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Home , Abdullah Malik, Ali Fazal, Arkady Shevchenko, Faiz Ahmad, Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Ili Rebellion

Notes

1 Framework for Analysis

1. For detailed summaries of these theories, see William A. Glaser, 'Theories of Soviet Foreign Poliey: A Classifieation of the Literature' , World Affairs Quar• terly (Vol. XXVII, no. 2, July 1956); Daniel Bell, 'Ten Theories in Seareh of Reality: The Prediction of Soviet Behavior in the Sodal Seiences' , World Politics (Vol. X, no. 3, April 1958). 2. For a detailed diseussion of the views of these two sehools, see Adam Bromke, 'Ideology and National Interest in Soviet Foreign Poliey', International Journal (Vol. XX, no. 4), pp. 547-62. 3. R. N. Carew-Hunt, 'The Importanee of Doetrine', Soviet Conduct in World Affairs, Alexander Dallin, ed. (New York: 1960). 4. Samuel L. Sharp, 'National Interest: Key to Soviet Polities', Soviet Conduct in World Affairs (New York: 1960). 5. W. W. Kulski, The in World Affairs, 1964-1972 (Syracuse, 1973), pp. 251, 292. 6. Hafeez Malik (ed.), Domestic Determinants of SOviet Foreign Policy Towards South Asia and the Middle East (London: Maemillan, 1990), pp. 1-16. 7. Alexandre Bennigsen and Marie Broxup, Islamic Threat to the Soviet State (New York: 1983). p. 9. 8. Alexandre A. Bennigsen and S. Enders Wimbush, Muslim National Commu• nism in the Soviet Union: A Revolutionary Strategy for the Colonial World (Chicago: 1979), pp. 50-51, 68. 9. Michael Rywkin, 's Muslim Challenge (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1982), p.44. 10. For a thorough study of these theories see an excellent study by James E. Dougherty and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr, Contending Theories of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey (New York: 1981), p. 592. 11. For these studies, see Richard C. Snyder, H. W. Bruck, Burton Sapin, Foreign Policy Decision-Making: An Approach to the Study of International Politics (New York: 1962), pp. 208-72. 12. Michael Brecher, Blema Steinberg and Janice Stein, 'A Framework for Re• search on Foreign Policy Behavior', The Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. XIII, no. 1, March 1969), pp. 79-80; see also, Erik P. Hoffman and Frederic J. Fleron, Jr (eds) , The Conduct of Soviet Foreign Policy (New York: 1980), pp. 7-8.

2 Instruments of Soviet Diplomacy and Self-Projection

1. 2-oy s'yeed Kommunisti cheskovo Intematisionaka (Moscow, 1929), pp. 562-5 in Hugh Seton-Watson, From Lenin to Malenkov (New York, 1953), pp. 73-4. 2. Abdullah Malik, Hadith-i Dil: Ayk Kammunist ka Roznamcheh-i Hajj (: n.d.), pp. 42-3. 3. Abul Kalam Azad, Mas' alah-i Khilafat (Labore: Maktabah-i Ahbab, n.d.), pp. 10-15; Sayyid Sulaiman Nadwi, Khilafat Awr Hindustan in Ma'arif (Azam-

342 Notes 343

garh: October, 1921), pp. i39-99; Abdul Halim Sharar, Tarikh-i Khilafat (: 1928), pp. 15-19. 4. Among the Caliphate leaders, Mawlana Abdul Bari and Abul Kalam Azad issued the fatwa for the migration of the out of . For the text of Azad's fatwa see, 'Hijrat Ka Fatwa', Daily Ahl-i Hadith (: 30 July 1920); also, Hafeez Malik, Moslem Nationalism in India anti (Washing• ton, DC: 1963), pp. 343-4. 5. F. S. Briggs, 'The Indian Hijrat of 1920', The Muslim World (Hartford: Vol. XX, no. 2, April 1930), pp. 164-8. 6. Cf. , The and Its Formation Abroad (Calcutta: 1962), pp. 32-3; see also Gene G. Overstreet and Marshali Windmil• ler, In IndÜl (Berkeley, 1960), pp. 26-7. 7. Muhammad Sarwar, Afadat Wa Malfuzat Mawlana Obaid Alloh Sindhi (Labore: 1972), p. 296. 8. For the tull text of this declaration and appeal see Iver Spector, The Soviet Union and the Muslim World, 1917-1956 (Seattle: 1956), pp. 15-16. 9. Sarwar, Afadot Wa Mal/uzat, pp. 120-1. 10. M. Habib, 'Obituary: Dr. K. M. Ashraf', Enquiry (Delhi: no. VI, n.d.) pp. 1-2. 11. Rahul Sankritayana, 'Sajjad Zabeer: Nai Nayta', Naya Dawr (: August 1948), p. 13. 12. , A Case for Congress-League Unity (Bombay: 1944), pp. 20,36. 13. N. K. Krishnan (ed.), Forgery Versus Facts: Communist Party Exposes the Fifth Column (Bombay, 1948), p. 19. 14. N. K. Krlshnan (ed.), National Unity for the Defence ofthe Motherlond (Bom- bay: 1943), pp. 24-5. 15. Zaheer, op. eit., p. i. 16. Sajjad Zaheer, Roshnai (Lahore: Maktabu-i , 1956) See Harf-i Akhar. 17. Political Thesis: Adopted at the Second Congress (Calcutta, 28 February, 6 March 1948 (Bombay, Communist Party of India, 1948), 95 pp. 18. Pakistan Kammunist Parti, Inqalabi Discipline 'Kaya Hai (Labore: 1950), p. 4. 19. Ibid., p. 31. 20. Ibid., p. 48. 21. Popham Young Minute, 15 November 1895, Government of India Revenue File, December 1896, 22-47A; Popham Young Minute, 16 April 1907, FCF4411108A. (Personal Microfilm copy of this author.) 22. Firuz-ud-Din Mansur, Kisan Awr Abiyana (Labore: n.d.), pp. 12-13. Actually by 1907 the British-Indian Government of the Punjab had ·been repaid on the capital outlay for the Chenab Colony; and then received over Rs 700 000 annually as net profit from water charges and land revenue. Cf. Revenue Report of the Punjab Irrigation Department, 1902-5, Lahore: 1905), p. 5. (Personal microfilm copy.) 23. Mansur, op. eit., p. 13. 24. Ibid., p. 14. 25. Ibid., pp. 18-20. 26. Ibid., p. 23. 27. Ibid., pp. 24-8. 28. Zaheer, Roshnai, .pp. 114-15; Muhammad Sadiq, Twentieth Century Urdu Literature (Baroda: 1947), p. 61. 29. For a detailed survey of their activities during 1936-47, see Hafeez Malik, 'The Marxist Literary Movement in India and Pakistan', The Journal of AsÜln Studies 344 Notes

(Vol. XXVI, no. 4, August 1967); Emest J. Simmons, 'Introduction: Soviet Literature and Controls', Through the Glass of Soviet Literature (New York: 1961), pp. 20, 26. 30. Zaheer, Roshnai, p. 97. 31. Prem Chand is the first artist who adopted the peasant folk as the chief actors in human , who express their problems in their own unrefined speech. This realistic portrayal of Indian vi11age life makes Prem Chand's Gosha-i Afiyyat, Maidan-i Amal, and Godan very highly accomplished Urdu novels. 32. , Mizan (Lahore: Nashrin, n.d.), pp. 244-5; for a general critical appreeiation of Prem Chand, see. also Mumtaz Husain, Adab Awr Sha'ur (Karachi: 1961), chapter on 'Novel Nigar Munshi Prem Chand', pp. 253-84. 33. P. C. Gupta, A Handful ofWheat and ather Stories of Prem Chand (: 1962), pp. VI-VII. 34. Mohammad Sadiq, Twentieth-Century Urdu Literature, p. 61. 35. A very slight amendment in the wording of the Manifesto was adopted on the suggestion of the delegation. Cf. Zaheer, op. eit., pp. 114-15; Sadiq, op. eit., p. 62; see also a highly critical study by Gopal Mital, Adab Mein Traqqi Pasandi (Delhi: 1958), p. 20. 36. Zaheer" op.eit., p. 115. 37. For the life of Jafri and Majaz see Abdul Wahid (ed.), Jadid Shura-i Urdü (Lahore: n.d.), pp. 841,871; Majaz's alma mater, Aligarh Muslim University, published a 'Majaz Number' of the Aligarh Magazine, ed. Abdul Hafiz Siddiqi (Aligarh: 1955-56), which contains exce11ent articles on Majaz's tragic life of alcoholism and his romantic poetry by Professor Aal Ahmad Sarur of Aligarh Muslim University and Dr Ibadat Brailvi of the Punjab University, Lahore. 38. For an excellent biographical essay on Sajjad Zaheer see Rahul Sankrityayana, 'Sajjad Zaheer: Nai Nayta', Naya Daur (Karachi: 1948), pp. 8-16. 39. Akhtar Husain Rai-puri, Adab Awr Inqalab (Bombay: n.d.), pp. 83-4. 40. Faiz, op.cit., pp. 23-4.· 41. Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Naqsh-i Faryadi (Lahore: n.d.), pp. 95-6. 42. Rai-puri, op.eit., pp. 88-9. 43. , 'Jang Awr Nazm', Naiya Adab (Bombay: no. VI, 1946), p. 26. 44. Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Dast-i Saba (Lahore: 1952), p. 18. 45. Ludhianvi, op.eit., p. 35. 46. Sajjad Zaheer, A Case for Congress-League Unity, pp. i, 20, 36; N. K. Krlshnan (ed.), National Unity for the Defense of the Motherland, pp. 24-5. 47. Sahba Lucknavi (ed.), Majaz Ayk Ahang (Karachi: 1956), p. 684. 48. Ibrahim Jalis, Dow Mulk Ayk Kahani (Lahore: n.d.), pp. 32-3 ff. 49. Cf. also Khawaja Ahmad Abbas, 'Notes on Urdu Literature' , Journal of the Indo-Soviet Cultural Society (Bombay: January 1954), Vol. I, no. 1, p. 91. 50. Since 1937, when he made his debut in the literary eircles of Lahore, Krishan Chandar has written about eight novels, and approximately 250 short stories, a11 of them in Urdu. A sizeable number have been translated into Sindi, Gujarati, Marathi, Polish,.Chinese, Czech and Russian. Among the most outstanding of Krishan Chandar's works are: Kala Bhangi (Kalu, The Sweeper); Maha Lak• shmi ka pul (Maha Lakshmis Bridge); Express; But Jagte Hai in (Idols Awake); Kahani Ki Kahani (Story of Story); and Brahma Putra. , Taraqi Pashand Adab (Aligarh: 1957), p. 251. 51. Zaheer, op.cit., see Harf-i Akhar. 52. Sardar Shaukat Hayat Khan was the son of Sir Sikander Hayat Khan (d.1942), who headed the Punjab landlords' organization and the National Unionist Party, Notes 345

and became the first Prime Minister of the Punjab as the result of elections held in January-February 1937 under the Govemment of India Act, 1935. 53. Aziz Ahmad, 'Literary and Intellectual Trends in Pakistan' (unpublished paper for the Conference on Pakistan Since 1958, held at the Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill University, Montreal, 17-19 June 1964), p. 4. 54. Malik, Mastaqbil, p. 76. 55. An accomplished novelist and a historian, Aziz Ahmad later became Professor at Toronto University's Department of Near East and Islamic Studies. For his generally sympathetic treatment of the Progressive Writers' Movement, see Aziz Ahmad, Taraqi Pasand Adab (Delhi: 1945). 56. Malik, Mustaqbil, p. 60. 57. Aziz Ahmad, op.cit., p. 5. 58. Malik, Mustaqbil, pp. 89-90. 59. For example, Faiz Ahmad Faiz was appointed Secretary of the Alhamra Art Gallery in Lahore 'by the Govemment of on the recommendation of the Ministry of Education, Govemment of Pakistan'. M. Sarfraz (Press Counsellor to Pakistan Mission to the ) to Hafeez Malik, 13 April 1964. Subsequently, Faiz became the President of Haji Abdullah Haroon Col• lege, Karachi and remained in that position for some years. 60. Walter K. Anderson, 'Pakistan', 1982 Yearbook on 1nternational Communist AJfairs (Stanford, 1982), p. 220. 61. Hameed Arthan, Minhas, ed. and publisher, Soviet Union Awr Pakistan: Ta'wan Kay Tiys Sal (Rawalpindi: 1978), p. 30. 62. Ibid., pp. 52-60. 63. The Pakistan Times Overseas Weekly, 20 October 1985.

3 Problems of Initial Adaptation for the USSR and Pakistan, 1947-53

1. In explaining Pakistan's dose relations with the during the 1950s, Burke in developing this thesis has relied excessively on this theme. See S. M. Burke, Pakistan's Foreign Policy:. An Historical. Analysis (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), pp. 91-100. 2. Walter Biddle Smith, My Three Years in Moscow (New York: 1950), p. 47. 3. Adam B. Ullam, Dangerous Relations: The Soviet Union in World Potitia, 1970-1982 (Oxford: 1983), p. 10. 4. Chaudhri Muhammad Ali, The Emergence 0/ Pakistan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967), pp. 183, 280. 5. J. Russell Andrees and Aziz Ali F. Mohammed, The Economy 0/ Pakistan (London: 1958), p. 281. 6. Chaudhri Muhammad Ali, op.cit., pp. 182,351-2,379. 7. O. H. K. Spate, 1ndia and Pakistan: A General and Regional Geography (Lon• don: Oxford University Press, 1954), p. 119. 8. Pakistan: 1957-1958 (Karachi: 1958), pp. 173-5; see also Major-General Fazal Muqeem Khan, The Story 0/ Pakistan (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1963), pp. 24-5, 42. 9. N. Gladkov, 'In Pakistan - Travel Impressions', New Times (Moscow: 24 May 1950), pp. 19-22. 10. Yuri V. Gankovsky and L. R. Gordon-Polonskaya, A History 0/ Pakistan (Moscow: 1964), p. 75. 11. Ibid., p. 80. 12. lbid., p. 91. 346 Notes

13. Andrea A. Gromyko, 'Foreword', Modem Diplomacy of Capitalist Powers, trans. by O. B. Borisov, Y. V. Dubinin, and I. N. Zemskov (NewYork: Pergamon, 1983), p. VII. 14. J. P. Jain, Soviet Policy Towards Pakistan and (New Delhi: Humani- ties Press, 1974), p. 32. 15. Ibid., p. 17. 16. Igel V. Khalevenski, Pakistan and USSR (Moscow: 1984), p. 16. 17. Ibid., p. 18. 18. Mohammad Riaz, 'Who Secured the U.S. Invitation: Secret Files in Public', (Karachi: 1 February 1985); the statements in quotations refer to the aetual words of the original diplomatie documents that the British Govemment made publie in 1985. 19. Ibid. 20. A. V. Karpov, Ross Nebolsine, 'Indus Valley, Key to West Pakistan's Future: 11, Rivers and Deserts', Indus (Lahore: WAPDA, January 1961), Vol. I, no. 12, p.12. 21. Text of Inter-Dominion Agreement Between the Govemment of India and the , Canal Water Dispute Between East and West Punjab, signed at Delhi on 4 May 1948; see Article 5. 22. G. Mueen-ud-Din, 'Indus Waters Treaty Negotiations', Indus (Lahore: WAP• DA, Vol. I, No. 9, Oetober 1960), pp. 10-19. 23. Earl Mountbatten, Time Only to Look Forward (London: Nicholas Kay, 1949), p.42. 24. Musarrat H. Zubairi, Voyage Through History (Karaehi: Vanguard Press,1984; New York: Harcourt Braee, 1961), p. 179, Vol. 11, p. 61. 25. Ibid., pp. 48-9; Leonard Mosley, The Last Days ofthe (New York: Hareourt Braee, 1961), p. 51. 26. Zubairi, op.cit., p. 50. 27. V. P. Menon, Transfer of Power in India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), p. 441. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid., p. 438. 30. Chaudhri Mohammed Ali, Emergence of Pakistan (New York: Columbia Uni• versity Press, 1967), p. 164. 31. Ibid., pp. 145-7. 32. lan Stephens, Pakhtoonistan: Figment or Reality (Karaehi: Kamel Publications, 1947), a reprint of his article on 's policy in The National and English Review (London); see also Prime Minister 's Statement in the National Assembly, 9 January 1950. 33. See Indian Independenee Aet, 1947; seeond schedule; also Leonard Mosley, The Last Days of the British Raj, pp. 228-30. 34. Lord Birdwood, Two Nations and (London: Robert Hale, 1956), p. 74. 35. K. Sarwar Hasan (ed.), Documents on the Foreign Relations of Pakistan: The Kashmir Question (Karaehi: Pakistan Institute of International Affairs, 1966), p.l00. 36. Karan Singh, Heir Apparent: An Autobiography (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1982), Vol. I, pp. 56-7. 37. For General Graeey's role in not obeying Jinnah's orders, and his subsequent reeommendations, see Stanley Wolpert, Jinnah of Pakistan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 350-1. 38. Karan Singh, op.cit., pp. 120-1. Notes 347

4 Russian-Soviet Expansion towards Afghanistan: British-Indian and Pakistani Counter-Pressures

1. For the exposition of this thesis see, H. Sutherland Edwards, Russian Projects Against India from the Czar Peter to General Skobeleff (London: Remington, 1885), pp. 1-31. . 2. M. E. Yapp, Strategies of British India: Britain, and Afghanistan 1798-1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), p. 15. 3. Olaf Caroe, The Pathans (London: Macmillan, 1958), p. 329. 4. Yapp, op.cit., p. 234. 5. Sir Kerr Fraser-Tytler, Afghanistan: A Study of Political Development in Central Asia (London: Oxford University Press, 1950), p. 13. 6. Yapp, op.cit., pp. 268-9. 7. Ibid., p. 314. 8. C. U. Aitchison (compiler), A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads Relating to India and Neighboring Countries, Vol. XIII (Calcutta: Govemment of India, 1933), p. 237. 9. Lord Roberts of , Forty-One Years in India (London: Richard Bent• ley, 1898), p. 339. 10. Lord Roberts, op.cit., p. 340. 11. Sir Percy Sykes, The Right Honourable Sir Mortimer Durand: A Biography (London: Cassell, 1926), pp. 82-3, Lord Roberts, op.cit., pp. 340. 12. Ibid., p. 341. 13. Ibid., p. 343. 14. Sykes, op.cit., p. 86. 15. Sykes, op.cit., Vol. 11, p. 114. 16. Lord Roberts, op.cit., p. 614. 17. Ibid., p. 458. 18. Ibid., p. 461; Sykes, Sir Mortimer Durand, pp. 114-15. 19. Letter from Sardar to Lepel Griffin, Esq., dated 15 April 1880 in Lord Roberts. Appendix VIII, p. 560. 20. Letter from A. C. Lyall, Esq., C. B., Secretary tQ the Govemment of India, Foreign Department. to Lepel H. Griffin, Esq., C.S.I. Chief Political Officer, , dated Simla, April 1880, in Lord Roberts op.cit., Appendix IX, pp. 561-6. 21. Sykes, A History of Afghanistan, p. 137. 22. For further technical details about delimitation and demarcation see the text of Colonel Sir A. Henry McMahan's lecture before the Royal Society of Arts, London, 6 November 1935 in Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (London: 15 November 1935), p. 13. 23. Sir Percy Sykes, The Right Honourable Sir Mortimer Durand (London: Cassell, 1926), p. 200. 24. Ibid., p. 201. 25. Sultan Mohammad Khan, op.cit., pp. 159-60. 26. Sir Percy Sykes, op.cit., p. 217. 27. Ibid., p. 219. 28. Holdich, op.cit., p. 238. 29. Major-General J. G. Elliott, The Frontier: 1839-1947 (London: Cassell, 1968), p.219. 30. Tbe Commission was named after Sir Richard Udny, the Chief Commissioner of Peshawer. 348 Notes

31. Ibid., pp. 162-3. 32. Major W. R. Hay, 'Demarcation ofthe Indo-Afghan Boundary in the Vicinity of Arandu', Royal Geographical Journal (London: Royal Geographical Society, October 1933), Vol. 82, no. 4, pp. 351-4. 33. Hans Kelsen, Principles of International Law, Revised and Edited by Robert W. Tucker (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1966), pp. 313-14. 34. Urban G. Whitaker, Jr, Politics and Power: A Text in International Law (New York: Harper & Row, 1964), p. 304. 35. Aitchison, op.cit., Vol. XIII, p. 282. 36. Ibid., pp. 286-8. 37. Ibid., p. 288. 38. Ibid., p. 296. 39. Fraser-Tytler, op.cit., p. 189. 40. Government of India to the Secretary of State for India, 10 July 1894, Par• liamentary Papers, 1898, Vol. 63, C.8713. 41. Fraser, Tytler, op.cit., p. 190. 42. For the administration of these areas, see an excellent published doctoral dis• sertation of LaI Baha, N. W.F.P.: Administration Under British Rule, 1901-1919 (: National Commission on Historical and Cultural Research: 1978), pp. 1-31. 43. James W. Spain, The Pathan Borderland (The Hague: Mouton, 1963), p. 191. 44. L. Harris, British Policy on the North West Frontier of India, 1889-1901, unpublished Ph.D dissertation, University of London, 1960, pp. 19-20; Baha, op.cit., p. 5. 45. For the Mullas' role in the tribai uprisings, and their dealings with the Afghan and British governments, see Evelyn Howell, Mizh: A Monograph on Govern• ment Relations with the Mahsud Tribes (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1979), 119 pp.; Captain H. L. Nevill, Campaigns on the Northwest Frontier (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, n.d.), originally published in 1910; H. W. Bellew, A General Report on the Yusufzais (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1977); reprint of the original, 1864. 46. NWFP Administration Report, 1921, p. 10. 47. Spain, op.cit., p. 191. 48. Spain, op.cit., pp. 204-5. 49. Ibid., p. 220. 50. Akbar S. Ahmed, Social and Economic Change in the Tribai Areas, (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1977), pp. 60-4. 51. Fraser-Tytler, op.cit., pp. 307-8. 52. Afghan Embassy Press Release, Washington, DC, 24 November 1949. 53. Oppenheim's International Law, ed. Lauterpacht, Vol. I, (Ch. 1, s. 82(b». 54. Christopher Rand, 'Our Far-Flung Correspondents: From Sweet to Bitter', The New Yorker, 19 February 1955, pp. 100-15. 55. The New York Times, 9 February 1955. 56. Spain, op.cit., p. 239. 57. C. L. Sulzberger, Long Row ofCandles: Memoirs and Diaries, 1934-1954 (New York: Macmillan, 1969), p. 528. 58. The New York Times, 13 May 1955. 59. Government of Pakistan, The Flag Incident in Kabul: Failure of Mediation (Karachi: Department of Advertising, Films and Publications, 1955?), p. 3. 60. Ibid. 61. Leon B. Poullada, 'Afghanistan and the United States: The Crucial Years', The Middle East Journal (Spring 1981), p. 181. Ambassador Poullada's information Notes 349

is derived from an interview with the first US Ambassador to Afghanistan, Comelius Van H. Engert, 3 October 1975. 62. 'The Pentagon Talks of 1947' between the US and UK, covering the Middle East, and the Eastem Mediterranean, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947: The Near East and Africa (Washington, DC, 1971), Vol. V, p. 608. 63. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950, Vol. V, p. 1455. 64. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Vol. XI, Part 11, p. 1381. 65. Ibid., p. 1391. 66. US Foreign Relations, 1952-1954, Vol. XI, p. 1385. 67. Ibid., p. 1386, fn. 2. 68. Ibid., pp. 1420-3. 69. Ibid., pp. 1434-43. 70. R. Riesner, 'On the Formation of the Afghan Nation', Uoprosy Istorii .(6 October 1949, no. 7), pp. 66-85, in Current Digest ofthe Soviet Press (CDSP), (Vol. 1., no. 50, 1949), pp. 3-6. 71. Louis Dupree, 'Afghanistan's Big Gamble: Part 1', American Universities Field Staff Reports (Vol. IV, no. 3, 1960), p. 9. 72. Ibid., p. 10. 73. Poullada, op.cit., p. 189, for further details of the economic agreements, see Leon Teplinksy, USSR-DRA: Good-Neighbourliness and Fraternal Friendship (Moscow: Novosti Press, 1983), pp. 26-7. 74. Kulwant Kaur, Pak-Afghan Relations (New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications, 1985), pp. 121-3. 75. Dupree, op.cit., p. 15. 76. Teplinksy, op.cit., pp. 28-9. 77. Dupree, op.cit., p. 18. 78. Ibid., p. 19.

5 Foreign Policy's Adaptation to Regional and Global Environment: Regional Dynamics 1. Weekly Indian News (Washington, DC, Embassy of India, 17 September 1965), p.3. 2. Selig S. Harrison, 'Troubled India and Her Neighbors', Foreign Affairs (New York: January 1965), Vol. 43, no. 11, p. 319. 3. The Acting Secretary of State to the Embassy in the United Kingdom, Washing• ton, 4 April 1947 [copy to New Delhi), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947, Vol. IIl. The British Commonwealth, (Washington, DC, 1972), p. 157. 4. The Charge in India (George R. Merrell) to the Secretary of State, New Delhi, 22 April 1947, Foreign Relations of the United States, Vol. III, pp. 152-4. 5. The Charge in India (Merrell) to the Secretary of State, New Delhi, 21 January 1947; also, the Secretary of State to the Embassy in India, Washington, 22 January 1947, Foreign Relations of the United States, Vol. III, pp. 136-7. 6. Ibid., pp. 160-1. 7. The Secretary of State to the Embassy in India, Washington, 7 July 1947, ibid., pp. 159-60. 8. 'The Pentagon Talks of 1947 Between the United States and the United King• dom Conceming the Middle East and the Eastem Mediterranean' , Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947: The Near East and Africa (Washington, DC, 1971), Vol. V, pp. 556-609. 9. Ibid., pp. 594-5. 10. Ibid., p. 613. 350 Notes

11. Pakistan's first Ambassador to Washington, Mirza A. H. Ispahani, presented his credentials to Acting Secretary of State Lovett on 3 October 1947. The request for an exchange of Ambassadors was formalized by a letter of 6 August 1947 from Muhammad Ikramullah, GOP's Secretary of External Affairs to US Ambassador Henry Grady in New Delhi. The State Department answered affirmativelyon 9 August 1947. In other words, the US had extended diplomatic recognition to Pakistan exactly five days before the state officially came into existence. For details, see ibid, pp. 163-4, fn. 3 and 4. Charles W. Lewis, who was posted in Karachi as Consul-General was appointed Charge d' Affaires ad interim until Paul H. Alling, the first US,Ambassador to Pakistan, presented his credentials in February 1948 in Karachi. Forced to withdraw from Pakistan by ill-health, Alling served only for five months; he was succeeded by Ambassador . Avra M. Warren in early 1950. Ibid., p. 175, fn. 1. 12. 'Appraisal of U.S. Military, Political and Economic Interests in South Asia', prepared by the office of Near Eastern Affairs of the State Department for submission to the Sub-committee for the Near and Middle East of the State Army-Navy-Air Force Coordinating Committee, 1948, Records ofthe Military Advisor to the Office of Near Eastern and African Affairs, Record Group Number 59, National Archives, Washington, DC. See also an excellent collec• tion of documents by R. K. Jain (ed.), U.S.-South Asia Relations (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1983), Vol. 11 (Pakistan); also see for a tendentious discussion of US-Pakistan relations during early years, M. S. Venk• ataramani, The American Role in Pakistan (New Delhi: Radiant Publishers, 1982), pp. 2-3. 13. The Acting Secretary of State to the Pakistani Ambassador (Ispahani), Washing• ton, oe, 17 December 1948, Foreign Relations 01 the United States, 1947, Vol. III, pp. 173-4. 14. The Ambassador in lndia (Grady) to the Secretary of State, New Delhi, 3 September 1947, ibid., pp. 165-6. 15. The Acting Secretary of State to the Embassy in India, Washington, 30ctober 1947, ibid., p. 167. 16. George McGhee, Envoy to the Middle World: Adventures in Diplomacy (New York: Harper & Row, 1983), p. 47. 17. Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years at the State Department (New York: W. W. Norton, 1969), pp. 334-6. 18. C. L. Sulzberger, A Long Row 01 Candles: Memoirs and Diaries (Toronto: Macmillan, 1969), p. 526. 19. Ibid., pp. 526-7. 20. The legislative framework of the Point IV programme was established by Title IV of the Foreign Economic Assistance Act of 1950, approved on 5 June 1950. Its modest financial base for fiscal 1951 was provided for to the extent of $34 500 000 by the appropriation bill enacted on 6 September 1950. Foreign Relations 01 the United States, 1949, Vol. I, pp. 757 ff. and 846 ff. 21. Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan, The Heart 01 Asia (Karachi: National Book Found• ation, 1976), p. 24. 22. United States-United Kingdom Military and Political Talks on the Near East and South Asia, London, 20-24 July 1950, Foreign Relations 01 the United States, 1950, Vol. V, pp. 204-5 ff. 23. Ibid., p. 248. 24. General United States Policies with Respect to South Asia, Washington, 19 August 1952, Foreign Relations 01 the United States, 1952-54, Vol. XI, pp. 1059-60. Notes 351

25. Ibid., p. 1060. 26. Ibid., p. 1070. 27. National Intelligence Estimate, Washington, 30 June 1953, Secret NIE-79, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Vol. XI, p. 1072 H. 28. Ibid., pp. 1083 ff. 29. Ibid., pp. 1089-1161. 30. These Ambassadors were, respectively, Loy W. Henderson (Iran), George V. Allen (lndia) , Angus Ward (Afghanistan), Horace A. Hildreth (Pakistan), William J. Sebald (Burma), and Philip K. Crowe (Sri Lanka). 31. 'Conclusions Reached at a meeting of U.S. Ambassadors to South Asia', Memorandum by the Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern, South Asian, and African Affairs to the Acting Secretary of State, Washington, 1 March 1954, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-54, Vol. XI, pp. 1118-20. 32. Progress Report on NSC 5409 (South Asia), ibid., pp. 1136-49. 33. H. S. Suhrawardy, Statement on Foreign Relations and Defense (Karachi: Gov• ernment of Pakistan, 1957), pp. 10-15. 34. Malik Firoz Khan Noor, Democratic Ideals and Foreign Policy of Pakistan (Karachi: Government of Pakistan, 1958), pp. 8-9. 35. General Muhammad , 'Strategic Problems of the Middle East', The Islamic Review (England: July-August, 1958), pp. 9-12. 36. Office of the Controller, Program Operations Status Report, USAID, Pakistan, 1982. 37. For details on Britain's and France's collusion with Israel, see two excellent studies, Paul Johnson (with introduction by Labour Leader, Aneurin Bevan), The Suez War (London: 1956?), pp. 1-59; David Carlton, Anthony Eden: A Biography (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981), p. 403. 38. Firoz Khan Noon, From Memory (Lahore: Ferozesons, 1969), pp. 280-2. 39. Henry Kissinger, White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), p. 895. 40. Noon, op.cit., p. 270. 41. Ibid., p. 12. 42. This is Kissinger's description, see Kissinger, op.cit., p. 895. 43. Mohammad Ayub Khan, Friends, Not Master (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 59. 44. R. K. Jain, Soviet-South Asian Relations, 1947-1978 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1979), Document IX, p. 10. 45. Vladimir V. Balabushevich, 'India posle razdela', Mirovoe Khoziaistuo i miro• vaia politika, no. 12 (December, 1947); as in Jerry F. Hough, The Struggle for the Third World: Soviet Debates and American Options (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1986), p. 112. 46. Ya. Victorov, 'International Review: Nehru's Negotiations in the USA', Prav• da, 23 October 1949, CDSP, Vol. I, no. 44, 1949, p. 44. 47. V. Balabushevich, 'A New Phase in the National Liberation Struggle of the People of India', Voprosy ekonomiki, no. 8,6 October 1949, CDSP, Vol. I, no. 49, 1949, pp. 52-3. 48. Zuyagin, op.cit., p. 23. 49. James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American-Iranian Relations (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), p. 80. 50. For details ofthis CIA-organized coup, see Fred J. Cook, 'The CIA', The Nation (special issue), 24 June 1961. 51. Zvyagin, op.cit., p. 23. 52. Khalevinski, op.cit., p. 14. 352 Notes

53. Ibid., pp. 15-16. 54. Ibid., p. 25. 55. Ibid., p. 31. 56. R. K. Jain, Soviet-South Asia Relations, 1947-1978, Vol. 11, Document A4, p.8. 57. Khalevinski, op.cit., pp. 33-6. 58. Pravda, 2 December 1953, CDSP, Vol. V, no. 4. 59. Khalevinski, op.cit., p. 48. 60. Dawn, 10 August 1956. 61. Ibid., p. 51. 62. Khalevinski, op.cit., p. 57. 63. See his memoirs, Noon, op.cit., p. 248. 64. Noon, op.cit., p. 279. 65. Khalevinski, op.cit., p. 56. 66. Jain, op.cit., pp. 10-12. 67. Dawn, 28 May 1958. 68. 'Iranian-Indian Treaty Concluded', Pravda, 3 March; lzvestia, 3 March 1950; CDSP, Vol. 11, no. 12, 1950. 69. 'On the Question ofthe Fate ofKashmir', Izvestia, 13 January 1949, CDSP, Vol. I, no. 3, 1949. 70. 'Police Repression in India', Pravda, 3 May 1950; CDSP, Vol. 11, no. 18, 1950. 71. I. Alexandrov, 'Legitimate Wish ofIndia', Pravda, 23 March 1954; CDSP, Vol. VI, no. 12, 1954. 72. Noon, op.cit., pp. 267-8. 73. N. S. Khruschev, Report ofthe Central Committee ofthe Communist Party ofthe Soviet Union to the XXth Party Congress (Moscow, 1956), p. 23. 74. Hough, op.cit., p. 232. 75. Sarvapalli Gopal, lawaharlal Nehru: A Biography (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1976), Vol. 11, p. 248. 76. Pravda, 30 December 1955. 77. Izvestia, 30 December 1955. 78. N. A. Bulganin and N. S. Khrushchev, Visit of Friendship to India, Burma and Afghanistan (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1956), pp. 13,96, 111-12. 79. Louis Dupree, 'Afghanistan's Big Gamble: Part 11', American Universities Field Staff Reports Service (New York: Vol. V, no. 4, 1960), pp. 1-20.

6 Soviet Role in the Regional Dynamlcs

1. W. M. Fisher; and J. V. Bondurant, Indian Approaches to a Socialist Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1956), p. 5. 2. E. M. Zhukov, 'The Bandung Conference of African and Asian Countries and Its Historie Significance', International Affairs (Moscow: 1955, no. 5), pp. 18,28. 3. 'Statements by N. A. Bulganin and N. S. Khrushchev in India, Burma and Afghanistan', New Times: Supplement (Moscow: 1955, no. 52), pp. 19-20. 4. F. C. Barghooen, The Soviet Cultural Offensive: The Role of Cultural Diplomacy in Soviet Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), p. 77. 5. F. C. Barghooen, Soviet Foreign Propaganda (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 288-9. 6. 'May the Heat of Bhilai Always Warm Friendship of Peoples of USSR and India', Pravda, 16 February 1960; CDSP, Vol. XII, No. 6, 9 March 1960. Notes 353

7. 'Signing of Soviet-Indian Agreements', Pravdtl, 13 February; Izves~, 13 February 1960; CDSP, Vol. XII, no. 7, 16 Mareh 1960. 8. A. Vasiryev, 'Why is Iranian Reaction Becoming Savage?', Pravdtl, 1 June 1960; CDSP, Vol. XII, no. 22. 9. 'Soviet Govemment Statement to Govemment of Iran', Pravdtl and Izvestia, 15 May 1960; CDSP, Vol. XII, no. 21,22 June 1960. 10. Val. Lednev, 'Neighborliness', Izvestia, 2 February 1963; CDSP, Vol. XV, no. 5, 27 February 1963. 11. Val. Lednev, 'This is How Borders Should Be: Operation Aras', Izvestia, 2 February 1964; CDSP, Vol. XVI, no. 5; 24 February 1964. 12. 'Our Country is the Standard-Bearer of Peaee and Friendship of Peoples: Mass Meeting of Moscow Working People in Sports Palace', Pravda, 6 Mareh 1960; CDSP, Vol. XII, no. 10, 6 April 1960. 13. Yi Zhukov, 'Hopeless Undertaking of the Colonialists', Pravda, 25 February 1960; CDSP, Vol. XII, no. 8,23 March 1960. 14. For an exeeUent deseription of the Dir conftiet, see Kulwant Kaur, Pak• Afghanistan Relations (New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1958), Chapter IV; see also James W. Spain, 'The Pathan Borderlands', The Middle East Journal, Spring 1961, p. 173. 15. Pravdtl, 3 April 1961. 16. Kabul Times, 31 August 1961; see also Louis Dupree, 'Pushtunistan': The Problem and 11$ Larger Implications, American Universities Field Staff Report, Vol. H, no. 2, 1961. 17. Keesing's Contemporary Archives, 24-9, June, 1963. 18. Edward R. Girardet, Afghanistan: The Soviet War (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985), pp. 93-5. 19. The Pakistan Times, 27 July and 3 August 1962. 20. For details on Daud's removal (resignation), see Louis Dupree, The Decade of Daud Ends, All Field Staff Report, Vol. VII, no. 7, May 1963, pp. 6-9. 21. The Pakistan Times, 19 May 1963. 22. Keesing's Contemporary Archives, 22-9 June 1963, p. 19490; The Pakistan Times, 30 May 1963. 23. Louis Dupree, 'Afghanistan's Big Gamble: Part 1', All Field Staff Report (Vol. IV, no. 3, 25 April 1960), p. 19. 24. 'On Soviet-Afghan Cooperation', Izvestia, 19 Oetober 1961; CDSP, Vol. XIII, no. 42, 15 November 1961. 25. Leon B. Poullada, 'Afghanistan and the United States: The Crucial Years', The Middle East Journal, Spring 1981, p. 187. 26. Ibid. 27. Malik Firoz Khan Noon, Democratic Ideals and Foreign Policy of Pakistan (Karaehi: Govemment of Pakistan, 1958), pp. 8-9. 28. Louis Dupree, 'A Suggested Pakistan-Afghanistan-Iran Federation: Part I: The Empty Triangle' , All Field Staff Report (Vol. VII, no. 3; February 1963), p.8. 29. The Pakistan Times, 6 Oetober 1958; see also an exeellent article by Saleem M. M. Qureshi, 'Pakhtunistan: The Frontier Dispute Between Afghanistan and Pakistan', Pacific Affairs (Vol. XXXIX, nos. 1 and 2, Spring and Summer, 1966), pp. 99-114. 30. The quotation reproduces more or less Daud's phraseology, as stated to me in interviews with senior Pakistani diplomats who have dealt with Daud. 31. Louis Dupree, 'Afghanistan's Big Gamble: Part III: Economie Competition in Afghanistan', All Field Staff Report (Vol. IV, no. 5,9 May 1960), p. 7. 354 Notes

32. Louis Dupree, 'An Informal Talk with King Muhammad Zahir of Afghanistan', All Field Stajf Report (Vol. VII, No. 9, July 1963), p. 5. 33. These six prime ministers were: (1) Dr Muhammad Yousuf (14 March 1963-25 October 1965); (2) Dr Yousuf, the second time (25 October 1965-2 November 1965); (3) Mohammad Hashim Maimandwal (2 November 1965-12 October 1967); (4) Nur Ahmad Etemadi (2 December 1969-16 May 1971); (5) Dr Abdul Zahir (26 July 1971-12 December 1972); (6) Moosa Shafiq (12 December 1972-17 July 1973. 34. 'Soviet-Afghan Communique', Pravda and lzvestia, 30 April 1965; CDSP, Vol. XVII, no. 17,19 May 1965. 35. 'Joint Soviet-Afghan Communique', Pravda and lzvestia, 16 August 1965; CDSP, Vol. XVII, no. 33, 8 September 1965. 36. 'Joint Soviet-Afghan Communique', Pravda, 11 February 1966; CDSP, Vol. XVIII, no. 6, 2 March 1966. 37. N. A. Bulganin and N. S. Khrushchev, Visit of Friendship to lndia, Burma, Afghanistan (Moscow: 1956). 38. lbid., Pravda, 20 December 1955. 39. Dawn, 30 March 1956. 40. Khalevinski, op.cit., pp. 49, 52. 41. The Pakistan Times, 26 March 1956. 42. The Pakistan Times, 25 March 1956. 43. Khalevinski, op.cit., p. 51. 44. lbid., p. 53. 45. Dawn, 10 August 1956. 46. For a detailed analysis of the crisis of national communism in the 1950s, see David J. DaHin, Soviet Foreign Policy After Stalin (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippen• cott, 1961), pp. 364-382. 47. Mohamed H. Heibal, Cutting the Lion's Tail: Suez Through Egyptian Eyes (London: Andre Deutsch, 1986), p. 116. 48. lbid., pp. 3A, 114, 143. 49. See, S. M. Burke, Pakistan's Foreign Policy: An Historical Analysis (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 182. 50. Ibid., p. 182. 51. Gail E. Meyer, Egypt and the United States (London: Associated University Presses, 1980), p. 158. 52. Paul Johnson, The Suez War (London: 1956?), p. 56. 53. Dulles News Conference, 2 October 1956: US Department of State, Bulletin, 15 October 1956, pp. 574-80. 54. H. S. Suhrawardy, Statement on Foreign Policy, 9 December 1956 (Karachi: Department of Advertising, Films and Publications), Govemment of Pakistan, 1956), p. 17. 55. Johnson, op.cit., p. 102. 56. Meyer, op.cit., p. 17.

7 Strategie Signifieance of Border Confticts

1. Adapted with some modifications from Thomas G. Hart, Sino-Soviet Relations: Re-Examining the Prospects for Normalization (Brookfield: Gower Publishing, 1987), pp. 19-21; 69. 2. For details see, Harry Schwartz, Tsars, Mandarins and Commissars: A History of Chinese-Russian Relations (Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott, 1964), pp. 52-4. Notes 355

3. Harold C. Hinton, Communist China in World Politics (New York: HO\~ghton Miftlin, 1966), p. 323. 4. Hart, op.cit., p. 72. 5. Ibid., p. 150. 6. A. Doak Barnett, China and the Major Powers in East Asia (Washington, DC, Brookings Institution, 1977), p. 344; fn. 40, and p. 346; see also Harry Gelman, The Soviet Far East Buildup and Soviet Risk-Taking Against China (Santa Moniea: Rand, 1982), p. 7. . 7. O. B. Borisov and B. T. Koloskov, Sino-Soviet Relations, trans. Yuri Shirokov (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), p. 137. 8. See an excellent article by Nisha Sahai-Aehuthan, 'Soviet Proposals for Asian Colleetive Seeurity: An Historieal Analysis' (a personal typed copy). 9. I. Aleksandrov, 'Contrary to the Interests of Peace and Socialism', Pravda, 7 April 1979, p. 4, CDSP, (Vol. XXXI, no. 14, 2 May 1979), pp. 1, 14. 10. Gellman, op.cit., p. XV. 11. Borisov and Koloskova, op.cit., p. 138. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid. 14. The New York Times, 21 Oetober 1962. 15. Ibid. 16. Syed Sikander Mehdi, 'Bhutan and Its Strategie Environment', Strategie Studies (Islamabad: Vol. XII, no. 2, Winter 1988), p. 85. 17. Colonel Sir A. Henry MeMahon, 'International Boundaries', Journal 0/ the Royal Society 0/ Ans (London: 15 November 1935), p. 30. 18. Ibid., p. 13. 19. The Sino-Indian Boundary Question (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1962), p.8. 20. Publieations Division, The Chinese Threat (New Delhi: Governmen~ of India, 1963), p. 23. 21. Michael C. Van Walt van Praag, The Status 0/ (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 54-5. 22. Ibid., p. 58. 23. W. F. Van Eekelen, Indian Foreign Poliey and the Border Dispute with China (The Hague: 1965), pp. 16-17; Praag, op.cit., p. 59. 24. Samuel C. H. Ling (Counsellor of the Embassy of the Republie of China, Washington, De) to Hafeez Malik on 6 November 1962. . 25. Publieations Division, India's First/or Te"itoriallntegrity (New Delhi: Govern• ment of India, 1963), p. 11. 26. Ibid., p. 10; see also for the full text, 'Background to Chinese Invasion of India', India News (Washington, DC: Embassy of India, 26 January 1963), p. 8. 27. Maxwell, op.cit., pp. 105,121-7; Grunfeld, op.cit., pp. 176-7. 28. Indian Supreme Court Repons, 1960; Vol. III, pp. 250 tI.. 29. Riehardson, op.cit., p. 233. 30. Maxwell, op.cit., p. 164. 31. 'India and the Soviet Union are Good Neighbors', Pravda and Izvestia, 12 February 1960, CDSP, 16 March 1960. 32. 'Our Friendship Has Been Tested ByTime', Pravda, 9 September 1961, CDSP, 4 Oetober 1961. 33. Note of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the PRC to the Indian Embassy in China, 26 Deeember 1959, pp. 51-92. 34. Prime Minister of India to Prime Minister of China, 26 September 1954 in The Chinese Threat, op.cit., pp. 33-46. 356 Notes

35. Lamb, A Note, personal copy, p. 1. 36. Ibid., p. 6. 37. Ibid., pp. 6-7. 38. Hinton, op.cit., pp. 279, 280-1. 39. The New York Times, 19 April 1963. 40. See Bulletin 0/ the American Academy 0/ Arts and Sciences (January 1965), pp. 2-3. 41. Maxwell, op.cit., p. 322. 42. Bhabani Sen Gupta, The Fulcrum 0/ Asia: Relations Among China, Indio, Pakistan and the USSR (New York: Pegasus, 1970), p. 163. 43. For this episode, wbich was concealed from bis colleague and the Indian public, see Sudhir Ghosh, Gandhi's Emissary (Calcutta: Rupa and Cox, 1967), Chapter XII; John K. Galbraith, Ambassador's journal: A Personal Account 0/ the Kennedy Years (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1969), pp. 110 ff. 44. Maxwell, op.cit., p. 440. 45. 'Effective U.S. Aid for Defense: Kennedy's Assurance', Weekly Review, 10 June 1963. 46. Chester Bowles, Promises to Keep: My Years in Public Li/e (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), pp. 475-6. 47. 'Joint Soviet-Afghan Communique', Pravda and Izvestia, 6 March 1960 in CDSP, 30 March 1960. 48. 'Serious Hotbed of Tension in Asia', Pravda, 19 September 1963 in CDSP, 16 October 1963. 49. Sharif AI-Mujahid, 'Indo-Pakistan Confederation', Dawn, 27 October 1961. 50. The Times 0/ Indio, 5 May 1959. 51. External Affairs, GOI, Report 0/ the Officials o[ the Govemments o[ India and the People's Republic 0/ China on the Boundary Question (New Delhi: 1961). 52. 'Let Friendship Between Peoples of Soviet Union and India Be Eternal- Rally in the Kremlin', Pravda, 19 September 1964; CDSP, 140ctober 1964. 53. Dawn, 4 May 1962. 54. 'Prime Minister on Latest Chinese Note', India News (Wasbington, DC: Indian Embassy, 18 May 1962), p. 1. 55. For texts of these documents, see China, India, Pakistan (Karachi: Institute of International Affairs, 1966), pp. 385-422. 56. For the text of the Sino-Pakistan border agreement, see Pakistan Affairs, (Washington, DC: Pakistan Embassy, 23 March 1963), pp. 2-3. 57. Alastair Lamb, The India-China Border (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), p. 175. 58. 'India sees threat in Pakistani Road', The New York Times, 14 May 1968. 59. This author, accompanied by a dozen US scholars in the summer of 1982, conducted a seminar in Gilgit and Hunza, discussing the strategie significance of the Karakuram Highway and the nature of Sino-Pakistan relations. Much of this information is based on my personal observations. See also, Ahmad Hasan Dani, Karakuram Highway (Islamabad: Barqsons Printers, n.d.), 12 pp; John F. Bums, 'On An Asian Road Linking Worlds and Ages', The New York Times, 25 May 1986. 60. For these revolts, see an excellent study by Andrew D. W. Forbes, Warlords and Chinese Central Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), Chap• ters, I-V. 61. For an up-to-date information on Chinese liberal policy towards Islam and the Muslim minorities, see Chrlstopher S. Wren, 'Islam, After Persecution, Re• bounds in China', The New York Times, 15 June 1983; also a special issue of Notes 357

ARAMCO World Magazine (Washington, DC, Vol. 36, no. 4) July-August, 1985. 62. Christopher S. Wren, 'Chinese Trying to Undo Damage in Tibet', The New York Times, 3 May 1983. 63. 'First Highway on Tienshan Mountain', Review, 31 January 1983, p. 7.

8 The Evolution of Detente with tbe Soviet Union

1. For details on the open skies proposal, and the Soviet concept of collective security see, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandillefor Change, 1953-56 (New York: Doubleday, 1963), pp. 517-22. 2. The New York Times, 26 April 1990. 3. W. W. Rostow, Open Skies: Eisenhower's Proposal of July 21, 1955 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982), p. 64. These proposals were developed by the Quantico Panel, which met on 5-10 June 1955, under the leadership of Gov• emor Nelson RockefeIler, who was then serving as presidential aide. 4. Ibid., p. 62. 5. Michael R. Beschloss, May Day: Eisenhower, Khrushchev and the U-2 Affair (New York: Harper & Row, 1986), p. 156. 6. Ibid., p. 145. 7. Mohammad Ayub Khan, Friends, Not Masters: A Political Autobiography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 59. 8. For the text of Noon's telegram see, ibid., p. 62. 9. Beschloss, op.cit., p. 146. 10. Ibid., p. 156. 11. Stephen E. Ambrose, 'Secrets of the ', The New York Times, 27 December 1990. 12. 'Concluding Remarks by N. S. Khrushchev at Meeting of USSR Supreme Soviet, May 7, 1960', Pravda and lzvestia, 8 May, pp. 1-2, CDSP, Vol. XII, No. 19, 8 June 1960. 13. Ambrose, op.cit., NYT, 27 December 1990. 14. 'Interview of N. S. Khrushchev with Soviet and Foreign Joumalists', Pravda and Izvestia, 13 May, pp. 1-2; CDSP, Vol. XI, no. 19, 1960. 15. Beschloss, op.cit, p. 257. 16. Ibid., p. 256. 17. Soviet Govemment Note of Protest to Govemment of Pakistan', Pravda and lzvestia, pp. 2, 14, 1960, CDSP, Vol. XII, no. 20, 15 June 1960. 18. 'Concluding Remarks by Comrade N. S. Khrushchev at Meeting of USSR Supreme Soviet, May 7, 1960', Pravda and Izvestia, 8 May 1960, pp. 1-2; CDSP, Vol. XII, no. 19, 8 June 1960. 19. Agha Shahi, 'Pakistan's Relations with the United States', in Hafeez Malik (ed.), Soviet-American Relations with Pakistan, Iran ar,d Afghanistan (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987), p. 164. 20. K. Baginyan and V. Shurshalov, 'The Conscience of Mankind Demands It', Pravda, 20 May 1960, p. 2; CDSP, Vol. XII, no. 20, June 1960. 21. N. S. Khrushchev, 'Report of the Central Committee of CPSU to the 22nd Congress, October 17, 1961', Pravda and Izvestia, 18 October 1961, pp. 2-11, CDSP, Vol. XIII, no. 40, 1961, p. 6. 22. Stephen E. AmbFose, 'Secrets of the Cold War', The New York Times, 27 December 1990. 23. Ibid., p. 8. 358 Notes

24. Marshall T. Goldman, Gorbachev's Challenge: Economic Reform in the Age of High Technology (New York: W.W. Norton, 1987), p. 10. 25. Ibid., p. 9. 26. 'Afro-Asian Solidarity Foundation Installed', Azia: Afrika Sevodnya, no. 5, May 1961, pp. 57-9; CDSP, Vol. XIII, no. 42, 1961, pp. 18-19. 27. M. Tursun Zade, 'Strengthen Unity and Struggle for National Independence, For Peace', Pravda, 23 March 1963, pp. 3-4; CDSP, Vol. XV, no. 12,1963. 28. Viktor Mayevsky, 'Strengthen Unity in Struggie Against Colonialism and Im• perialism', Pravda, 15 April 1964; CDSP, Vol. XVI, no. 15,6 May 1964. 29. Commentator, 'To Whose Advantage is the Isolation of the Peoples of Asia and AfricaT, Pravda, 25 April 1964, p. 3; CDSP, Vol. XVI, no. 17, 20 May 1964. 30. 'To Mr. N. S. Khrushchev, Chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers', Pravda, 31 October 1962, CDSP, Vol. XIV, no. 43, 1962. 31. For the text of the Treaty and the names of the signatories, see Arms Control and Agreements (Washington, DC: U.S. Arms Control and Dis• armament Agency, 1980), pp. 41-3. 32. Ibid., pp. 44-7. 33. Ayub, op.cit., p. 124. 34. 'Karachi Believed to Assure India: West Said to Get Informal Vow Not to Attack Now', The New York Times, 6 November 1962. 35. Pakistan Affairs (Washington, DC, Embassy of Pakistan), 15 November 1962. 36. Christian Science Monitor, 29 December 1962. 37. Jawaharlal Nehru, Speeches (New Delhi, Government of India, 1964), p. 307. 38. , 19 December 1962. 39. National Assembly o[ Pakistan Debates, 17 July 1963, p. 1666. 40. Mohammad Ayub Khan, Friends Not Masters (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 141-3; see also Mohammad Ayub Khan, 'The Pakistan• American Alliance: Stresses and Strains', Foreign Affairs, January 1964, pp. 195-209. 41. A. Kutsenko, 'Struggle Aares Up: Letter From India', Pravda, 24 April 1963, p. 6, CDSP, Vol. XV, no. 17, 1963. 42. 'Trade Agreement Signed', Pravda, 8 January 1966, p. 3, CDSP, Vol. XVIII, no. 19, 1966; see also, Robert H. Donaidson, Soviet Policy Toward India: Ideology and Strategy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), p. 202. 43. 'Moscow Radio Broadcast to India and Pakistan', 31 January 1962 in R. K. Jain (ed.), Soviet-South Asian Relations: 1947-1978 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1979), Vol. 11, pp. 25-6. 44. Nasim Ahmad, ' for Closer Ties with Pakistan: Khrushchev Teils Zafrul- lah', Dawn, 26 June 1963. 45. Dawn, 12 June 1964. 46. Khalavinski, op.cit., pp. 110-11. 47. UN Security Council Official Records, 1091st Meeting, 14 February 1964. 48. Selig S. Harrison, 'America, India and Pakistan', Harper's Magazine, July 1966. 49. Dawn, 24 September 1964. 50. Dawn, 11 January 1965. 51. The New York Times, 4 April 1965. 52. 'Joint Soviet-Pakistani Communique', Pravda, 11 April 1965, p. 1, CDSP, Vol. XVII, no. 15, May 1965. 53. 'Develop Relations Between USSR and Pakistan in Spirit of Friendship', Prav• da, 6 April 1965, CDSP, Vol. XVII, no. 14, May 1965. 54. 'In Honor of - Reception in Great Kremlin Palace', Pravda, 9 April 1965, pp. 1-3; CDSP, Vol. XVII, no. 14, April 1965. Notes 359

55. Dawn, 8 April 1965; see also V. N. Moskalenko, Pakistan's Foreign Policy: Formation and Basic Stages 0/ Evolution (Russian), (Moscow: Nauka, 1984), pp. 111-13. 56. 'Soviet-Indian Friendship Rally', Pravda, 16 May 1965, pp. 1-2; CDSP, Vol. XVII, no. 20, June 1965. 57. Ayub, op.cit., p. 220. 58. 'Tass Statement', Pravda, 9 May 1965, p. 8, CDSP, Vol. XVII, no. 19,1965. 59. For the text of this agreement, see Pakistan Horizon, Third Quarter, 1965. 60. S. M. Burke, Pakistan's Foreign Poliey: An Historieal Analysis (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 326. 61. Kuldip Nayar, Distant Neighbors (New Delhi: Vikas Publishers), p. 114. 62. Altaf Gauhar, 'Foreword', to M. Asghar Khan, The First Round: Indo-Pakistan War 1965 (London: Islamic Information Services, 1979), p. VII. For the debate between Aziz Ahmad and Altaf Gauhar, see also The Pakistan Times, 23 July 1979. Aziz Ahmad pointed out that China's Foreign Minister, Marshal Chen Yi, had discounted the possibility of Indian attack across the international border . 63. For Indian reaction to the US withdrawal of invitation, see Chester Bowles, Promises to Keep: My Years in Publie Li/e (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), pp. 498-9. 64. The New York Times, 17 April 1965. 65. Commentator, 'Urgent Necessity: Stop Bloodshed in Kashmir', Pravda, 24 August 1965, p. 4; CDSP, Vol. XVII, no. 34, 1965. 66. Hindu Weekly, 29 November 1965. 67. Dawn 8, 9 September 1965. 68. 'Aziz Ahmad's Reply to Altaf Gauhar', The Pakistan Times, 23 July 1979. 69. M. Asghar Khan, The First Round: Indo-Pakistan War, 1965 (London: Islamic Information Services, 1979), p. 111. 70. See East Pakistani legislator Masiur Rahman's statement in National Assembly 0/ Pakistan Debates, 17 November 1965, p. 98. 71. The New York Times, 30 December 1965. 72. The New York Times, 4 January 1966. 73. The New York Times, 7 January 1966. 74. I. Belyayev and Yu. Mukinov, 'Tashkent Diary: Construction Approach', Prav• da, 7 January 1966; CDSP, Vol. XVIII, no. 1, 1966. 75. Thomas Perry Thornton, 'The Indo-Pakistan Contlict: Soviet Mediation at Tash• kent, 1966', International Mediation in Theory and Praetiee, eds Saadia Touval and I. William Zartanan (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985), p. 154. 76. 'Tashkent Declaration', Pravda and Izvestia, 11 January 1966; CDSP, Vol. XVIII, no. 2, 1966. 77. 'Successful Conclusion of Tashkent Meeting', Pravda, 11 January 1966, p. 1; CDSP, Vol. XVIII, no. 2, 1966. 78. Thornton, op.cit., p. 163. 79. The New York Times, 16 January, 2 February 1966; see also S. P. Seth, 'Russia's Role in Indo-Pak Politics', Asian Survey (August 1969, Vol. IX, no. 8), pp. 617 tl SO. Thomton, op.cit., p. 161.

9 From Detente to Alienation: Emergence of BangJadesb and New Alignments

1. Chinese Govemment's statement of 1 September 1963, released by New China News Agency (NCNA), 31 August 1963. Red Flag - PeopLes' Daily, Joint editorial, 6 September 1963. 360 Notes

2. Pravda, 15 September 1964; CDSP, Vol. XVI, 1964. 3. Gelman, op.cit., p. 14. 4. Thomas W. Robinson, 'The Sino-Soviet Border Contlict', Diplomacy 0/ Power: Soviet Armed Forces as a Politicailnstrument, ed. Stephen S. ~aplan (Washing• ton, DC, The Brookings Institution, 1981), p. 271. 5. Ibid., p. 272. 6. Thomas W. Robinson, 'The Sino-Soviet Border Dispute: Background, Develop• me nt and the March, 1969 Clashes', American Political Science Review, Vol. 66 (December 1972), pp. 1178-82. 7. Ibid.,p.1179. 8. Henry Kissinger, White House Papers (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), p. 183. 9. Ibid., p. 184. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid., p. 180. 12. Moskalenko, op.cit., p. 184; Khalevenski, op.cit., pp. 144-5. 13. Ibid., p. 183. 14. India Today, 15 October 1982, p. 50. 15. M. V. Degtyar (Soviet Ambassador to Pakistan), 'Soviet-Pakistan Friendly Cooperation', Dawn, 9-10 February 1971. 16. Moskalenko, op.cit., p. 160. 17. Ibid., p. 161, Degtyar, op.cit., 9-10 February 1971. 18. Ibid. 19. , 17 June 1968. 20. J. B. Jain, ed., India and the World (Delhi: 1972), p. 195. 21. For instance, see Soviet-Pakistan Friendship Society's publication on the thir• tieth eelebration of Soviet-Pakistan diplomatie relations Soviet Union Aur Pakistan: T'awan Kay Thiys Sal (Rawalpindi: Farakh Printing Works, 1978), pp. 6-8. 22. fn the summer of 1989, this author saw in one of the madares in Bukhara a portion occupied by a barber shop and another was probably used as a bar. In the evening, concerts were arranged in the compound, another one was used as a youth hostel for vacations. 23. R. K. Jain, ed., Soviet-South Asian Relations, 1947-1978 (Atlantic Heights, NJ: Humanities Press, 1979), pp. 67-70. 24. For a detailed analysis of Soviet-Indian strategie collaboration, see Hafeez Malik, 'An Introduction', and Surjit Mansingh, 'Is There a Soviet-Indian Strategie Partnership' , in Domestic Determinants 0/ Soviet Foreign Policy To• wards South Asia and the Middle East, ed. Hafeez Malik (London: Macmillan, 1990), Chapters 1 and 8. 25. L. I. Brezhnev, Selected Speeches and Writings on Foreign Affairs (New York, Pergamon Press, 1979), pp. 259, 265-9. 26. Jacques Nevard, 'Pakistan Calls Ties With China No Peril To U.S. Relations', The New York Times, 29 March 1966. 27. Interviews in the Soviet Union and Pakistan. 28. John W. Finney, 'Closing of U.S. Intelligence Monitoring Stations by Pakistan Is Disclosed' The New York Times, 30 March 1966. 29. Jacques Nevard, 'Pakistan and China Stress Solid Tie', The New York Times, 28 March 1966. 30. The New York Times, 21 May 1968. 31. For details see an informative article by Zubeida Hasan, 'United States Arms Policy in South Asia, 1965-69', Pakistan Horizon (Karachi: Vol. XX, no. 2, 1967), pp. 127-36. Notes 361

32. The Times o/India (Bombay, 21 May 1962). 33. Dawn (Karachi), 27 September 1967. 34. The Pakistan Times, Lahore, 4 April 1968. 35. The New York Times, 10 July 1968. 36. 'Move to Cellsure Govemment on Soviet Arms Supply to Pakistan Defeated', Weekly India News (Washington, DC: Embassy of India, 2 August 1968), pp. 1,3. 37. The New York Times, 11 November 1965. 38. Henry Kissinger, The White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), pp. 180-2. 39. Ibid., p. 181. 40. Ibid., pp. 714-15. 41. Ibid., p. 739. 42. A former top adviser to Foreign Minister , and for five years Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations, Arkady Shevchenko defected to the United States in April 1978. See his memoir, Breaking With Moscow (New York: Knopf, 1985), also Time, 11 February 1985. 43. For further details see Hafeez Malik, 'Problems of Regionalism in Pakistan', Pakistan in Transition, ed. W. H. Wriggins (Islamabad: University of Islamabad Press, 1975), pp. 111-26. 44. Pravda, 4 April 1971; Khalavenski, op.cit., p. 150. 45. Ibid., p. 151. 46. Ibid., p. 160. 47. Pakistan News Digest, XIV, 18 (15 September 1971), pp. 1-2. 48. Khalevinski, op.cit., pp. 111-12. 49. G. Yakubov, 'Conftict in Hindustan and Mao Group's Provocative Role', Prav• da, 28 December 1971, p. 4; V. Kudryavtsev, 'Peking and the Third World', Izvestia, 30 December 1971. 50. The Christian Science Monitor, 16 December 1971. 51. Gelman, op.cit., pp. 59-60; Kissinger, op.cit., p. 877. 52. 'American Security Assurances to Pakistan: Confidential GDS', Documents From the V.S. Espionage Den (46): Pakistan II (Tehran: n. 2). 53. Ibid. 54. Kissinger, op.cit., p. 895. 55. Captain V. Pustov, 'The Indian Ocean is Not an American Lake: Where is the Aircraft Carrier Enterprise Heading and Why?', Krasnaya Zvezda, 16 Decem• ber 1971, p. 3; CDSP, Vol. XXIII, no. 50, 1972.

10 The New Pakistan: Doctrine oe Bilateralism and the Nuclear Option

1. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Bilateralism: New Directions (Karachi: Feroz & Sons, 1976), p. 11. 2. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan Builds Anew (New York: April 1973), p. 553. 3. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, The Myth o/Independence (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), pp. 5, 11. 4. Ibid., p. 19. 5. Ibid., p. 14. 6. Ibid., p. 21. 7. Bhutto, The Myth o/Independence, p. 170, 173. 8. Bhutto, Bilateralism, p. 14; Dawn (Karachi), 9 June 1949. 9. Bhutto, Bilateralism, p. 19. 362 Notes

10. Peter Hazelhurst, 'Shadows Over the Summit at Simla', The Times (London), 28 June 1972. 11. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Speeches and Statements, July 1, 1972-September 30, 1972 (Karachi: Frozesons, 1972), pp. 30-31. 12. Nixon's Report was reproduced in Dawn, 10 February 1972. 13. The New York Times, 13 February 1972; also Dawn, 14 February 1972. 14. Reuter's dispatch with New Delhi dateline, Dawn, 22 February 1972. 15. Dawn, 23 February 1972. 16. Text of Sino-US Communique, Dawn, 28 February 1972. 17. Dawn, 28, 29 February 1972. 18. Ibid., 3 March 1972. 19. lzvestia, 15 March 1972; Dawn, 15 March 1972. 20. Dawn, 3 March 1972. 21. Kissinger, op.cit., p. 1090. 22. Dawn, 17 March 1972. 23. Ibid., 16 March 1972. 24. For a very detailed coverage of these negotiations, see Dawn, 16-18 March 1972 and Pravda, 16-18 March 1972, CDSP, (Vol. XXIV, no. 11), 12 April 1972. 25. Ibid., 18 March 1972. 26. For the text of the Soviet-Pakistan communique, see Dawn, 19 March 1972. 27. Dawn, 21 March 1972. 28. Ibid. 29. Bhutto, Speeches and Statements (July-September 1972), pp. 26-9. 30. For an excellent analysis of the Simla Conference, see Imtiaz H. Bokhari and Thomas Perry Thornton, The 1972 Simla Agreement: An Asymmetrical Negotia• tion (Washington, DC, SAIS, The Johns Hopkins Foreign Policy Institute, 1988), p. 8. 31. Bhutto, Speeches and Statements, 1972, pp. 130-3. 32. Aziz Ahmad, Line 01 Control: Statement 01 December 11,1972 (an unpublished personal copy). 33. Joint Soviet-Pakistan communique, 26 October 1974; Soviet-South Asian Rela• tions, 1947-1978, ed. R. K. Jain (Atlantic Heights, NJ: Humanities Press, 1979), pp. 130-1. 34. 'Joint Statement of the Soviet Union and the Republic of Afghanistan', Pravda and lzvestia, 9 June 1974, CDSP (Vol. XXVI, no. 23), July 1974. 35. V. Skosyrev, 'Why the Embargo was Lifted', Izvestia, 27 February 1975; CDSP (Vol. XXVII, no. 8), March 1975. 36. National Herald, 25 February 1975. 37. L. Medvedko, 'CENTO: Against the Current', Pravda, March 1975; CDSP, (Vol. XXVII, no. 9), March 1975. 38. Aleksei Vasilyev, 'Provocational Actions', Pravda (Vol. XXVII, no. 11), November 1975. 39. For these developments see V. Kudryavtsev, 'Iraq Moves Forward: Reflections on What I Saw and Heard', Izvestia, 8 June; 22 July 1972; Pravda, 21 August 1973; 'Rumalia Oil Fields', Pravda, 23 February 1974; Pravda, 15 April 1975; CDSP (Vol. XXIV, no. 24), 1972; Vol. XXVI, no. 5, 1974). 40. Keesing's Contemporary Archives (21-27 May 1973); p. 25893. 41. Based upon personal interview with Prime Minister Z. A. Bhutto's Military Secretary. 42. See Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Pakistan's Relations with the Islamic States (Islamabad: 1977), pp. 20-33. Notes 363

43. Ashok Kapur, Pakistan's Nuclear Development (London: Croom Helm,. 1987). p.58. 44. Robert L. Beckman, Nuclear Nonproliferation (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985), p.66. 45. For a thorough look at this subject see an excellent study, Richard G. Hewlett and Jack M. Holls, Atoms For Peace and War, 1953-1961, (Berkeley: Univer• sity of California Press, 1989), pp. 71-2. 46. Kapur, op. cit., p. 36. 47. Ibid., p. 57. 48. See I. H. Usmani, 'Atomic Energy in Pakistan', Pakistan Quarterly (Autumn 1960), Vol. X, no. 2, p. 136. 49. For information on Dr Khan's education and employment, see the Dutch Govemment's publication, 'Report of the Inter-ministerial Working Party Re• sponsible for Investigating the Khan Affair', October 1979. 50. Leonard S. Spector, Going Nuclear (Cambridge, Mass., Ballinger, 1987), p. 102. 51. Zulfiqar Bhutto's typescript of testimony before the Supreme Court of Pakistan, in reply to the Zia regime's White Papers, pp. 192-3; also see Munir Ahmad Munir, Jo Mein Nay Daykha: Rao Abdur Rashid Say Inierview (Lahore: Atish Fashan Publications, 1985), p. 222. 52. P. K. S. Namboodri, 'Pakistan's Nuclear Posture', Nuclear Myths and Realities, ed. K. Subrahmanyam (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1982), p. 142; also 's (Bhutto's former Press Secretary) statement, as reported by S. Weissman and H. Krosney, The Islamie Bomb (New York: Times Books, 1981), pp. 44-5, 163. 53. Kauther Niazi, Awr Line Ka~ Giey (Lahore: Jung Publishers, 1987), pp. 78-9. 54. Bhutto, Bilateralism, pp. 30-31. 55. Niazi, op. eit., p. SO. 56. 'The Khan Affair Report', Appendix I, Subrahmanyam, op. eit., pp. 167-8. 57. Bhutto's statements to the Supreme Court, Criminal Appeal No. 11 of 1978. 58. Arkady Maslennikov, 'An Urgent Task', Pravda, 13 April 1979; CDSP (Vol. XXXI, no. 15), 1979.

11 The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and Its Impact on Pakistan

1. V. Simamov, 'Collective Security in Asia and Soviet Union's Treaties of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation with Newly-Freed Countries', Strategie Studies (Islamabad: Vol. VII, no. 2, Winter 1983), p. 54. 2. For an excellent study of this theme, see Milan Hauner, What Is Asia to Us? Russia's Heartland Yesterdllyand Todlly (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990). 3. I. S. Braginsky, L. M. Landa and N. A. Khalfin, Central Asia and Kazakhstan in Soviet Oriental Studies (Moscow: Nauka Publishing House, 1968), p. 17. 4. Ibid., p. 9. 5. M. Vakhabov, 'Pravda Istorrii Vopreki' (Contrary to Historical Truth), Pravda Vostoka, 4 December 1986; see also 'Attack on Uzbek Nationalism' , The Central Asian Newsletter (London: Vol. VI, no. 2, June 1987), p. 14. 6. Interviews in the Institute of Oriental Studies, Moscow during August 1989. 7. M. S. Bemstam, 'The Demography of the Soviet Ethnie Groups in World Perspective', in Robert Conquest, Last Empire (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1986). 8. Yuri V. Gankovsky, Politieal Movements in Modern Central Asia and Kazakh• stan, a typed unpublished ms., p. 10. 364 Notes

9. Ann Sheehy, 'Preliminary Results of the All-Union Census Published', Report on the USSR, 1/20, 19; May 1989; Central Asia and Caucasus Chronicle (Vol. 8, no. 3, July 1989), p. 20. 10. Smimov, op. eit., p. 61. 11. Ibid., p. 56. 12. See Joint Soviet-Afghan Communique, Pravda, 16 April 1977; 'Treaty of Development of Economic Cooperation Between Soviet and Afghan Govem• ments', Pravda, 15 April 1977; CDSP, Vol. XXIV, no. 15, 1977; Wolfgang Bumer, et al. (eds), The Soviet Union 1975-76 (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1977), p. 269. 13. For details, see Z. A. Bhutto, The Pakistan Papers: Smuggled From Prison (New York: Executive Intelligence Review, Supplement, January 1979), p. 24. 14. Personal conversations with this author. Executive Intelligence Review, Supple• ment, January 1979), pp. 24-5. 15. Olivier Roy, Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni• versity Press, 1990), pp. 74-5. 16. For an excellent analysis of the crisis in Afghanistan, see Raja Anwar, The Tragedy of Afghanistan, trans. from Urdu by Khalid Hasan (London: Verso, 1988), pp. 6-8 ff. 17. The New York Times, 7 May 1978. 18. Hafeez Malik, 'Memorandum of Conversations with Mr. Shah Mohammad Dost, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Democratic Republic of Afghanistan 30 September 1981', Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies (Vol. V, no. 2, Winter, 1981), p. 72. 19. 'Pakistan to Brook no Interference', The Pakistan Times, 26 June 1978. 20. Chris Sherwell, 'Afghanistan Takes a Socialist Road', The Christian Science Monitor, 14 November 1974. 21. Pravda, 6 December 1978; The New York Times, 6 December 1978. 22. Sherwell, op. cit., 14 November 1978. 23. Ray, op. cit., pp. 98-109. 24. The New York Times, 13 April 1979. 25. I. Alexksandrov, 'Reactionary Schemes Against Democratic Afghanistan', Pravda, 16 April 1979; A. Petrov, 'Conspiracy Against the Afghan People', Pravda, 29 March 1979; CDSP, Vol. XXXI, nos. 11, 13, 1979. 26. A. Petrov, 'Provocations Continue', Pravda, 1 June 1979; CDSP, Vol. XXXI, no. 21, 1979. 27. Anwar, op. cit., pp. 180-1. 28. Pravda, 18 September 1979; CDSP, Vol. XXXI, no. 51, 1979. 29. 'Brezhnev's Breath on Amin's Neck', The Economist (London: 3 November 1979), pp. 52-3; also The New York Times, 19-20 September 1979. 30. Edward R. Girardet, Afghanistan: The Soviet War (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985), p. 25. 31. Anwar, op. cit., p. 183. 32. Ibid., p. 184. 33. Malik, op. cit., p. 68. 34. Conversations with knowledgeable Soviets. 35. The Washington Post, 28 December 1979. 36. Anwar, op. eit., p. 188. 37. Malik, op. eit., p. 69. 38. 'The Kremlin Apology: Excerpts from Speech', The New York Times, 25 Octo• ber 1989; also see 'The Second Session of the USSR Supreme Soviet: Foreign Notes 365

Policy and Restructuring - Speech by E. A. Shevardnadze on October 23. 1989', Pravda and Izvestia, 24 October 1989; CDSP, Vol. XLI, no. 43, 22 November 1989. 39. 'Election Meetings of Working People: Our Course is Peaceful Construction; L. I. Brezhnev Meets With Voters', Pravda and Izvestia, 23 February 1980; CDSP, Vol. XXXII, no. 8, March 1980. 40. Ibid. 41. Vitaly Kobysh, 'The Path to a Settlement in Afghanistan', Literaturnaya Gazeta, 12 March 1980; CDSP, Vol. XXXII, no. 10, April 1980. 42. The New York Times, 11 December 1980. 43. 'Statement by the DRA Govemment', Pravda and Izvestia, 15 May 1980; CDSP, Vol. XXXII, no. 20, June 1980. 44. Conversations with Pakistan's policymakers. 45. 'Statement by a spokesman for the Indian Foreign Ministry', Pravda, 30 Decem• ber 1979, CDSP, Vol. XXXI, no. 52. 46. MaIik's memorandum of conversations with Ambassador Arthur Hummell, Jr and Sardar Shah Nawaz; Islamabad. 47. Azimov was also eased out of Islamabad; in the late 1980s he was Uzbekistan's Minister of Foreign Affairs in Tashkent, where he received in August 1989 this author for conversations. Very sombrely he said to Me: 'The Soviet Union is fed up with Pakistan's foreign policy.' However, he added: 'The Soviet Union wanted only friendly relations with Pakistan.' MaIik's memorandum of conversa• tions with Azimov and others in Russia and . 48. This aid included about $57 million worth of PL480 commodities in 1977, $86 million worth of commodity credit corporation credits for the import of wheat; a $40 million loan for a fertilizer plant and a $25 million agreement for import of fertilizers. Arthur W. Hummel, Jr (US Ambassador to Pakistan), at a meeting of the English speaking Union of Pakistan, Karachi, 6 December 1978, Morning News (Karachi), 7 December 1978. 49. Statement of the Govemment of Pakistan of 14 August 1979 appearing in Dawn, 16-17 August 1979. 50. Richard Burt, 'U.S. Will Press Pakistan To Halt Nuclear Arms Projects', The New York Times, 11 August 1979. 51. Zbigniew Brzezinski, Game Plan: How To Conduct the V.S.-Soviet Contest, (New York: The Atlantic Monthly Press, 1986), pp. 42-55. 52. The New York Times, 3 August 1979. 53. Zbigniew Bnezinski, Power and Principle (New York: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux, 1983), p. 429. 54. Ibid., pp. 430-2. 55. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, p. 449. 56. Deane R. Hinton, US Ambassador to Pakistan, 'Question and Answer Session After Ambassador Hinton's October 10, 1984 address to the Council on Security Studies in Lahore'. (Islamabad text sent to Malik by Ambassador Hinton on 7 November 1984), p. 8. 57. 'Face the Nation', a CBS programme, 18 May 1980. President Zia-ul-Haq's interview with Walter Cronkite. 58. Department o{ State Bulletin (Washington, DC, August 1981), p. 83. Contains US-Pakistan joint statement of 15 June 1981. 59. Far Eastem Economic Review (16-22 October 1981), p. 46. Rodney Tasker's interview with President Zia-ul-Haq. 60. Azhar Masood, 'Afghan Refugees for Today: In Search of New Home', 366 Notes

The Muslim, 3 August 1982. 61. Yuri V. Andropov, 'Der Spiegel Interview', Pravda, 25 April 1983 in Speeches and Writings (New York: Pergamon Press, 1983), p. 323. 62. D. F. Ustinov, Serving the Country and the Communist Cause (New York: Pergamon Press, 1983), p. 14. 63. Ibid, p. 15. 64. For an early exposition of this new policy thinking see, Mikhail Gorbachev, Perestroika: New Thinking for our Couritry and the World (New York: Harper & Row,1987). 65. Bernard E. Trainor, 'Afghan War: In Year Seven, Deadly Stalemate', The New York Times, 18 February 1987. 66. Tass statement [on Afghanistan]; Pravda, 19 April 1987. Special Correspondent A. Karpov's Report From Tajikistan, 'From the Scene of the Events: On the Border - Soviet Soldiers Battle a Band of Dushmany', Isvestia 22 April 1987; CDSP, Vol. XXXIX, no. 16, May 1987. 67. 'For the Expansion of the Afghan Revolution's Social Base', Pravda, 21 Decem• ber 1986; CDSP, Vol. XXXVII, no. 51, January 1986; Veniamin Shurygin, 'Policy of Democratization', Pravda, 8 August 1986; CDSP, Vol. XXXVII, no. 32, September 1986; Mark Urban, War in Afghanistan (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988), pp. 208-10. 68. Vladiden Baikov, 'Pashtun's Tragedy', Pravda, 8 January 1986; CDSP, Vol. XXXVIII, no. 1, February 1986; 'Afghanistan: An Ox Annoyed', The Econom• ist (London: 27 July 1991), p. 34. 69. Alexander Chudodeyev and Yakov Borovoi, 'People From Peshawar: Interview with Professor Yuri V. Gankovsky', New Times (Moscow: October 9-15,1990), p.20. 70. The New York Times, 2 April 1991. 71. A. Portansky, 'Agreement on Afghanistan in Effect Ten Days', Izvestia, 26 May 1988; Pravda, 27 May 1988; CDSP, Vol. XL, no. 22, June 1988. 72. N. Burbyga, Special Correspondent, lzvestia, 26 October 1990; CDSP, Vol. 42, no. 43, November 1990 has given in detail the instances of defection and the killing of Russian soldiers by and the ambushing of their convoys. 73. For the controversy regarding the issue of symmetry, see two very insightful articles: Selig Harrison, 'Inside the Afghan Talks', Foreign Policy (Washington, DC), Fall, 1988, pp. 31-60; Rosannt! Klass, 'Afghanistan: Tbe Accords', Foreign Affairs (New York) Summer 1988, pp. 922-43. 74. Novosti Press Agency, Agreements on Political Settlement Relating to Afghanis• tan, , 14 April 1988 (Moscow: 1988); texts of Shevardnadze's opening statement, and press conference, on 14 April at Geneva, pp. 20-28. 75. New York Times, 12 April 1988. 76. Harrison, 'Inside the Afghan Talks', p. 40. 77. Agha Shahi, 'Pakistan Foreign Policy: A New Dimension', Journal of South Asia and Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. XI, no. 3 (Spring 1988), p. 34. 12 Post-Geneva Developments and the Soviet Collapse

1. The New York Times, 2 February 1989. 2. Artem Borovik, 'Afghanistan: Preliminary Results - An Interview with Maj. General Kim M. Tsagolov', Ogonyok, no. 30, July 1988; CDSP, Vol. XL, no. 33, September 1988. 3. Yevg. Bai, 'Fulfilling Commitments', lzvestia, 16 August 1988; CDSP, Vol. XL, September 1988, no. 33. Notes 367

4. 'Soviet Govemment Statement', Pravda and Izvestia, 16 August 1988, CDSP, Vol. XL, no. 33, September 1988. 5. Afghan Information Center (AIC), Monthly Bulletin (February 1989; will be indicated as AIC with date), p. 8. 6. The New York Times, 12 February 1989. 7. 'Interview with E. A. Shavardnadze by the Bakhtar News Agency', Pravda, 8 August 1988; CDSP, Vol. XL, no. 32, September 1988. 8. Borovik, op. cit., pp. 2-3. 9. Ibid., 25 February 1989. 10. The New York Times, 2 February 1989. 11. 'Situation in Afghanistan', AlC (December 1989-January 1990), p. 4. 12. The New York Times, 23 April 1989. 13. AIC (December 1989-January 1990), pp. 4-5. 14. The New York Times, 23 April 1989. 15. Mary William Walsh, 'On the Jalalabad Plain Mujahideen Now Fight Among Themselves', The Wall Street Journal, 27 March 1989. 16. The New York Times, 12 March 1989. 17. Ibid., 17 March 1989. 18. Ibid., 23 March 1989. 19. Yu Komilov, 'Stop Outside Interference: Yuli M. Vorontsov on the Situation in Afghanistan', Izvestia, 18 March 1989; CDSP, Vol. XLI, no. 11, April 1989. 20. The Economist (London: 27 July 1991), p. 34. 21. Text of Ambassador Sardar Shah Nawaz's statement to the UN Security Coun- eil, 26 April 1989 (a personal copy), p. 14. 22. Ibid., p. 20. 23. The New York Times, 3 May 1989. 24. Anthony C. Beilinson, 'End Aid to the Afghan Rebels', The New York Times, 22 May 1989. 25. The New York Times, 8 June 1989. 26. John F. Bums, 'Afghans: Now They Blame America', The New York Times Magazine (4 February 1990), p. 27. 27. For details, see AIC (March 1990), pp. 1-10; also The ffew York Times, 8, 9,10 March 1990; see also (or Soviet coverage, Tass, "Afghanistan: Coup Attempt Thwarted', Pravda, 8 March 1990; CDSP, Vol. XLII, no. 10, April 1990. 28. Ibid., pp. 28-9. 29. V. A. Dolganov and A. Stepovoi, 'The Fourth Session of the USSR Supreme Soviet: Parliament and Society Face A Choice', Izvestia, 11 September 1990; CDSP, Vol. XLII, no. 37, October 1990. 30. Andrew Rosenthal, 'Where Do Interests of U.S. Lie: In United or Divided USSR?', The New York Times, 28 July 1991. 31. Thomas L. Friedman, 'Soviets Have Outiined a Peace Proposal for Afghanistan, U.S. Officials Say', The New York Times, 15 JuLy 1990. 32. Jami'at-i Islami Afghanistan (JIA), Afghan News (Vol. 7, no. 15, 1 August 1991), pp. 1, 7. 33. AIC (January and February 1991), pp. 13, 20; 'Lack of Money Forces AIG to Reduce its Staff by Half, Afghan News (Vol. 7, no. 1, 1 January 1991), p. 5. 34. [Jawad Mansoori] 'Iran's Envoy in Islamabad Speaks to Al-Jehad', Afghan News (Vol. 7, no. 2, 15 January 1991), p. '7. 35. 'Tripartite Afghan Talks Opened In Islamabad', Afghan News (Vol. 7, no. 15, 1 August 1991), p. 8. 36. 'Afghanistan: An Ox Annoyed', The Economist (London: 27 July 1991), p. 3. 37. 'E. A. Shavardnadze's Press Conference', Pravda, 7 February 1989; CDSP, Vol. 368 Notes

XLI, March 1989, no. 6. 38. Mikhail Gorbachev, The August [1991J Coup (New York: Harper Collins, 1991), pp. 102-3. 39. These aides were: (1) D. D. Baklanov, First Vice-Chairman of the Defence Council; (2) V. A. Kryuchkov, Chairman of the KGB; (3) V. S. Pavlov, Prime Minister; (4) B. K. Pugo, Minister of Internal Affairs; (5) V. A. Starodubtsev, Chairman of the Peasants' Union; (6) A. I. Tizyakov, President of the Associa• tion of State Enterprises; (7) D. T. Yazov, Minister of Defence; (8) G. I. Yanayev, Vice-President of the USSR. 'Statement by the Soviet Leadership' , Pravda and Izvestia, 20 August 1991; CDSP, Vol. XLIII, no. 33, 18 September 1991. 40. G. Alimov, 'Another Life Has Begun For Mikhail Gorbachev', Izvestia, 27 December 1991; CDSP, Vol. XLIII, no. 52 (1991). 41. 'The Afghans' Nervous End-Game', The Economist, 25 April 1992; For details on these developments, see Afghan Information Centre: Monthly Bulletin, Peshawar: no. 132-5, March-June, 1992; Edward A. Gargan, 'Afghan Presi• dent Ousted as Rebels Approach Capital', The New York Times, 17 April 1992. 42. Donatella Lorch, 'Rebels Agree on Interim Rule for Kabul', The New York Times, 25 April 1992; Mushahid Hussain, 'Afghanistan: Smooth Transition', The Economist, 10 July 1992. 43. 'Joint Press Conference of M. S. Gorbachev and R. Gandhi', Pravda and Izvestia, 29 November 1986; CDSP, Vol. XXXVIII, no. 48, December 1986. 44. Vladilen Baikov, 'Dangerous Partnership' , Pravda, 12 March 1987; CDSP, Vol. XXXIX, no. 10, April 1987. 45. The Pakistan Times Overseas Weekly, 15 January 1989. 46. Veniarnin Shurygin, 'They Can't or They Won't?' Pravda, 9 August 1987; CDSP, Vol. XXXIX, no. 32, September 1987. 47. Ibid. 48. Sergei G. Gorshkov, The Seapower of the State (Annapolis, : Naval Institute Press, 1979), pp. 1-3. 49. Ibid., p. 182. 50. Ibid., p. 61. 51. Ibid., p. 15. 52. For a very perceptive analysis of these problems see, Walter K. Anderson, 'Emerging Security Issues in the Indian Ocean: An American Perspective', Superpower Rivalry in the Indian Ocean, ed. Selig S. Harrison and K. Sub• rahmanyam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 41. 53. M. P. Awati, 'Emerging Security Issues in the Indian Ocean: An Indian Perspec• tive', op. cit., p. 116. 54. For a very detailed report on these transactions see, John Madeley, Diego Garcia: A Contrast to the Falklands (London: Expedite Graphie, 1982), pp. 4 !I. 55. Anderson, op. cit., p. 19. 56. For further details, see U.S. Senate Sub-Committee on Construction of the Committee of the Armed Services, 93rd Congress, 2nd Session, 10-12, 18 July 1974, pp. 138,511. 57. For further analysis of the Red Sea area, see Roberto Aliboni, The Red Sea Region (Syracuse: University Press, 1985), pp. 18-19 !I. 58. For this thesis, see Dieter Braun, The Indian Ocean: Region of Conflict or Zone of Peace, trans. from German by Carol Geldart and Kathleen Llanwarne (Lon• don: C. Hurst Co., 1983), pp. 66-7. 59. Awati, op. eit., p. 106. 60. Ibid. Notes 369

61. SIPRI Year Book, 1968, 69, World Armaments and (Stoekholm, International Peaee Institute), pp. 298-9, 308-9. 62. For the expression of the Soviets' positive attitude toward these talks, see A. Vilov, 'Disarmament is a Command ofTime: Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones As a Faetor of Peaee', Pravda, 10 February 1977; CDSP, Vol. XXIX, no. 6, 10 Mareh 1977; V. Kudryavtsev, 'Shadows Over the Red Sea', Izvestia, 16 April 1977; A. Biryukov, 'Demilitarization, Pentagon Style', Izvestia, 14 April 1977; CDSP, Vol. XXIX, no. 15, 11 May 1977. 63. Panel on Indian Ocean Forces Limitation, Report on Indian Ocean Forces Limitation and Conventional Arms Transfer Limitation (Washington, US Government Printing Office, 1979), 15 pp. 64. 'Joint Soviet-Indian Statement', Pravda and Izvestia, 28 November 1986; CDSP, Vol. XXXVIII, no. 48, 31 December 1986. For a well-developed thesis of Soviet-Indian strategie eollaboration regarding the Indian Ocean see also, E. Rumyantsev, 'The Indian Ocean and Seeurity in Asia', International Affairs (Moscow: Oetober 1985), pp. 124-9; 'The Right to Fly Without Risk: Interview Condueted by B. Ivanov [with M. A. Timofeyev, USSR Deputy Minister of Civil Aviation)', Izvestia, 29 May 1990; CDSP, Vol. XLII, no. 22, 4 July 1990.

13 Emergenee of Central Asia

1. Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, Address [0 the National Defence College, (Rawal• pindi: 16 June 1991; personal copy), p. 11. 2. Ahmad Rashid, 'All Dressed Up and Nowhere To Go', The Herald (Karaehi: November 1991), p. 75. 3. Ahmad Rashid, 'After the Fall', The Herald, September 1991. 4. The New York Times, 14 September 1991. 5. For an exposition of this paradigm of Commonwealth, see Khalid Waheed, (former President of Pakistan Chambers of Commeree and Industry), Pakistan and the International Economic Order (Peshawar: 21 March 1990, a personal eopy); and his Commonwealth of Peace and Prosperity (Islamabad: 3 September 1990; a personal typeseript). 6. Brian Hooks, ed., The Cambridge Encyclopedia of China (Cambridge: Cam• bridge University Press, 1991), p. 222. 7. Andrew D. W. Forbes, Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia (Cam• bridge: Cambridge University Press; 1986), p. 10. 8. Linda Benson, The Ili Rebellion: The Moslem Challenge to Chinese Authority in , 1944-49 (New York: M. E. Sharpe), p. 189. 9. Nieholas D. Kristof, "Unrest Reported in Muslim Areas of China; Foreigners are Barred' , The New York Times, 13 April 1990. 10. 'Xlnjiang Clampdown on Muslim Dialogue With Foreigners', Tehran Times, 30 Oetober 1990. 11. Gunner Jarring, Return to Kashgar, trans. Eva Glaeson (Durham: Duke Uni• versity Press, 1986). Jarring has suggested that in the 1970s 'books are onee again printed in the old Arabie seript. The Latin seript seems to be used mainly in official publieations', p. 239. 12. For these proposals and analyses of other prospects see a colleetive endeavour of Khalid Waheed, Khalid Aziz, Abdul Majid Khan, Tariq Rahim and Najam Abbas, Selected Papers From Workshops for the Study of Central Asia, Khalid Waheed, ed. (Rawalpindi: 1990), pp. 7-10 ff. 13. 'Memorandum ofDiscussion at the 228th Meeting of the National Security Council on Deeember 9, 1954', and 'U.S. Poliey Toward South Asia, Memorandum by the 370 Notes

Executive Secretary (Lay) to the National Security Council, December 14, 1954', Foreign Relations ofthe United States, 1952-1954 (Washington, DC: Superintendent of Documents, 1983), Vol. XI pp. 1095,1097, 1148-50. 14. Documents from the U.S. Espionage Den {U.S. Embassy in Tehran] (45): U.S. Intervention in Islamic Countries, Vol. I (Tehran: n.d.), pp. 13-14. 15. Ibid., p. 45. 16. Dmitry Sidorov, 'Nakhichevan: Disturbances on the Border' ,Moscow News, 14 January 1990. 17. lrina Dementyeva, 'The Emblem of the New Chechen Republic: A Lone Wolf Under the Moon', Izvestia, 1 November 1991; CDSP, Vol. XLIII, no. 44, 1991. 18. 'From Hot Spots: Only From the Standpoint of the Law', Pravda, 10 Oetober 1991; A. Kazikhanov, Izvestia, 10 Oetober 1991; CDSP, Vol. XLIII, no. 42, 1991. 19. Ali Kazikhanov, 'News Hotline: 92.5 Pereent Cast Their Votes For a Sovereign Ingushetia', Izvestia, 4 December 1991; CDSP, Vol. XLIII, no. 49,1991. 20. Timur Muzayev, 'Cheeheno-Ingushetie: Dzhokhar Dudayev Agrees to a Dia• logue', Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 15 Oetober 1991; V. Kharlamov, 'Interview: Cheehens Are Tired of Waiting', Pravda, 21 Oetober 1991; A. Kazikhanov, 'Preparations to Fight are Under Way in Grozny', Izvestia, 21 Oetober 1991; CDSP, Vol. XLIII, no. 42, 1991. 21. A Kazikhanov, 'A New Republie is Proclaimed - Balkaria' , Izvestia, 18 Novem• ber 1991; CDSP, Vol. XLIII, no. 46, 1991. 22. Edward Allworth (ed.), Tatars ofthe (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988), p. 3. After the eonquest of Kazan in 1552, 'the Russian state pursued the poliey of national integration that meant eonversion to Christianity and eultural assimilation'. Azade-Ayse Rorlich, The Volga Tatars: A Profile in National Resilience (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1986), p. 38. 23. 'Muslim Woman Leader of Tatar Party Aims for Islamie Rejuvenation', Tehran Times, 22 May 1991. 24. A. Zinovyev, 'Muslim Celebration', Izvestia, 16 August 1989; A. Sabirov, 'In Republie Governments, Houses of Worship Are Being Turned Over To Be• lievers', Izvestia, 17 August 1989; CDSP, Vol. XLI, no. 33, 1989. 25. A. Putko, 'How It is Being Proposed that the Tatars Free Themselves from the Russian Yoke', Izvestia, 25 November 1991; CDSP, Vol. XLIII, no. 47, 1991. 26. 'Ruslan Khasbulatov: I Don't lotend to Change My Views', Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 27 November 1991; Yevgeny Skukin, 'Ordinary Ittifak Fascism' Rossiis• kaya Gazeta, 28 November 1991; CDSP, Vol. XLIII, no. 47, 1991. 27. Igor Khariehev, 'Tatarstan Wants to Combine the Uncombinable: To Seeede from Russia and Remain Within It', Izvestia, 16 September 1992; CDSP, Vol. XLIV, no. 37, 14 Oetober 1992. 28. Valery Vyzhutovieh, 'Uneoupled Train Car - Uzbekistan After the Proclama• tion of Independenee', Izvestia, 13 September 1991; CDSP, Vol. XLIII, no. 37, 1991. 29. Tehran Times, 12 January 1991. 30. Ibid., 14 January 1991. 31. Khalid Waheed (ed.), Central Asia Selected Papers (Islamabad: Pakistan Central Asia Friendship Society, September 1990), p. 47. 32. For further details on these issues, see 'Standing For Neighborliness', Soviet Uzbekistan (Tashkent: August 1990), p. 2. 33. Yu. Savenkov, 'Nursultan Nazarbeyev: I Believe in the Prospeets For Coopera• tion With China', Izvestia, 16 July 1991; CDSP, Vol. XLIII, no. 28, 1991. Notes 371

34. 'Iran, Pakistan, Turkey Sign Major Protocol, Revitalize ECO', Tehran Times, 20 June 1990. 35. Ibrahim Holozoglu, 'Ozal: Turkey Should Capitalize On Situations in the Bal• kans and Caucasus', The Turkish Times, 1 January 1992. 36. Ibid. 37. V. Lashkul and V. Skosyrev, 'Iraq Completely Isolated', IzvestÜJ, 10 December 1991; CDSP, Vol. XLIII, no. 49, 1991. 38. Idrees Siddiqi, 'Azerbaijan Key Adhan-i Hurriyat: Azerbaijan Kay Sheikh-ul• Islam Allah Shuker Pasha-Zadi Awr Rukan Parliament Janab Fazal Murad All Kay Sath Char Ghantay Key Inkashafat Say M'amur Guft-Gu', Urdu Digest (Labore: December 1991), p. 138. 39. For an excellent coverage of the Pakistani delegation's visit to the Central Asian Republics, see, Ahmad Rashid, 'Coming Out Of Cold', and 'Trade Winds', The Herald (Karachi: January 1972), pp. 86-91. 40. 'Efforts Underway to Revive in Central Asia', Tehran Times, 29 January 1992. 41. For the fear of Islam, and the projection of Turkish secularism, see Brian Beedham, "Turkey, Star of Islam: Look Eastward, Europe, and See Why You Need a Successful Turkey', The Economist (14 December 1991), Survey, pp. 1-18. 42. Thomas L. Friedman, 'Ten Ex-Soviet Republics Gain Wider Recognition', The New York Times, 31 January 1992. 43. 'CSCE Seeks To Lure Central Asian Republics From Islamic Root' , Tehran Times, 29 January 1992. 44. Ibid. Index

Abbas, Chaudhary Ghulam 60 Amin, President Hafirullah 256, Abbasid Caliphate 9 259,260,263,265,266,268 Abdullah, Shaikh Muhammad 60, Anand, Mulk Raj 18 61,62, 115, 184 Andrapov, Yuri V. 252,277 Acheson, Secretary of State, Anikeyev, N. P. 30 Dean 96 Anjuman Traqqi-i Urdu 19 Administered districts in NWFP 77 Anti-Communist League 29 Afghan irredentism against Aral Sea 330 Pakistan 39, 63, 81, 103, 156 Ardagh, Sir John 161 Afghan refugees' repatriation Art for art's sake 18, 25 283-4 Art for revolution 26 Afghan-Soviet trade 88-9 Ashk, Upendra Nath 19 Afghanistan's assessment of global Ashraf, Dr Muhammad 11 envir<;mment 80 Asian Collective Security 257 Afghanistan, a buffer state 64, 69 Asian Collective Security proposed Afghanistan's 'feudal-monarcho by USSR 142, 208 nationalism' 87 Asian vortex 139 Afghanistan, Russian and British Askri, Hasan 26 roles 65 Astrakhan's conquest by Russia 253 Afghanization of Uzbeks, Tajiks and Athar, Iqbal 190 Turkmen 87 Atoms for Peace 103 Afro-Asian nationalisms 34 'Atoms for peace' programme 246 Afro-Asian Solidarity Attlee, Clement 44 Conference 174 Auchinleck, General Claude 59 Afro-Asian Solidarity Aybek, Musa 25 Foundation 174 Azad, Abul-Kalam 9 Ahmad, Aziz 26, 185, 188, 189 Azad Pakistan's Party 23 Ahmad, Dr Zein al-Abidin 12 Azami, Kayfi 21 Ahmad, Dr Nazir 247 Azimi, General Mohammad 297 Aitchison, C. U. 74 Azimov, Sarwar 269, 270 Akhromeyev, Soviet Chief of Military Staff, S. F. 281 Babar, Major-General Aksai-Chin region of Ladakh, 144, Nasirullah 289 152-3 Babur, Zaheer-ud-Din 254 Ali, Amir Sher 66, 67 Baghdad Pact (1955) 29, 102, 103; Ali, Chaudhary Muhammad later called CENTO Ali 134 Bairamova, Fauzia 327-8 Ali, Fazal Murad 333 Baker, James A. 291,292,295,299 Ali, Mawlana Muhammad 9 Ball, George 161 Ali, Mir Liak 51,95-6, 101 Baluch Student Organization Ali, Ambassador Salman 171 (BSO) 28 Ali, Sardar Asaf 333 Baluchi Peoples' Liberation Front Alim, Abdul 19 (BPLF) 28

372 Index 373

Baluehistan Ageney Commission 72 Brzezinski, Zbigniew 272,302 Bandranaike, Sirimavo 309 Bukhara Khanate's fall 3 Bandung Conferenee of 1955 114, Bukhara, Uzbek Khanate 65, 66 120-1, 163 Bukhari, Jalal-ud-Din 13-14 Bangladesh dibdcle 214-25; 226 Bulganin, N. A. 60,88, 111, 117, Baryali, Mahmood 297 118, 121, 131 Bedi, Rajendra Singh 19 Bush, President George 294-5 Beg, General Aslam 313-14 Byrd, Senator Robert C. 292 Beg, Mirza Afzal 60 Beg, Muhammad Yaqub 163,317 Caliphate Conferenee 9 Beilenson, Congressman Caliphate Movement 8-11 Anthony 291 Canal waters distribution between Belokrenitsky, Vyaseheslav 30, 207 India and Pakistan 39,45,46-8 Benediktov, I. A. 190 Caroe, Sir Olaf 64 Bhilai Steel Mill, India 116, 121 Carter, President Jimmy 272,274, Bhutto, Benazir 252, 286, 292, 312 310 Bhutto, Z.A. 28,61,62,77,79-80, Cavagnari, Sir Louis 67 103, 161, 177, 179, 181, 185, 188, Central Treaty Organization 189-92, 204, 210, 212, 214, 219, (CENTO) 100, 104, 105, 108, 226,227; bilateralism 228-30; 116, 123, 131, 218 244 newalignments 231-6; visit to Chamberlain, Sir Neville 67 Moseow 236-40; Simla Chand, Prem 17, 18 eonferenee 241-2; seeond visit to Chandar, Khrishan 19,22-3 Moseow 243-6; relations with Chattopadhyaya, Kamla Devi 17 Arab states in the Gulf 246; Chaturvedi, Pandit Banarsi Das 17 nuclear option 246-51; 258 Chaudhary, Fazlul Qadir 181 Bill, James 107 Chaudhary, General J. N. 185 Birdwood, Lord 55 Chavan, Y. B. 190 Blaek, Eugene R. 48 Chernenko, Konstantine U. 252 Blending of Islam with socialism 9 Chevran Oil Company investments in Blending of with Urdu Kazakhstan 338 poetry 19 Chimkent's eonquest 3, 66 Bogra, Muhammad Ali 100 China's poliey of 'three red Bolshevik Party 14 banners' 141 Bolshevik revolution 255 China terminates Sino-Soviet Border eonfliets' strategie Friendship Treaty of 1950, 143 signifieanee 139-65 34 Boren, Senator David L. 292, 293 Chouhan, Subhadra Kumari 17 Bowles, Ambassador Chester 155 CIA 105,107 Brezhnev, Leonid i, vi, 117, 130, Class struggle 3, 22-3, 24, 25 142,181,182,208-9,225,226, Cold War 33, 49, 60, 63, 93, 252 252,260,263,265-6; five 280 ' eonditions for the Persian Gulf Communist International states 267-8; 311 (Comintern) 1, proclarnation of British-Afghan Wars of 1839 and twenty-one eonditions 7, 14 19 1879,64,65 21 ' , British Commonwealth of Communist Party of India (CPI) 8, Nations 38 9, 12, 19, 21, 28 374 Index

Communist Party of Pakistan (ECO) 331, 332 (CPP) 8-16; banned 23,27,28, Eisenhower Doctrine 104, 105, 135 29,37 Eisenhower, President Dwight Communist Party in Sindh 14 D. 85, 92, 93, 99, 100, 110, 166, Containment of Pakistan by 167, 168, 169, 171 India 55 En-Lai, Chou 120, 142, 150, 162, Cordovez, Diego 276 163,181,198,217,236 CPP banned (1954) 11 Eurasian character of USSR 205, CPP, internal dissensions and policy 240, 253, 302 of adventurism 13-16 Crimean Tatar Khanate's Faiz, Ahmad Faiz 17, 19,20,21, conquest 3 23; award of Lenin Prize 24, 26, Cuellar, Javier Perez de 276 30,205 Faqir of Ipi 82; see also Mirza Ali Damage to Soviet economy during Khan the Second World War 35-6 Faridabadi, Sayyid Muttalabi 21 Dange, S. A. 157 Fast, Howard 25 Degtyar, M. V. 190 Feudal-capitalistic system of Delimitation of Afghan-Indian Pakistan 15 boundaries 69, 71-2 Feudalism of the Afghans 87 Demarcation of Indian-Afghan Firyubin, N. P. 190 boundaries 70, 72-4 Framework for analysis 4-6 Democratic centralism 7 France cancels nuc1ear reprocessing D'Estaing, President Valery contract with Pakistan in 1977 271 Giscard 275 Freudianism in Urdu literature 26 Dev, Achariya Narendra 19 Frontier tribes' integration into Dhar, D. P. 24 Pakistan 78 Dhofar rebellion 245 Diego Garcia naval base 244,306, Gailani, Pir Sayyid Ahmad 288 308 Galbraith, Ambassador John K. Direct Action Movement of the 154,216 Muslim League 22 Gandhi, Mrs Indra 135 Dir state's destabilization 125-6, Gandhi, Prime Minister Indira 211, 127,129 212, 214, 216, 218, 225, 226, 231, Doctrine of symmetry for 233, 234, 240; Simla Afghanistan in 1988 282 conference 241-2 Domestic determinants of Soviet Gandhi, Mahatma 37,49,56 foreign policy 2, 4 Gandhi, Rajiv 311 Dostam, General Abdul Rashid 300 Gandhian philosophy 17 Dulles, Allen 105, 167, 168 Gankovsky, Yuri V. ix-x, 40, 207, Dulles, John Foster 85, 92, 93, 99, 255 105,110,137,320 Gauhar, Altaf 185 Durand Line 67-77,80,81, 126, Geneva accords on Afghanistan 252 258,262,264,270,276 Geneva accords of April 1988 Durand Line in international 278-84,286 law 74-6 German invasion of Soviet Durand, Mortimer 67, 70-2, 74-5 Union 21 Ghaffar, Qazi Abdul 19 Economic Cooperation Organization Ghosh, Jyoti 18 Index 375

Gilan, a Soviet republic in Iran 7-8 Husain, Dr Abid 19 Gladkov, N. 40 Husain, Arshard 190,220 Glasnost 122, 254 Husain, President Zakir 214 Goldman, Marshall 174 state 50; invasion by Gorbachev, Mikhail vi, 143, 167, India 51,56 207,252,279,281,282,286,290; Hyderabadi, Nazer 22 his 'revolution' 293-6, 298-9. 301 Gorchakov, Prince Alexander M. Iftakhar-ud-Din, Mian 17, 23, 24 66 Ilahi, Chaudhary Zahur 28 Gordon-Polonskaya, L. R. 30,40 Imperial cartography of Gorky, Maxim 25 Afghanistan 68-74 Gorshkov, Admiral Sergei G. 304-5 India-China war of 1962 61, 154-7 Gracy, General Douglas 59 India-Iran Treaty of Friendship of Grady, Ambassador Henry F. 93, 1950 115 94 India-Pakistan standstill agreement Great Patriotic War 2 of December 1947 47 Grechko, MarshaI A. A. 200 Indian guarantee of security to Griffin, Sir Lepel 68 Nepal 145 Gromov, Lt-General B. V. 286 Indian Independence Act of June Gromyko, Andrea A. 32, 41, 190, 1947 55 191,208,217-22,268 Indian Ocean 143, 244; Gul, Lt-General Hamid 289,292 confrontation 304-8; zone of Gulf Cooperative Council peace 308-9; arms limitation (GCC) 315 negotiations 309-11 Gupta, Babu Maithili Sharan 17 India's balkanization 50 Gupta, Bhabani Sen 154 India's 'Pakistan syndrome' 150 Gupta, Pramod Sen 18 India's Preventive Detention Gurevich, Boris P. 164 Act 61 Gwadar port 103-4 Indo-American Atomic Agreement of 1963 302 Habib bank 38 Indo-Pakistan Condominium over Haqq, Mawlavi Abdul 19 Kashmir 184 Harriman, Averell 62 Indus Basin Assistance Harrison, Selig S. 91, 305 Programme 103 Harun, Yusuf 14 Indus Basin Development Fund Hasan, Sir Sayyid Wazeer 11 Agreement of 1960 48-9 Hasrat, Chirag Hasan 24 Indus River Basin Treaty of Hatif, Abdul Rahim 300 1960 190 Hay, Captain W. R. 74 Indus Valley rivers 46 Hayder, Qurrat al-Ayin 26 Indus Waters Treaty of 1960 47 Hazrat Ball Mosque 61 Institute of Oriental Studies, Hekmatyar, Gulbeddin 262,280, Moscow 30 288, 289, 293 ~nstruments of Soviet diplomacy and Hindu imperialism 94 self-projection 7-31 Hindu moneylenders 40 Iqbal, Muhammad, poet• Hinton, Harold C. 153 philosopher 18, 31, 161, 316 Hizb-i Wahdat-i Islami 296 Iranian Azerbaijan 33 Hummel, Ambassador Arthur 322 Iraqi weapons to Baluchi Hunt, R. N. Carew 1 separatists 24S 376 Index

'Islam is against Communism' 32 Kennedy, President John F. 62,89, Islamic capitalism 37 126, 127, 155 Islamic economy 37 Khaiber Pass 66 Islamic egalitarianism 16 Khaiber Pass Commission 72 Islamic ideology 33 Khalis, Yunis 288 Islamic socialism 37 Khalq faction of the People's Islamic welfare system 37 Democratic Party of Ittahad al-Muslimin Party 51 Afghanistan 257, 297 Ittifak, Tatar National Independence Khan, Dr A. Q. 248,249 Party 326 Khan, Abdul Ghaffar Khan 55 Ivan the Terrible 2 Khan, General Agha Muhammad Yahya 196, 198, 190, 200, 203, Jafri, Ali Sardar 20, 21, 22 204,208,213,216,217,218,219, Jalandhri, Hafeez 30,205,213 220,222 Jalis, Ibrahim 20, 22 Khan, Maj.-General Akbar 23 Jama't-i Islami of Pakistan 16 Khan, King Aman Allah 75,80 Jha, C. S. 190 Khan, Amir Dost Mohammed 64, Jinnah, Miss Fatima 111, 112, 65, 66 131 Khan, Amir Habib Allah Khan 75 Jinnah, Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Khan, Amir Yaqub 67 Ali 32,34, 37, 38, 49, 50-1, 54, Khan, Air-Marshal Asghar 185, 189 78-9,92,93,95,101,106 Khan, President Ghulam Ishaq 287, Johnson, Lyndon 186, 187 312 Junagarh state 50; invasion by Khan, Habib Allah (Tajik contender India 51,56 for Afghanistan's throne) 77 Junejo, Muhammad Khan 284 Khan, Liaquat Ali 23, 32, 33, 34, 37,41,42,43,44,96,97,108,109 Kadyrova, Primkula 254 Khan, Mairaj Muhammad 28 Kahuta nuclear laboratory 248,271 Khan, Mirza Ali (Faqir of Ipi) 82 Kapitsa, Ambassador Michael 172 Khan, Mishar Saiyad Hasan 74 Karakuram Highway 161, 162 Khan, President Muhammad Karmal, Babrak 256,263,264,265, Ayub 16, 28, 61, 62, 101, 105, 268,280,281,283,297 128, 158, 160, 168, 171, 172, 177, Kashmir Constituent Assembly 61 181, 184, 187, 190, 199,202,208, Kashmir dispute 44,45,46-7, 210, 212, 214, 218, 224 49-50; demographie profile 52; Khan, Prince Muhammad Daud 84, before the United Nations 56-60; 89,126,127,128,156,243,257 Soviet veto 58, 111 Khan, King Nadir 77 Kashmir, India-Pakistan conftict Khan; Air-Marshal Noor 204 over vi-vii Khan, Sardar Najiballah 81 Kashmir's line of control 242 Khan, Sardar Shaukat Hayat 23 Kashmir Plebiscite Front 61 Khan, Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan 11, Kashmir Valley 59 18 Kashmir War 37, 186-7 Khan, General Tikka 220 Kashmiri, Zahir 19 Khan, Zafarullah 32, 180 Kaul, T. N. 190 , Russian Kayumov, Aziz 254 occupation of 67 Kazan's conquest by Russia 253 Khasbulatov, Ruslan Kelsen, Hans 74 Imranovich 328 Index 377

Khiva's conquest 3 Mansur, Firoze-ud-Din 9, 14 Khomeini, Ayatollah 264,272,322 Manto, Sa'dat Hasan 26, 30, 205 Khrushchev, Nikita 60,88, 111, MarshalI, Charles Burton 29, 105 116, 118, 121, 124-5, 131, 141, MarshalI, Secretary of State, George 151, 156, 166, 169, 171, 172, 173, C. 94 174,175,180,194-5;supportto Marxism- 255,257,259, India over Kashmir 116-17 260,269,281,286,294 Khuhro, Muhammad Ayub 111 Marxist literary movement 16-22 Kisan Awr Abiyana (Peasants and Masrur, Hajrah 22 Water Charges), CPP's programme Massoud, Ahmad Shah 287, 288, for agitation 14-15 300 Kisan Mazdoor Party 29 Maxwell, Neville 150, 154 Kisan (Peasant) Committees 13 Mayakovsky, Vladimir 25 Kissinger, Henry 216-17,224,236, McConnaughey, Walter 224 249,250 McGhee, George 44,96 Kochick Khan 7 McMahon, Sir Henry A. H. 70, Kosygin, Alexi N. 117, 130, 151, 146, 147 182, 183, 187, 188, 189-92, 198, McMahon Line's legality 147-8 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, Menon, Krishna 137 210,212-13,220,235, 264 Menon, V. P. 54,56 Kulski, W. W. 2 Menzies, Prime Minister Kurram Valley Commission 72 Robert 137 Merchant, Ambassador Lamb, Alastair 153 Livingston 89, 126 Leftist-Islamic orientation 9 Mikoyan, Anastas 111, 112, 122, Lenin, V. 1. 7, 10; Leninism 14, 131, 180, 181, 182 20; 43 Mohammadi, Mohammad Nabi 288 Lenin Prize 24 Mohani, Mawlana Hasrat 19 Lilienthai, David E. 48 Mohy-ud-Din, Makhdum 20, 21 Lippman, Walter 97 Mojadidi, Prohssor Liu, Shao-Chi 211 Sibgatullah 288, 300, 301 Lodge, Henry Cabot 85 Molotov, Vyacheslav 41, 132 London Group of Indian Momand, Qalander 30, 205 Communists 11-12 Moskalenko, Vladimir 207 Ludhianvi, Sahir 19 Mountbatten, Lord 50, 54, 55, 56, 106 Mackinder , Halford 139 Muhammad, Bakhshi Ghulam 60, 61 Mahmadov, Mamadali 254 Muhammad, Ghulam (former Mahraly, Yusuf 17 Governor-General of Maiwandwal, Prime Minister Pakistan) 96 Muhammad Hashim 130 Mujeeb, Shaikh 235 Majaz, Asrar al-Haq 20,22 Mujtabba, Qadi 14 Majid, Mir Abdul 9 Mukerji, Abani 10 Majlis Ittihad al-Muslimin 22 Muminov, I. 254 Malenkov, G. M. 110 Muqeemjanova, Railya 30, 207 Malih-Abadi, Josh 19, 30, 205 Musahiban dynasty 75 Malik, Ambassador Jacob 115 Muslim bourgeoisie 8 Malik, Abdul Muvtaleb 220 Muslim Central Asia: a domestic Malinovsky, Marshai R. Ya. 190 determinant of Soviet security 378 Index

Muslim Central--continued North Caueasus' eonquest 3 poliey 253-6 'No War' pact between India and Muslim Conference of Kashmir 60 Pakistan 177, 188-92 Muslim League, All-India 12 Nuclear-free zones 308-9 Muslim nationalism 21 Oakley, Ambassador Robert B. 289 Nagy,Imre 134 Oetober Revolution 1917,8 Naidu, Sarojini 17, 19 Open skies proposal 166-7 Naim, Prince Muhammad 85 Open Skies Treaty (1992) 167 Najib, President 280, 281, 283, 284, Operation Gibraltar 185, 186 286,287,288,289,290; beeome Organization of Petroleum Exporting Najibullah 291,294,297,300 Countries (OPEC) viii Narain, Jai Prakash 17 Orphan ehildren sent to USSR 280 Nasir, Azaz 28 Ottoman Caliphate 9 Nasir-ul-Mulk, Shahzada 74 Nasser, President Gamal Pakistan Atomie Energy Abd-al 134, 135-6 Commission 247 National eommunism 3 Pakistan Central Asia Friendship National Conferenee of Kashmir 60 Society 315,318-19 National Congress, All-India 11, Pakistan-India Nuclear Agreement 17,21,49 (1985) 303 National Liberation Front 28 Pakistan-India population National Progressive Party 28 transfers 38 NATO 102, 116, 167 Pakistan-India War of 1971 142 Nawaz, Sardar Shah 258,269,291 Pakistan's loan request to US in Nazarbayev, Nursultan A. 331 1947 95-6 Nazish, Ali, CPP Seeretary- Pakistan's military eapability in General 28 1947 39 Nehru, Ambassador B. K. 91 Pakistan National Movement 40, Nehru, the 'Indian Chiang 41,49 Kai-Shek' 115 Pakistan's negotiations with Nehru, Pandit Jawaharlal 17,32, Afghanistan 274-8 37,49,56,60,61,62,93,96,97, Pakistan's nuclear eapability 301-4 100, 103, 106, 115, 119, 135, 137, Pakistan's option in Afghanistan in 141, 149, 150, 153, 154, 155, 156, 1979 270 157, 160, 161, 175, 176, 177, 184 28 Niazi, Lt-General Amir Abdullah Pakistan's relations with Central Khan 225 Asian states 328-34 Nieholaevieh, Ivan M. 42 Pakistan's social stratifieation in Nimmo, General Robert H. 186 Soviet analysis 40 Nixon, President Riehard 110, 180, Pakistan Soeiety of London 102 196, 216, 223, 224, 225, 232, 233, Pakistan-Soviet Cultural 234, 235, 236, 320 Association 43 Noel-Baker, Philip 44 Pakistan-Soviet Cultural Protocol Noon, Prime Minister Feroze (1965) 30 Khan 101, 104, 113, 114, 128, Pakistan-Soviet eultural 137,168 relations 204-7 North Ameriean formula for South Pakistan-Soviet detente 167-93 Asia 216 Pakistan-Soviet Friendship Index 379

Association 213 11; All-Pakistan 16; 18-24, Pakistan Steel Mill 201 consequences of adventurist Pakistan's strategic importance 95, policies 25-7; govemment of 96,98,131 Pakistan decIares it a political Pakistan's trade with USSR 203-4 party 28. 29, 42 Pakistan-Turkish 'alliance' 86 Progressive Writers' Conference, Paklin, N. 304 AlI-India 17 Pandit, Mrs Vijay Lakshmi 32, 136 Projection of British rule in the tribal Pan-Islamists 10, 11 belt 77-8 Pankin, Boris, D. 299 'Proletarian internationalism' 200 Pant, Sumitra Nandan 17, 19 Proximity negotiations in Parcham faction of People's Geneva 276-8 Democratic Party of Purposive art theory 18 Afghanistan 257,258,263,297 Puzanov, Ambassador Pasha-Zade, Allah Shakur 332,333 Alexander 263, 264 Pashtun nationalism 41 Pyne, Sir Salter 71 Pashtun tribai guerillas 59 Pashtunistan 39, 45, 55, 63, 84, Qadir, K. B. Ghulam 51 100, 111, 117, 118, 124-5, 126, Qadir, Manzur 128 127, 129, 130,243,259,260,268, Qasimi, Ahmad Nadim 19, 23, 24, 270 26,30,205 Patel, Sardar Vallabh Bhai 51, 120 Quit India Movement 21 Pathan, Agha Ghulam Nabi 14 Qurban, Fazl-i Ilahi 9, 14 Patrolichev, Nicolai S. 183 Pax Americana 102-3 Rabani, Professor Peaceful co-existence 10i Burhanuddin 288, 300 Peaceful co-existence d()ctrine 121 RadcIiffe, Sir Cyril 55-6 Pentagon secret talks between Radhakrishnan, President 155 Britain and the US 95-100 Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar 294, 332 Perestroika 143,254,278 Rahman, Amir o\bdur 67, 68, 71, Permanent Settlement Act 80 (1793) 16 Rahman, Prince Musaib bin Peshavari, Jofar 7, 8 Abdul 83 Peter the Great 2 Rahman, Shafiq-ur 26 Petty bourgeoisie 13 Rai-puri, Akhtar Husain 20,26 Pio, Lin 223 Rajagopalachari 178 Podgomy, N. V. 219 Rann of Kutch 183, 184, 185, 190 Point IV programme of US 97 Rapid Deployment Force 310 Port Trust Union, Karachi 13 Rashid, Noon Mim 26 Poullada, Leon B. 128 Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangb 16 Praja Parishad Party of 60 Rasuli, M. 254 Prasad, President Rajendra 122 case of Pre-1947 communist movement in 1951 109 India 8 Regional Cooperation for President 's invocation Development (RCD) 179,204 of the 1950 Executive Agreement Rehman, Gauhar 9 with US 223 Revolutionary struggle in Progressive Papers Limited 28 Pakistan 25 Progressive Writers' Association 8, Reza Khan, the first Pahlavi Shah 8 380 Index

Richardson, H. E. 150 Shams-ud-Din 60, 61 Roberts, Major-General Shanwari, Hamza 30,205 Frederick 67, 68, 71 Sharif, Prime Minister Nawaz 295, Robeson, Paul 25 301,312-13, 334 Rowlands, Sir Archibald 38 Sharma, Pandit BaI Krishan 17 Roy, M. N. 10 Shastri, LaI Bahadur 181, 183, 184, Russia, a Eurasian state Vlll 187, 188, 189-91; his death 192 Russian assets vii; problems viii Shatra, Lochan 147, 148 Russian foreign policy Shevardnadze, Eduard 144,265, orientations viii 282,283,286,297 Russo-British Treaty of 1878 66 Shirin, Mumtaz 26 Shola-i Javid, China-oriented Afghan Sadat, Colonel Anwar 83 Party 262 Sadiq, G. M. 61 Shuja, Shah 65, 66 Safdar, Abdullah 9 Sihala nuclear laboratory 248 Sagar, Ramanand 23 Sindhi, Obaid Allah 9, 10-11 Sahib, Dr Khan 55 Singh, Kewal 190 Saklatvala, Shahpurji 12 Singh, Maharaja Ranjit 65 Salam, Dr Abdus 247 Singh, Sardar Savaran 175, 220 Salik, Abdul Majid 19 Sino-Indian territorial conflict Samri, Tajwari 22 144-53 Sandys, Duncan 62 Si no-Indian War of 1962 61, 154-7 Sayaf, Abdul Rasul 288 Si no-Pakistan Border Accord Schmidt, Chancellor Helmut 275 158-61 Schultz, George 282,283, 289 Sino-Soviet border settlement 293 Scientific frontier between Sino-Soviet conflict 139-44 Afghanistan and Indian Sino-Soviet relations 194-8 borderlands 67, 69 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship of SEATO 88, 100, 111, 115, 125, 1950 102 131,240 Sino-Tibetan-Nepali boundary 145 Secular Indian nationalism 9, 10 Smimov, Nikolai 213 Self-executing mechanism for Smimov, Ambassador Vitali S. 253, Kashmir dispute's solution 188, 256,257 190, 192 Smith, Ambassador Gerard 271 Sevan, Benon, UN's emissary in , Stalinist Afghanistan 299 view 1 Shafiq, Muhammad 9 Socialist formation of Soviet Shah of Iran's aid to Union 29 Afghanistan 258 Socialist realism 16 Shah, Mian Muhammad Akbar 9 Socialist Revolution of 1917 43 Shah, Nadir 75 Sofronov, Anatoly 25 Shah, Warath, Sufi poet 23 Sokolovsky, Soviet Marshai 126 Shah, King Zahir 82-3,89, 129, Soviet advisers to Afghanistan 261 130, 243, 284 Soviet-Afghan transit agreement 88 Shahbaz II (air exercises in Soviet-Afghan Treaty of Friendship Iran) 123 of 1921 85 Shahi, Agha 269 Soviet-Afghan Treaty of Friendship Shaimiyev, Mintimer 328 of 1978 260, 263, 266, 268 Index 381

Soviet-Afghan Treaty on Neutrality politieal environment 112-15 and Mutual Non-Aggression of Soviet participation in Afghan 1931 30,89 modernization 89 Soviet assessment of Pakistani Soviet penetration of foreign policy 40-4 Afghanistan 63-4 Soviet eollapse 296-301,298-9 Soviet pereeption of Afghanistan's Soviet eredits and loans to insurrections 261-4 Afghanistan 88, 118-19, 126, Soviet perception of global 256,258 correlation of forces 173~6 Soviet decision-making for invasion Soviet positive relations with India of Afghanistan, 1979 264-5 and Afghanistan 115-17 Soviet demarche (1952) to Soviet proposal to Pakistan for Afghanistan 83 regional eeonomie Soviet economie assistanee to cooperation 203-4 Pakistan 200-2 Soviet reactions to Pakistan's foreign Soviet-German Non-Aggression Paet poliey 106-8 (August 1939) 21 Soviet-Russian behaviour 1 Soviet-Indian entente cordiale Soviet self-projection in Pakistan 120-2 29 Soviet-Indian strategie Soviet support to Afghan partnership 142,207,221 irredentism 118-19 Soviet-Indian Treaty of Friendship, Soviet trade with Pakistan 202-4 August 1971 vi, viii, 198, 221-2, Soviet veto over Kashmir 40, 58, 232 115, 117 Soviet inftuence in Afghanistan and Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan its impact on Pakistan 124-30 in 1989 143 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Spain, James W. 82 December 1979 vi Spiridonov, Ivan 181 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 63, Stalin 3, 14, 32, 34, 36, 42, 43, 44, 261 108, 116; eult ')f personality 260 Soviet-Iranian relations' Stalin Prize 25 normalization 123-4 Stalinist dependeney theory for the Soviet-Iraqi Treaty of Friendship of Third World 116 1972 245 Stepanyants, Mara T. 30 Soviet loans to Pakistan 202 Stetsenko, A. G. 42 Soviet man 256 Stoletov, General 67 Soviet military aid to Pak~stan Subordinate state system of South 212-14 Asia 44-5 Soviet model of rapid Suez Canal 103, 107, 114; crisis, industrialization 121 133-8 Soviet navy's objeetives 304-7 Suhrawardy, Prime Minister Hussein Soviet-Pakistan detente, 131-3, Shahid 101, 134, 136, 137-8 199-214 Sulzberger, Cyrus L. 82,97,233 Soviet-Pakistan Friendship Society, Sykes, Sir Perey 71, 72 Moscow 30,205 Soviet-Pakistan military Tabassum, Sufi 30,205 relations 207-14 Takhanov, Nikolay 25 Soviet-Pakistan trade in frozen Tanai,GeneralShahNawaz 293,297 382 Index

Taraki, Noor Muhammad 257,259, US aid to Afghanistan 85 260, 263, 265 US aid to Pakistan in 1980 274 Tarzi, Sardar Habibullah Khan 73 US assurances of security to Tashkent Conference 130, 187, 188, Pakistan 223-4 189-92 US assurances of security to Pakistan Tashkent's conquest 3, 66 in case of conflict with India Tasir, Muhammad Din 18, 26 104-5 Tatar conquest of Russia 253 US Bilateral Executive Agreement of Tatar Khanate of Kazan 2 1959 with Iran 123 Tatarstan 326-8 US Bilateral Executive Agreement of Tate, G. P. 70 1959 with Pakistan 104, 166, 273 Taunswi, Fiker 22 US intelligence outposts in northern Taylor, General Maxwell D. 154 Pakistan 210 Theories of Soviet behaviour 1 US loans to Afghanistan 84 Thompson, Llewellyn 171 US Northern Tier Strategy 107 Tibet's status 144 US Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act Timofeyev, M. A. 311 (1928) 302 Trade Union Federation of US-Pakistan Mutual Defence Pakistan 13 Agreement of May 1954 60 Traditional Islamic Orientation 9 US terminates military aid to Treaty of Aigun of 1858 140 Pakistan in 1965 187 Treaty of Gandamak of 1879 67, 68 Urdu- controversy 19 Treaty of Peking of 1860 140 Urdu-Pakistani national Treaty of Rawalpindi (1919) between language 30 Afghanistan and British India 75 Urdu writers 17, 18, 19-22 Treaty of Tarabagatai of 1864 140, Usmani, Dr I. H. 247 317 Ustinov, Marshal Dimitri 264, 278 Tribal Areas Development USSR's disintegration vi Corporation 79 Truman, President Harry 92,94-5 Vance, Cyrus 272, 273 Tsagolov, Major-General Kim Velayati, Ali Akbar 296 Makedonovich 284-5,287,288 Von Kaufman, General- Turi Shi'ites 73 Adjutant 68 Turkey-Iran rivalry in Central Asian Vorontsov, Ambassador Yuli states 335-6 M. 290, 291, 295 Turkic nationalism 254 Voznesensky, Nicholas 34, 36 Turkic nations and nationalities 3 Turkish-Pakistani Mutual Aid Wakhan Corridor 72, 162 Agreement of April 1954 29 Wakil, Abdul 300 Two-nation theory 49 Waldheim, UN Secretary-General Kurt 276 U-2 debdcle 166-72; 210, 211 Wali, Akbar Shah 263 Udney Commission of 1894 73 WaU, Shah 75 Ulam, Adam B. 2, 36 Ward, Ambassador Angus 127 Umayyad Caliphate 9 Warsaw Treaty Organization Unequal treaties between China and (WTO) 45, 167 Russia 140-1 Waziristan 72-3 UN General Assembly on Wilson, Harold 184 Afghanistan 275 Index 383

Yajnik, Indulal 17 Zaheer, Sajjad 11-13,17,19,20, Yakunin, Ambassador Victor P. 23,25,27 303 Zahid, Fida Ali 9 Yeltsin, President Boris viii Zahir, Dr Abdul 235 Yepishev, General Aleksei 261 Zaki, Secretary-General Akram 296 Yi, Marshall ehen 145, 162, 189 Zedong, Mao 140, 141, 158, 195, Yifan, Zhen 147 196, 236, 318 Yousef, Dr Muhammad 130 Zia, ul-Haq General 80, 252, 258, Yousaf, S. M. 190 259, 264, 271, 312, 321

Zadeh, Mirza Tarsun 25 Zafar-al, Mahmud 12, 19