents in Science and Technology (Z151100000315020), chology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China, and Haidian the Beijing Municipal Science & Technology Commission Grant District Mental Health Prevent-Treatment Hospital, Beijing, China; (Z161100000216138), and the CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Hai-song Shi, North China Electric Power University, Beijing, China; Institute of Psychology. Rui-ting Zhang, Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Part of Study 1 was presented at the 16th International Congress on Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psy- Schizophrenia Research (ICOSR), 2017, San Diego, California. chology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China, and Depart- Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Raymond ment of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences; C. K. Chan, Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Lab- Wen-xiu Li, Haidian District Mental Health Prevent-Treatment Hospi- oratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, tal; Eric F. C. Cheung, Castle Peak Hospital, Hong Kong Special Chinese Academy of Sciences, 16 Lincui Road, Beijing 100101, China. Administrative Region, China; Ann M. Kring, Department of Psychol- E-mail: [email protected]

710 PROSPECTION DEFICITS IN SCHIZOPHRENIA 711

General Scientific Summary This study suggests that people with schizophrenia and people with social anhedonia exhibit decreased anticipatory pleasure and have similar difficulties in projecting themselves into the future (prospection). We also examined the relationship between anticipatory pleasure and prospection in these groups.

Keywords: prospection, anticipatory pleasure, schizophrenia, social anhedonia

Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/abn0000382.supp

Anticipatory pleasure deficits have been demonstrated in people people without SZ. Their study is the only one to include a neutral with schizophrenia (SZ; Kring & Elis, 2013) and are associated condition in the paradigm. In addition, people with SZ did not with negative symptoms (Kring & Barch, 2014). People with differ from controls in reported current and predicted pleasure for social anhedonia but who do not meet diagnostic criteria for SZ future events if they recalled past events prior to prospection. exhibit many similar affective and cognitive responses observed in Although these findings provided insights into how memory, people with SZ (Cohen, Leung, Saperstein, & Blanchard, 2006; prospection, and emotion experience interact with each other in Germine, Garrido, Bruce, & Hooker, 2011; Gooding & Tallent, SZ, it is still unclear how prospection relates to pleasure experi- 2003), including deficits in anticipatory pleasure (Xie et al., 2015). ence in SZ. Social anhedonia, which has been conceptualized as one manifes- To our knowledge, no study has investigated prospection in tation of schizotypy (Blanchard, Collins, Aghevli, Leung, & Co- people with social anhedonia. Given that impairments in affective hen, 2011; Wang et al., 2014), is associated with the risk of and cognitive functions in people with social anhedonia resemble developing SZ spectrum disorders (Kwapil, 1998; Kwapil, Miller, those of people with SZ (Germine et al., 2011; Gooding & Tallent, Zinser, Chapman, & Chapman, 1997). In the present study, we 2003; Leung, Couture, Blanchard, Lin, & Llerena, 2010), people assessed components of anticipatory pleasure using a novel para- with social anhedonia may have similar prospection deficits as digm in clinical and subclinical samples, including people with SZ people with SZ. and people with social anhedonia in order to understand if these In the present research, we examined prospection and anticipa- components are similarly impaired. tory pleasure experience in people with SZ and people with social Anticipatory pleasure includes several interrelated processes, anhedonia. We designed a novel prospection task to measure including memory, prospection, and current and predicted pleasure prospection of emotional and nonemotional future events. In Study experience (Painter & Kring, 2016). Prospection refers to the 1, we investigated prospection and anticipatory pleasure experi- ability to simulate and preexperience future events (Gilbert & ence in people with SZ. Based on previous findings, we hypoth- Wilson, 2007; Painter & Kring, 2016). Investigating prospection in esized that (1) people with SZ would generate less vivid and rich people with SZ and people with social anhedonia may contribute prospections and have a lower sense of preexperiencing than to better understanding the nature of anticipatory pleasure deficits healthy controls, (2) decreased Temporal Experience of Pleasure in these groups of people. Scale (TEPS) anticipatory pleasure would be found in people with Emotion has an important influence on prospection. In a study SZ, and (3) positive prospection would be correlated with TEPS with healthy people, positive prospection and neutral prospection anticipatory pleasure in SZ. In Study 2, we investigated whether contained more time/place details and were rated to be temporally people with social anhedonia had prospection and anticipatory closer than negative prospection (Painter & Kring, 2015). Further- pleasure deficits. We hypothesized that (1) people with social more, people generate positive future events more vividly and have anhedonia would have deficits in prospection relative to controls, a greater sense of preexperiencing these events than negative (2) people with social anhedonia would have a lower score on the anticipatory pleasure subscale of TEPS compared to controls, and future events (D’Argembeau & Van der Linden, 2004).

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. (3) positive prospection would be related to TEPS anticipatory To date, there have been three studies of prospection in SZ, all

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. pleasure in the social anhedonia group. In addition, we also ex- of which reported that people with SZ have difficulties in pros- amined the influence of emotion on prospection in both studies. pecting future events. D’Argembeau, Raffard, and Van der Linden We hypothesized that positive prospections would be more vivid (2008) first reported that people with SZ generated less specific and rich than negative or neutral prospections in each group. future events than controls in response to short sentences depicting general situations. In another study using emotional pictures as cues, Raffard, Esposito, Boulenger, and Van der Linden (2013) not Study 1 only replicated this result but also found that prospections of people with SZ contained less sensory, contextual, self-referential, Participants and other-referential details than controls and that less self- referential information of positive future events correlated with Thirty-one people (15 women) who met the DSM–IV (American apathy in people with SZ. Painter and Kring (2016) reported that Psychiatric Association, 1994) criteria for SZ and 29 healthy people with SZ constructed less detailed and rich prospections and controls (12 women) participated in this study. One psychiatrist were less able to explicitly draw from their past experience than confirmed diagnoses using the Structured Clinical Interview 712 YANG ET AL.

(SCID) for DSM–IV (First, Gibbon, Spitzer, & Williams, 1996) trials using pictures with corresponding valence were presented and by review of medical records. Participants in the SZ group randomly. were outpatients from the Haidian District in Beijing. According to When each picture was presented, participants were instructed review of their recent medical records, these participants were not to rate the valence of the picture (1 ϭ very unpleasant, 7 ϭ very in a current mood episode. All but two participants with SZ were pleasant). Then, they were asked to prospect one future event that receiving second-generation antipsychotics; two persons were pre- was likely to occur to them in association with this picture. scribed first-generation antipsychotic medication. The average an- Participants were informed that the generated event should contain tipsychotic dose was 295.53 mg/day in chlorpromazine equiva- as much detail as possible and should be a specific event that lence. occurred at a particular time and place and lasted not longer than Controls were recruited from referrals and community adver- a day. In addition, they were told to describe something new rather tisement in the neighboring communities. They did not differ from than to recount a past event. those in the SZ group in gender, age, or years of education (see In the practice trial, participants received feedback until they Table 1). Controls completed two rounds of screenings. First, prior understood the instructions and could generate a specific future to the study, they received a phone interview to confirm demo- event successfully. During the experimental trial, they were only graphic information and general health condition. Second, they prompted once if they did not describe any future event in response were then invited to complete a more detailed screening question- to a cue. After two attempts, if they still failed to generate a naire (please refer to online supplemental Table S1). Based on plausible future event, the trial was considered missing. Missing phone and questionnaire screenings, controls reported no personal trials were not included in the subsequent analyses. There were 20 history of psychosis and had no first-degree relatives with psy- missing trials (of 279) in people with SZ and 13 missing trials (of chotic disorders. Any participant who reported neurological disor- 261) in controls (t ϭϪ1.07, p ϭ .29). ders, had current substance abuse, or who had an IQ score lower After the participants described a future event, they were told to than 70 based on the short form of the Chinese version of the rate the phenomenal characteristics of the event and current expe- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Revised (WAIS–R, informa- rience when prospecting the event. Specifically, participants rated tion, arithmetic, similarities, and digit span; Gong, 1992) was not five items: temporal distance (1 ϭ will happen in less than 1 week, invited to participate. 7 ϭ will happen more than 5 years later), participation (“In the The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Insti- future events, you are: 1 ϭ a participant, 2 ϭ a spectator”), tute of Psychology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Protocol vividness (1 ϭ no image at all, 7 ϭ very clear and vivid), emotion H15031). Written informed consent was obtained from all partic- experience (1 ϭ very unpleasant, 7 ϭ very pleasant), and sense of ipants. preexperiencing (1 ϭ not at all, 7 ϭ completely). We also asked participants to rate how many details they used from the pictures for constructing events (1 ϭ very few, 7 ϭ a lot) and the famil- Measures and Procedure iarity of the prospected events (1 ϭ very unfamiliar, 7 ϭ very familiar). Affective prospection task. The newly developed affective All narratives were recorded and later transcribed for coding by prospection task assesses prospection of emotional future events. trained raters. Raters coded four variables. Specificity was coded Pictures of common scenes in everyday life with positive (n ϭ 3), as one of three types according to Williams, Teasdale, Segal, and negative (n ϭ 3), and neutral (n ϭ 3) valence were selected from Soulsby (2000): (1) specific events that occurred at a specific place the International Affective Picture System (Lang, Bradley, & and time, which lasted less than 1 day; (2) extended events that Cuthbert, 1997) and the Chinese Affective Picture System (Lu, lasted more than 1 day; or (3) repeated events representing a Hui, & Yu-Xia, 2005) and were used as cues to prompt partici- category of events that might happen repeatedly over a long time. pants to prospect their own future. Descriptions of these pictures Scores were given from 3 to 1, with higher scores reflecting greater are summarized in Table 2. Within each valence, pictures included specificity. Richness of detail covered three domains: (1) time/ one, more than one, or no people.1 The valence and arousal of each place, (2) sensory aspects of the event, and (3) thought/emotion picture were rated using a 7-point Likert scale (valence: 1 ϭ very details. Richness of detail in these three domains was assessed on unpleasant, 7 ϭ very pleasant; arousal: 1 ϭ very low, 7 ϭ very

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. a 3-point scale with higher scores representing higher levels of high) in an independent sample (N ϭ 31, 16 men, mean age ϭ

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. richness. For example, descriptions that were rich, vivid, and 24.52 years, mean education years ϭ 17.58). The mean valence of highly specific and seemed to arise from a sense of preexperienc- positive, negative, and neutral pictures was 6.00 (SD ϭ 0.55), 1.88 ing would be rated 3. Descriptions that were less rich were rated 2, (SD ϭ 0.62), and 3.21 (SD ϭ 0.50), respectively. The mean and descriptions that were limited to general, nonspecific infor- arousal of positive, negative, and neutral pictures was 5.14 (SD ϭ mation but were still episodic in nature would be rated 1. The 0.95), 5.05 (SD ϭ 0.97), and 2.95 (SD ϭ 0.85), respectively. scoring manual was adapted from the autobiographical interview Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) and pairwise comparisons (Levine, Svoboda, Hay, Winocur, & Moscovitch, 2002). All re- showed significant differences between each emotion condition for 2 valence (F(1.73, 51.92) ϭ 407.49, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.93, positive Ͼ neutral Ͼ negative) and arousal (F(2, 33.20) ϭ 86.48, p Ͻ .001, 1 A series of 3 (Condition: positive, negative, neutral) ϫ 2 (Group: 2 SZ/social anhedonia, control) ϫ 2 (Picture: including people, no people) ␩p ϭ 0.82, positive Ͼ neutral, negative Ͼ neutral). At the beginning of the task, participants completed a practice ANOVA analyses were carried out. We found no significant main effects of picture or interactions between group and picture, which suggested that trial with a neutral picture. The positive, negative, and neutral whether picture includes people may not impact the differences we found conditions were counterbalanced, and within each condition, three in prospection performance between SZ/social anhedonia and controls. PROSPECTION DEFICITS IN SCHIZOPHRENIA 713

Table 1 Demographic, Clinical, Cognitive, and Pleasure Experience Measures in Study 1

Variable Schizophrenia (n ϭ 31) Healthy controls (n ϭ 29) t/␹2 p value

Gender, male/female, n 16/15 17/12 .35 .56 Age 41.19 (9.04) 40.00 (11.06) .46 .65 Education years 12.36 (2.73) 13.14 (3.02) –1.06 .30 IQ 108.29 (17.00) 113.76 (14.22) –1.35 .18 ءTEPS_Abs_Ant 15.97 (4.26) 18.59 (3.22) –2.67 .01 TEPS_Con_Ant 15.03 (4.39) 15.35 (3.80) –.29 .77 ءTEPS_Abs_Con 25.07 (4.95) 28.38 (4.95) –2.59 .01 TEPS_Con_Con 14.81 (3.87) 16.76 (3.87) –1.95 .06 LM 12.34 (5.27) 13.52 (3.44) –.98 .33 DLM 10.73 (5.87) 12.26 (3.41) –1.18 .24 ءLNS_C 12.52 (3.92) 15.75 (4.45) –2.91 .005 ءLNS_L 5.17 (.97) 5.93 (1.30) –2.49 .02 VF 20.82 (5.72) 21.48 (3.84) –.50 .62 CPZeq (mg/day) 295.53 (175.96) Duration of illness (years) 17.80 (8.68) PANSS-N 14.83 (5.51) PANSS-P 10.13 (4.22) PANSS-G 24.90 (7.65) Note. TEPS_Abs_Ant ϭ abstract anticipatory factor of the Temporal Experience of Pleasure Scale; TEPS_Co- n_Ant ϭ contextual anticipatory factor of the Temporal Experience of Pleasure Scale; TEPS_Abs_Con ϭ abstract consummatory factor of the Temporal Experience of Pleasure Scale; TEPS_Con_Con ϭ contextual consummatory factor of the Temporal Experience of Pleasure Scale; LM ϭ logical memory; DLM ϭ delayed logical memory; LNS_C ϭ number of correct spans in letter number span test; LNS_L ϭ the longest span in letter number span test; VF ϭ the verbal fluency test; CPZeq ϭ chlorpromazine equivalence; PANSS-N ϭ Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale subscale for negative symptoms; PANSS-P ϭ Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale subscale for positive symptoms; PANSS-G ϭ Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale subscale for general psychopathological symptoms. .(p Ͻ .05 was considered significant; data are presented as mean (standard deviation ء

sponses were scored by two trained raters. To examine interrater I can hardly sleep”), and abstract anticipatory experience (e.g., “I reliability, one rater, who was blind to the hypothesis and group look forward to a lot of things in my life”). Good psychometric membership of the study, independently scored 20% of the responses properties and clinical discrimination of the Chinese version of the that were selected randomly from those scored by the other rater. TEPS have been demonstrated in healthy controls, people with Agreement between raters was good (range of the intraclass correla- schizotypy, and people with SZ (Chan, Shi, et al., 2012; Chan et tion coefficients: 0.84–0.95; Fleiss & Shrout, 1978). al., 2010; Shi et al., 2012). Trait pleasure. The TEPS (Gard, Gard, Kring, & John, 2006) Clinical symptoms and neurocognition. Clinical symptoms was used to assess trait consummatory and anticipatory pleasure were assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale experience. The Chinese version of the TEPS (Chan et al., 2010) (PANSS; Kay, Fiszbein, & Opler, 1987) by experienced psy- was adopted in this study. It has four factors: contextual consum- chiatrists. Subscales of the PANSS for positive (PANSS-P), matory experience (e.g., “I really enjoy the feeling of a good negative (PANSS-N), and general psychopathological symp- yawn”), abstract consummatory experience (e.g., “The smell of toms (PANSS-G) were used. freshly cut grass is enjoyable to me”), contextual anticipatory To provide a global description of participants’ cognitive func- experience (e.g., “I get so excited the night before a major holiday tioning, we assessed semantic and working memory using the This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Table 2 This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. Descriptions of Cues in the Affective Prospection Task

Cue Condition Description

5199a Positive A garden with flowers, trees, and a few people in the distance 5836a Positive A beach with two people 125b Positive A few Chinese dishes on the table, no people involved 9592a Negative Injection, two people involved 7360a Negative Flies on a pie, no people involved 9342a Negative Garbage, one man involved 7234a Neutral An ironing board and some clothes 2397a Neutral Two Asian men on the subway 7044a Neutral One people on the weighing scale a The International Affective Picture System slide number. b The Chinese Affective Picture System slide number. 714 YANG ET AL.

Chinese version of the Logical Memory (LM) test of the Wechsler We found significant condition main effects for emotion expe- 2 Memory Scale–III (WMS-III; Gong et al., 1989) and the Chinese rience, F(2, 116) ϭ 119.31, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.67; vividness, F(2, 2 version of the Letter–Number Span (LNS) test (Chan et al., 2008). 116) ϭ 9.88, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.15; sense of experience, F(2, 2 In addition, we assessed verbal fluency using the animal name 116) ϭ 6.47, p ϭ .002, ␩p ϭ 0.10; participation, F(2, 116) ϭ 2 semantic Verbal Fluency (VF) test (Spreen & Strauss, 1998). We 21.86, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.27; and temporal distance, F(1.79, 2 assessed IQ using the short form of the Chinese version of the 104.06) ϭ 4.84, p ϭ .01, ␩p ϭ 0.08. Pairwise comparisons indi- WAIS–R (information, arithmetic, similarities, and digit span; cated that (1) all participants reported more pleasure in positive Gong, 1992). Descriptive statistics for the clinical and neurocog- prospections than in neutral or negative ones and experienced nitive measures are presented in Table 1. more positive emotion in neutral prospections than in negative Data analyses. First, we conducted independent samples t ones, (2) positive prospections were more vivid than negative and tests to examine group differences in the TEPS between people neutral ones, (3) participants had a greater sense of preexperienc- with and without SZ. Then we investigated differences in prospec- ing in positive prospections than in negative ones, (4) the role of tion using a series of ANOVAs with condition (positive, negative, spectator was more likely to be adopted in neutral or negative neutral) as the within-subject factor and group (SZ, control) as the prospections than in positive prospections, and (5) neutral prospec- between-subjects factor. Bonferroni correction was used in the tions were perceived more close in time than positive prospections. following pairwise comparisons: positive vs. negative, positive vs. We found a significant Group ϫ Condition interaction for 2 neutral, negative vs. neutral. We computed Pearson correlations to temporal distance, F(1.79, 104.06) ϭ 3.66, p ϭ .03, ␩p ϭ 0.06. examine the relationship between positive prospection and TEPS Further analyses revealed that only the perceived temporal dis- anticipatory pleasure experience in each group and between pos- tance of negative future events was significantly different between itive prospection and negative symptoms in the SZ group. We people with and without SZ (SZ Ͻ control). conducted exploratory correlation analyses between neurocogni- For coded variables, we found a significant group main effect tive functioning and prospection in both groups. A significance for richness of thought/emotion details, F(1, 58) ϭ 4.50, p ϭ .04, level of .05 was adopted in all analyses. In addition, multiple 2 ␩p ϭ 0.07. Prospections of people with SZ contained less rich correlations were corrected by the Benjamini–Hochberg–Yekutieli thought/emotion details than those of controls. In addition, we False Discovery Rate (FDR) method (Benjamini & Yekutieli, found significant condition main effects for specificity, F(2, 2001). 2 116) ϭ 5.43, p ϭ .006, ␩p ϭ 0.09; richness of time/place details, 2 F(2, 116) ϭ 9.40, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.14; sensory details, F(2, 2 Results 116) ϭ 5.23, p ϭ .007, ␩p ϭ 0.08; and thought/emotion details, 2 F(2, 116) ϭ 12.87, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.18. Results of pairwise Demographic information, clinical ratings, and scores on the comparisons showed that positive prospections were more specific LM, the LNS, the VF, and the TEPS are presented in Table 2. and contained richer time/place details, sensory details, and Independent sample t tests and chi-square tests revealed that the thought/emotion details than negative or neutral prospections. No groups did not differ in age, gender, years of education, and IQ interactions between group and condition were significant. The score. mean ratings and standard deviations, as well as the ANOVA Trait pleasure. Consistent with prior studies (Li et al., 2015; results, are shown in Table 3. Strauss, Wilbur, Warren, August, & Gold, 2011), people with SZ Correlations between prospection and anticipatory pleasure scored lower than controls on abstract anticipatory and abstract experience. Richness of thought/emotion details in positive consummatory pleasure. prospection was correlated with abstract anticipatory experience Affective prospection task performance. First, we investi- (r ϭ .36, p ϭ .04) and contextual anticipatory experience (r ϭ .37, gated whether the groups differed in their ratings of the pictures. p ϭ .04) in the SZ group; however, this was no longer significant Only the main effect of condition was significant, F(2, 116) ϭ after controlling for multiple correlations. Negative symptoms 177.36, p Ͻ .001, ␩2 ϭ 0.79. Pairwise comparisons revealed that p were associated with richness of time/place details in positive all participants rated positive pictures more positively than neutral prospection (r ϭϪ0.50, p ϭ .005) in the SZ group. No significant (p Ͻ .001) and negative (p Ͻ .001) ones. They also rated neural correlation between positive prospection and TEPS anticipatory pictures more positively than negative ones (p Ͻ .001). This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. pleasure was found in the control group (ps Ͼ .05). We next examined differences on word usage. We observed a This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. 2 We conducted exploratory correlations between prospection and significant group main effect, F(1, 58) ϭ 6.92, p ϭ .01, ␩p ϭ 0.11, but neither the main effect of condition nor the interaction between the neurocognitive tests; these results are presented in online group and condition was significant. Controls used more words supplemental Tables S2 and S3. In short, no correlation remained than people with SZ. Despite this group difference, total word significant after correcting for multiple tests. Broadly, there was a usage was not significantly correlated with any participant-rated or tendency for neurocognition to be correlated with emotion expe- participant-coded prospection variables. In addition, the two rience and specificity and richness of details in the SZ group. In the groups did not differ in use of details in pictures and familiarity for control group, similar correlations were found. future events (ps ϭ .12 and .08, respectively). For self-rated items, we found significant group main effects for 2 Discussion vividness, F(1, 58) ϭ 8.52, p ϭ .005, ␩p ϭ 0.13, and sense of 2 preexperiencing, F(1, 58) ϭ 8.87, p ϭ .004, ␩p ϭ 0.13. Controls Consistent with our hypotheses, our results revealed that generated more vivid future events and had a greater sense of people with SZ generated less rich and vivid prospections and preexperiencing than people with SZ. had a lower sense of preexperiencing than controls. In addition, PROSPECTION DEFICITS IN SCHIZOPHRENIA 715

Table 3 Affective Prospection Task Performance in Study 1

SZ (n ϭ 31) Healthy controls (n ϭ 29)

2 Variable Positive Negative Neutral Positive Negative Neutral ANOVA results ␩p

Specificity 2.04 (.80) 1.92 (.91) 1.68 (.69) 2.08 (.60) 1.91 (.73) 1.78 (.73) Condition: pos Ͼ neu .09 Richness of T/P 1.11 (.54) .72 (.67) .74 (.72) 1.20 (.64) .88 (.72) .98 (.72) Condition: pos Ͼ neg, pos Ͼ neu .14 Richness of sensory 1.12 (.79) .81 (.61) .66 (.59) 1.20 (.88) .98 (.88) .94 (.87) Condition: pos Ͼ neu .08 Richness of T/E .88 (.82) .67 (.64) .49 (.77) 1.37 (.91) .97 (.83) .74 (.70) Condition: pos Ͼ neg, pos Ͼ neu .18 Group: HC Ͼ SZ .07 Preexperience 4.63 (1.39) 3.99 (1.49) 4.27 (1.27) 5.41 (1.18) 4.90 (1.16) 5.02 (1.11) Condition: pos Ͼ neg .10 Group: HC Ͼ SZ .13 Temporal distance 3.48 (1.15) 3.04 (1.33) 3.01 (1.08) 3.42 (.79) 3.72 (1.26) 3.01 (1.39) Condition: pos Ͼ neu .08 Condition ϫ Group: HC Ͼ SZ negative only .06 Emotion experience 5.77 (.95) 3.13 (1.11) 4.53 (1.26) 5.84 (.88) 2.83 (1.19) 4.49 (.98) Condition: pos Ͼ neu Ͼ neg .67 Vividness 4.80 (1.40) 4.43 (1.40) 4.28 (1.20) 5.66 (1.05) 4.95 (1.02) 5.24 (.93) Condition: pos Ͼ neg, pos Ͼ neu .15 Group: HC Ͼ SZ .13 Participation 1.10 (.18) 1.33 (.32) 1.25 (.31) 1.05 (.12) 1.29 (.30) 1.25 (.26) Condition: pos Ͻ neg, pos Ͻ neu .27 Note. Richness of T/P ϭ richness of time/place details; Richness of T/E ϭ richness of thought/emotion details; HC ϭ healthy control; SZ ϭ schizophrenia; ANOVA ϭ analysis of variance; pos ϭ positive; neg ϭ negative; neu ϭ neutral; data are presented as mean (standard deviation).

people with SZ reported less abstract anticipatory pleasure on negative future events to protect themselves from potential fear the TEPS. and anxiety (Rasmussen & Berntsen, 2013). However, we found The decreased sense of preexperiencing and vividness reflected that emotion affected prospection differently in people with SZ a reduced ability to project themselves into the future. The sense of and controls with respect to temporal distance. People with SZ preexperiencing, which can also be termed as “autonoetic con- tended to rate negative future events closer in time than controls, sciousness” (Tulving, 1985), is a subjective feeling of being which may reflect reduced optimism about their future (Prentice, brought into future. D’Argembeau and Van der Linden (2012) Gold, & Carpenter, 2005). suggested that this autonoetic consciousness partly depended on In line with previous studies (D’Argembeau, Ortoleva, Jumen- sensory-perceptual qualities of future events (D’Argembeau & tier, & Van der Linden, 2010; Suddendorf & Corballis, 2007), we Van der Linden, 2012). Therefore, it is reasonable that we found found that neurocognitive functioning tended to be correlated with reduced vividness accompanied with low sense of preexperiencing prospection in both groups, although no significant correlation in people with SZ. survived correction multiple testing. Further research is needed to We also found that people with SZ generated less rich assess whether and how neurocognitive functioning might be thought/emotion details. It may reflect that people with SZ had linked with prospection in SZ. difficulties figuring out what they thought and how they felt when prospecting future events, and this is in line with Raffard Study 2 et al.’s (2013) study that suggested that people with SZ tended to report less self-related information, including feelings and In Study 2, we aimed to investigate prospection and anticipatory thoughts, than healthy people. pleasure in people with social anhedonia. Participants completed Contrary to previous findings (D’Argembeau et al., 2008; Raf- the affective prospection task, the TEPS, and neurocognitive tests. fard et al., 2013), which suggested that prospection in people with SZ was less specific that controls, we did not find any difference Method in specificity between two groups. However, D’Argembeau et al. (2008) used short sentences describing general situations instead Participants. Consistent with previous studies of social anhe- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. of specific pictures as cues, which might influence specificity donia (Wang et al., 2016; Zou et al., 2015), we selected partici- This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. (Rasmussen & Berntsen, 2014). In addition, Painter and Kring pants based on scores of the social anhedonia measure. Thirty-four (2016) found that people with SZ generated fewer time/place people with social anhedonia and 33 controls were recruited from details. However, in our study, richness of time/place details did 2,994 college students in Beijing. All college students completed not differ in two groups. Because this study used pictures as cues, the Chapman Scale for Social Anhedonia (CSAS; Chan, Wang, et they may have provided additional information that aided in the al., 2012; Chapman, Chapman, & Raulin, 1976). The mean score reporting of such details. and standard deviation of the CSAS in 2,994 college students were Emotion had a similar influence on prospection in people with 7.40 and 5.03, respectively. Students who scored 1.96 standard SZ and controls. Our findings are consistent with previous studies deviations above the mean on the CSAS were allocated to the (D’Argembeau & Van der Linden, 2004; Painter & Kring, 2015). social anhedonia group (M ϭ 20.21, SD ϭ 3.26), while the control On one hand, people might encode and retrieve positive informa- group (M ϭ 4.67, SD ϭ 2.01) was composed of those who scored tion more easily than negative information to maintain a positive lower than the mean of the CSAS. Participants were not invited to self-concept (D’Argembeau, Comblain, & Van der Linden, 2003). participate if they had any of the following: (1) a history of On the other hand, they may tend to avoid generating vivid neurological or psychiatric disorders, (2) first-degree relatives with 716 YANG ET AL.

psychotic disorders, and (3) current substance abuse. Participants were calculated separately for the two groups. Exploratory corre- completed two rounds of screening as was done for controls in lation analyses were also conducted to investigate the relationship Study 1. In addition, their recent records in the college mental between neurocognitive functioning and prospection in both health center were reviewed and indicated that they did not have groups. A significance level of .05 was used in all analyses. personality disorders or mood disorders when participating this Multiple correlations were corrected by the Benjamini–Hochberg– study. Independent sample t tests showed significant group differ- Yekutieli FDR method (Benjamini & Yekutieli, 2001). ence in CSAS scores between the two groups, t(65) ϭ 23.54, p Ͻ .001, which were otherwise comparable in age, gender, years of Results education, and IQ. The study was approved by the Ethics Com- mittee of the Institute of Psychology, the Chinese Academy of Group comparisons of pleasure experience. People with Sciences (Protocol H15031). Written informed consent was ob- social anhedonia scored lower on TEPS abstract anticipatory plea- tained from all participants. sure (t ϭϪ3.74, p Ͻ .001), contextual anticipatory pleasure Measures and procedure. Prospection and pleasure experi- (t ϭϪ3.62, p ϭ .001), and abstract consummatory pleasure ence of participants were assessed by the affective prospection task (t ϭϪ2.40, p ϭ .02) compared to controls (see Table 4). and the TEPS, respectively. In addition, the LM, the LNS, the VF, Affective prospection task performance. As in Study 1, we and the WAIS–R were administrated to all participants. All of the first investigated whether the groups differed in their ratings of the above measures were described in Study 1. For the prospection pictures. We found a significant main effect of condition, F(2, 2 task, 21 prospection narratives (of 306) were missing in people 130) ϭ 265.12, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.80. Pairwise comparisons with social anhedonia, and 15 prospection narratives (of 297) were confirmed that all participants rated positive pictures more posi- missing in their controls (t ϭϪ0.94, p ϭ .35). The same raters tively than negative and neutral pictures, and they rated neural from Study 1 coded for prospection variables. pictures more positively than negative ones. Neither the group The Chinese version of the CSAS (Chan, Wang, et al., 2012), main effect nor the Group ϫ Condition interaction was significant. which has good reliability and construct validity, was used to We then investigated the influence of total word usage, reported differentiate the social anhedonia group from the control group. use of details in pictures, and the familiarity of future events, as in The CSAS is a 40-item checklist with true–false answers, and Study 1. No significant group or condition main effect and inter- Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the CSAS was 0.85. A higher action were found for total word usage (ps ϭ .08, .30, and .53, score indicates less pleasure experienced in social interactions. respectively). However, we found significant group main effects Data analyses. A series of 2 (Group: social anhedonia, con- for reported use of details in pictures, F(1, 65) ϭ 4.55, p ϭ .04, 2 trol) ϫ 3 (Condition: positive, negative, neutral) ANOVAs was ␩p ϭ 0.07, and familiarity for future events, F(1, 65) ϭ 4.68, p ϭ 2 carried out to investigate the affective prospection task perfor- .03, ␩p ϭ 0.07. Controls tended to use more details in pictures to mance of all participants. Bonferroni correction was used in the prospect future events and felt more familiar with future events following pairwise comparisons: positive vs. negative, positive vs. than individuals with social anhedonia. In addition, the condition neutral, negative vs. neutral. Group differences in the TEPS were main effect for familiarity for future events, F(2, 130) ϭ 20.46, 2 examined using independent sample t tests. Pearson correlations p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.24, was also significant. All participants assessed between positive prospection and anticipatory pleasure experience that they were more familiar with the positive and neutral future

Table 4 Demographic, Cognitive, and Pleasure Experience Measures in Study 2

Variable Social anhedonia (n ϭ 34) Control (n ϭ 33) t/␹2 p value

Gender, male/female, n 25/9 19/14 1.89 .17 Age 19.50 (1.33) 19.39 (.75) .40 .69 Education years 12.97 (1.00) 12.85 (.80) .55 .58 IQ 128.32 (9.13) 128.00 (6.96) .15 .88 ءء

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. CSAS 20.21 (3.26) 4.67 (2.01) 23.54 Ͻ.001 ءء Ͻ

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. TEPS_Abs_Ant 18.09 (2.91) 20.48 (2.29) –3.74 .001 ءTEPS_Con_Ant 13.85 (4.61) 17.61 (3.82) –3.62 .001 ءTEPS_Abs_Con 26.09 (4.09) 28.33 (3.53) –2.40 .02 TEPS_Con_Con 15.38 (3.91) 15.45 (2.49) –.09 .93 LM 16.68 (3.17) 16.82 (3.29) .04 .87 DLM 15.00 (3.60) 15.89 (3.44) .60 .34 VF 23.32 (6.25) 24.73 (5.22) –.10 .32 LNS_C 19.00 (3.19) 18.00 (4.01) 1.13 .26 LNS_L 6.88 (1.07) 6.73 (1.13) .58 .57 Note. CSAS ϭ Chapman Scale for Social Anhedonia; TEPS_Abs_Ant ϭ abstract anticipatory factor of the Temporal Experience of Pleasure Scale; TEPS_Con_Ant ϭ contextual anticipatory factor of the Temporal Experience of Pleasure Scale; TEPS_Abs_Con ϭ abstract consummatory factor of the Temporal Experience of Pleasure Scale; TEPS_Con_Con ϭ contextual consummatory factor of the Temporal Experience of Pleasure Scale; LM ϭ logical memory; DLM ϭ delayed logical memory; VF ϭ the verbal fluency test; LNS_C ϭ number of correct spans in letter number span test; LNS_L ϭ the longest span in letter number span test. .(p Ͻ .001; data are presented as mean (standard deviation ءء .p Ͻ .05 was considered significant ء PROSPECTION DEFICITS IN SCHIZOPHRENIA 717

events than negative ones. No Group ϫ Condition interactions prospections (r ϭ .40; p ϭ .02) in the social anhedonia group. In were significant. the control group, abstract anticipatory pleasure was related to For self-rated items, ANOVA results revealed significant group vividness of positive prospections (r ϭ .49; p ϭ .004). However, main effects for sense of preexperiencing, F(1, 65) ϭ 6.04, p ϭ after applying correction for multiple correlations, none of these 2 .02, ␩p ϭ 0.09, and emotion experience, F(1, 65) ϭ 5.86, p ϭ .02, remained significant. 2 ␩p ϭ 0.08. People with social anhedonia had a lower sense of Exploratory correlational analyses reviewed that some prospec- preexperiencing and experienced future events less positively than tion variables were related to neurocognition (see online supple- controls. On the other hand, the condition main effects for tempo- mental Tables S4 and S5). However, as in Study 1, these correla- 2 ral distance, F(2, 130) ϭ 9.82, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.13; vividness, tions were no longer significant after correcting for multiple 2 F(1.90, 123.47) ϭ 7.40, p ϭ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.10; participation, F(2, correlations. 2 130) ϭ 11.04, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.15; emotion experience, F(2, 2 130) ϭ 125.56, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.66; and sense of preexperiencing, 2 Discussion F(2, 130) ϭ 8.80, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.12, were significant, and pairwise comparisons yielded the similar pattern of results as in Results in Study 2 revealed that people with social anhedonia Study 1. That is, neutral prospections were assessed more close in prospected future events less richly, experienced less pleasure, and time than positive and negative prospections, whereas positive had a lower sense of preexperiencing than controls. These people prospections were experienced more vividly than negative ones. also reported lower anticipatory pleasure on the TEPS. Moreover, Participants were more likely to adopt the role of spectator in positive prospection tended to be associated with anticipatory neutral or negative prospections than in positive prospections. pleasure experience in the social anhedonia group. These findings Moreover, all participants experienced more pleasure in positive were consistent with our hypothesis in Study 2. prospections than in neutral or negative ones and reported more Interestingly, people with social anhedonia showed compa- positive emotion in neutral prospections than in negative ones. In rable vividness but abnormal current experience in prospection. addition, all participants had a greater sense of preexperiencing for It may reflect that in people with social anhedonia, other factors positive prospections than neutral and negative ones. rather than vividness could contribute to the diminished sense For coded variables, the only significant group main effect was of preexperiencing, such as personal importance of future for richness of thought/emotion details, F(1, 65) ϭ 5.69, p ϭ .02, events (D’Argembeau & Van der Linden, 2012). In addition, 2 ␩p ϭ 0.08. Prospections of people with social anhedonia contained decreased pleasure experience in prospections was consistent with less rich thought/emotion details than controls. We observed a the results from a study that reported that people with social significant condition main effect for specificity, F(1.91, 124.00) ϭ anhedonia reported less positive affect in their daily lives (Kerns, 2 5.17, p ϭ .008, ␩p ϭ 0.07, and richness of time/place details, F(2, Docherty, & Martin, 2008). 2 130) ϭ 7.36, p ϭ .001, ␩p ϭ 0.10. Further analyses found that (1) Moreover, similar to people with SZ, people with social anhe- negative prospections were more specific than neutral ones, and donia described less rich thought/emotion details in their prospec- (2) positive and neutral prospections were richer in time/place tions. This suggests that people with social anhedonia may also details than negative ones. No significant interactions between have difficulties in figuring out what they think and how they feel. group and condition were found for all the variables examined. However, we could not exclude the possibility that they were The mean ratings and standard deviations as well as the ANOVA unwilling to talk about their thoughts and emotions. results are shown in Table 5. People with social anhedonia used fewer details in pictures to Correlations between prospection and anticipatory pleasure prospect future events and felt less familiar with generated experience. Before correcting for multiple correlations, abstract events than controls in this study. This suggests that people with anticipatory pleasure was correlated with specificity of positive social anhedonia tend to generate novel events that may be less

Table 5 Affective Prospection Task Performance in Study 2

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Social anhedonia (n ϭ 34) Control (n ϭ 33) This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. 2 Variable Positive Negative Neutral Positive Negative Neutral ANOVA results ␩p

Specificity 2.34 (.68) 2.40 (.62) 2.06 (.77) 2.40 (.62) 2.52 (.58) 2.26 (.69) Condition: neg Ͼ neu .07 Richness of T/P 1.35 (.56) 1.14 (.54) 1.37 (.57) 1.33 (.65) 1.13 (.53) 1.44 (.56) Condition: pos Ͼ neg, neu Ͼ neg .10 Richness of sensory 1.58 (.89) 1.58 (.95) 1.65 (.62) 1.77 (.84) 1.96 (.87) 1.68 (.74) Richness of T/E .92 (.84) .98 (.80) .90 (.84) 1.29 (.99) 1.56 (.91) 1.27 (.94) Group: social anhedonia Ͻ control .08 Pre-experiencing 4.83 (.67) 4.39 (1.20) 4.45 (1.05) 5.31 (.80) 4.85 (.74) 4.86 (1.06) Condition: pos Ͼ neg, pos Ͼ neu .12 Group: social anhedonia Ͻ control .09 Temporal distance 3.65 (1.13) 3.78 (1.14) 3.11 (1.45) 4.11 (1.16) 3.88 (1.04) 3.40 (1.34) Condition: pos Ͼ neu, neg Ͼ neu .13 Emotion experience 5.36 (.76) 2.80 (1.03) 3.84 (.79) 5.77 (.94) 3.26 (.99) 4.02 (1.21) Condition: pos Ͼ neu Ͼ neg .66 Group: social anhedonia Ͻ control .08 Vividness 4.86 (1.09) 4.56 (1.09) 4.68 (.81) 5.35 (.95) 4.74 (.78) 4.94 (.96) Condition: pos Ͼ neg .13 Participation 1.12 (.20) 1.34 (.26) 1.24 (.20) 1.15 (.21) 1.29 (.26) 1.30 (.32) Condition: pos Ͻ neg, pos Ͻ neu .15 Note. Richness of T/P ϭ richness of time/place details; Richness of T/E ϭ richness of thought/emotion details; ANOVA ϭ analysis of variance; pos ϭ positive; neg ϭ negative; neu ϭ neutral; data are presented as mean (standard deviation). 718 YANG ET AL.

likely to occur in their lives. However, although level of detail pleasure might be specifically found for goal-directed activities and familiarity might influence other self-rated items or coded in SZ. variables, it is inappropriate to carry out analysis of covariance In people with social anhedonia, consistent with a previous to “control” for these two variables for between-groups analy- study (Wang et al., 2016), we found reduced abstract and ses (Miller & Chapman, 2001). When the groups are not ran- contextual anticipatory pleasure compared with controls. Inter- domly constituted, as in the case of intact groups in psychopa- estingly, our results showed that people with social anhedonia thology research, covariate analyses could either artificially still retained the ability to generate vivid specific future events inflate or minimize group differences (Miller & Chapman, and suggested that there may be other factors in addition to the 2001). Future studies using specific verbal cues may be useful sensory-perceptual qualities that are associated with decreased to control for these factors. In addition, emotion exerted a anticipatory pleasure experience, for instance, the perceived similar influence on prospection in both groups in this study. importance of future events (Barsics, Van der Linden, & These findings could also be explained by the positive self-concept D’Argembeau, 2016). It is worth noting that anticipatory plea- and self-regulation strategy discussed above (D’Argembeau et al., sure is a multifaceted structure that could be influenced by 2003; Rasmussen & Berntsen, 2013). many factors. Apart from prospection that was examined in the present study, other elements such as memory (Painter & Kring, General Discussion 2016), reward learning (Juckel et al., 2006), and the belief system (Strauss & Gold, 2012) might also play significant roles Taken together, we found a consistent pattern of prospection in anticipatory pleasure deficits in SZ spectrum disorders. More impairments and anticipatory pleasure deficits in both clinical and work is needed to investigate these factors and their interactions subclinical samples. We found that people with SZ prospected less to achieve a comprehensive understanding of anticipatory plea- rich and vivid future events and had a lower sense of preexperience sure in the SZ spectrum. compared with controls. Similarly, people with social anhedonia Interestingly, we also found that people with SZ and social generated less rich future events, reported less pleasure, and had a anhedonia reported less consummatory pleasure on the TEPS than lower sense of preexperience relative to controls. the respective control groups, at least for abstract consummatory The present study investigated prospection and anticipatory pleasure. Studies on consummatory pleasure in people with SZ pleasure experience in both clinical and subclinical samples. In- have yielded mixed findings. Some studies find dampened con- terestingly, even though showing diminished pleasure experience summatory pleasure in people with SZ (Strauss et al., 2011), while and sense of preexperiencing, people with social anhedonia could others do not (Chan et al., 2010; Gard et al., 2007). This incon- still generate vivid and specific future events. These findings sistency might due to heterogeneity of the clinical samples. Li and suggest that hedonic deficits may already be present in less severe his colleagues (2015) suggested that while people with first- manifestations in this at-risk group. Due to mismatched demo- episode SZ exhibited showed decreased anticipatory pleasure, graphics, we did not directly compare the social anhedonia group people with chronic SZ manifested deficits in both anticipatory with the SZ group. Further studies comparing matched subclinical and consummatory pleasure. On the other hand, current findings and clinical groups may further illuminate differences between were consistent with previous studies using the TEPS (Gooding & clinical and subclinical groups. Pflum, 2012; Martin, Becker, Cicero, Docherty, & Kerns, 2011; Our findings also provide new insights into anticipatory Wang et al., 2016) and an incentive delay task (Xie et al., 2015), pleasure deficits in both clinical and subclinical populations. In which also suggested people with social anhedonia exhibited both people with SZ, we found decreased abstract anticipatory plea- decreased anticipatory and consummatory pleasure. Taken to- sure on the TEPS. This is consistent with findings from previ- gether, hedonic deficits of people with social anhedonia might ous studies (Chan et al., 2010; Gard, Kring, Gard, Horan, & manifest not only in anticipatory but also in consummatory plea- Green, 2007). Decreased anticipatory pleasure could impact sure experience. reward valuation and contribute to motivation deficits in SZ In addition, although exploratory correlational analyses between (Frost & Strauss, 2016; Kring & Barch, 2014). However, little neurocognition and prospection did not yield significant results after is known about the mechanisms contributing to diminished applying corrections for multiple correlations, it will be important for anticipatory pleasure experience in SZ. In this study, we did not future studies to more systematically investigate possible linkages. This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. find significant correlations between positive prospection and Previous research has suggested that cognitive processes support This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. TEPS anticipatory pleasure after applying a correction for mul- prospection in healthy populations (D’Argembeau et al., 2010). Fu- tiple correlations. More work is needed to examine the rela- ture studies with larger samples and explicit hypotheses about the role tionship between prospection impairments and decreased antic- of neurocognitive functioning may further illuminate the role of ipatory pleasure in SZ. Interestingly, people with SZ reported a neurocognitive functioning in prospection and anticipatory pleasure in comparable pleasure in positive prospections. This may occur SZ and at-risk individuals. partially because picture cues used in the study may have Although we did not test cultural hypotheses in the current provided more information to make this “easier.” In addition, study, it is worth commenting on the role that culture may have another possibility is that people with SZ might not show played. For example, Lam, Buehler, McFarland, Ross, and decreased pleasure for all of their future events. A previous Cheung (2005) found that healthy East Asian participants pre- study found that people with SZ anticipated more pleasure- dicted less pleasure from future events than healthy Western based and less effort-based daily activities than controls and did participants, arguing that those from East Asian backgrounds not manifest decreased anticipatory pleasure (Gard et al., 2014). adopted a more holistic perspective about future events, Gard et al. (2007) also suggested that dampened anticipatory whereas those from Western backgrounds focused more specif- PROSPECTION DEFICITS IN SCHIZOPHRENIA 719

ically on the target event. That study used actual life events sample. PLoS ONE, 7, e35352. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone rather than asking participants to generate prospections .0035352 prompted by picture cues (Lam et al., 2005). It nevertheless Chan, R. C. K., Wang, Y., Deng, Y., Zhang, Y., Yiao, X., & Zhang, C. raises the interesting possibility that people on the SZ spectrum (2008). The development of a Chinese equivalence version of letter- from East Asian backgrounds may exhibit less difficulties in number span test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22, 112–121. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/13825580601025957 prospection than their Western counterparts (and this would Chan, R. C. K., Wang, Y., Huang, J., Shi, Y., Wang, Y., Hong, X.,... also be true for healthy controls). Yet, studies using the TEPS Kring, A. M. (2010). Anticipatory and consummatory components of the have found comparable deficits in anticipatory pleasure in experience of pleasure in schizophrenia: Cross-cultural validation and Chinese compared to American participants with SZ and social extension. Psychiatry Research, 175, 181–183. http://dx.doi.org/10 anhedonia (Chan et al., 2010; Chan, Wang, et al., 2012; Li et .1016/j.psychres.2009.01.020 al., 2015), suggesting that these deficits may be comparable Chan, R. C. K., Wang, Y., Yan, C., Zhao, Q., McGrath, J., Hsi, X., & across cultures. More explicitly examining the role of culture in Stone, W. S. (2012). A study of trait anhedonia in non-clinical Chinese additional studies is an important direction for future research. samples: Evidence from the Chapman Scales for Physical and Social We must acknowledge limitations in this study. First, medica- Anhedonia. PLoS ONE, 7, e34275. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal tions could influence cognitive processes like memory and exec- .pone.0034275 utive control that support prospection, but we could not assess Chapman, L. J., Chapman, J. P., & Raulin, M. L. (1976). Scales for medication effects. However, none of the people with social an- physical and social anhedonia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 374–382. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.85.4.374 hedonia were taking medications, and we still observed group Cohen, A. S., Leung, W. W., Saperstein, A. M., & Blanchard, J. J. (2006). differences. Second, we did not administer the SCID in the control Neuropsychological functioning and social anhedonia: Results from a group and instead relied on self-reported histories of psychopa- community high-risk study. Schizophrenia Research, 85, 132–141. thology in the self and first-degree relatives. Third, the varied http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2006.03.044 amount and richness of details depicted in each picture might have D’Argembeau, A., Comblain, C., & Van der Linden, M. (2003). Phenom- influenced participants’ prospection. Even though we asked the enal characteristics of autobiographical memories for positive, negative, participants to quantify the details they used, future studies could and neutral events. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 281–294. http:// use different pictures to replicate these results. Fourth, in some dx.doi.org/10.1002/acp.856 trials, a few participants (fewer than 10) generated future events of D’Argembeau, A., Ortoleva, C., Jumentier, S., & Van der Linden, M. which the valence was contrary to the nature of the cue, although (2010). Component processes underlying future thinking. Memory & our results remained the same when we excluded these partici- Cognition, 38, 809–819. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/MC.38.6.809 pants. Another limitation is that one of the two raters was not D’Argembeau, A., Raffard, S., & Van der Linden, M. (2008). Remember- ing the past and imagining the future in schizophrenia. Journal of completely blind to the study hypothesis and group membership. Abnormal Psychology, 117, 247–251. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021- In addition, we did not ask the participants to report their predicted 843X.117.1.247 emotion experience when imagining future events, although this D’Argembeau, A., & Van der Linden, M. (2004). Phenomenal character- may be an important component of anticipatory pleasure. istics associated with projecting oneself back into the past and forward In conclusion, we found that people with SZ had difficulties in into the future: Influence of valence and temporal distance. Conscious- prospecting themselves into future personal events. 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