Coffee Research Strategy

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Introduction

Agriculture remains a dominant sector in the Ethiopian economy being the pillar of economic growth and development. Although there is an on-going structural transformation in the Ethiopian economy, predominantly from agriculture to manufacturing and industrial oriented economy, agriculture still comprises 45% of total output (GDP), 73 - 78% of employment and 80% of the foreign export earnings1,2. Among the top three agricultural exports, coffee stands first followed by oil seeds and pulses while the largest imports have been cereals, edible oil and sugar. The significance of coffee in the Ethiopian economy is enormous in that it accounts for 29 % of the total export earnings of the nation, 4.7 million small-holders directly involved in producing coffee and about 25 million people directly or indirectly depends on coffee sector for their livelihoods12,13. Globally, coffee is the second most traded commodity in volume of trade after petroleum. Over 56 developing countries that produce and export coffee generates a total of about US$19.1 billion annually7.

The predominant role of coffee (Coffea arabica L.) in the Ethiopian economic, social and cultural dimensions dates back to several centuries as the country is the primary center of origin and genetic diversity of the plant. According to history, Ethiopia is the world‟s oldest exporter of coffee that predates 18303. Cognizant of the deep-rooted attachment of coffee to the Ethiopian community and its multitude importance to Ethiopia and the world at large, the previous and present Governments of Ethiopia (GOE) had made relentless efforts to strengthen the coffee sub-sector through establishing organizations responsible for development and research undertakings. To this end, „Coffee Board of Ethiopian (CBE)‟ was established in October 1957 with proclamation number 25/1950 as the first legal coffee development institution which is responsible for all aspects of coffee issues (research, development and marketing) at national and international levels48. After years of services (1950 – 1968 Eth.C.), however, CBE undergone several restructuring taking different organizational levels as Coffee Production and Processing Enterprise (CPPE: 1968 - 1970), Coffee and Tea Development and Marketing Authority (CTDMA: 1970 – 1971), Ministry of Coffee and Tea Development (MCTD: 1971 – 1985), Ministry of State Farms and Coffee and Tea Development (MSFCTD: 1985 – 1987), Coffee and Tea Authority (CTA: 1987 – 1996), Coffee, Tea and Spices Directorate under the Ministry of Agriculture (CTSD: 1996 – 2003), and finally Coffee, Tea and Spices Department (CTSD: 2003 – 2008) under the Ministry of Agriculture Extension Directorate, all posing its own repercussions on the sector‟s development.

The later level of representation (CTSD) was unprecedentedly unequitable in terms of capacity to the scale of development aspired and the expected revenue the nation need to annually generate from coffee. Hence, the Government was advised to reconsider upgrading of the representation of coffee sector development. In response, ECTDMA was reinstituted on 14th December 2015 (2008 Eth. Calendar)5 with great passion and enthusiasm to transform coffee sector development to a higher level. As previously indicated, the government was also very keen and well aware of the need of establishing coffee research to support coffee development organization. In effect, the first Coffee Research Station was established at Jimma in late 1967 to backup coffee development [1] endeavors with technical assistance. The primary mandate of the research station was to transform the traditional way of coffee production to modern system through designing and implementing innovative research programs that could generate improved practices.

With the creation of the then Jimma Research Station (JRS) which is now called Jimma Agricultural Research Center (JARC) in late 1967, the immediate strategic intervention was focused on forest and semi forest coffee improvement which at that time represent the bulk of the production system followed by garden coffee8. Even today, forest, semi- forest and garden coffees respectively represent 10%, 35% and 50% of the production system where as modern plantation accounts only for the remaining 5 percent14. Sooner, the research strategy was revised to include improvement of agronomic practices (spacing, hole size, weed control, fertilizer rate, etc.), coffee processing for quality improvement, germplasm collection and selection for variety development and a limited amount of entomological and pathological studies15. After the occurrence of CBD in 1971 and its subsequent spread to all coffee areas, the emphasis and the research strategy was largely shifted to the control of the disease. Soon after, a strategy was developed and a national campaign was launched to combat the disease in two possible ways, by spraying fungicide and development of resistant cultivars. Thanks to our land for its endowment of immense genetic diversities that enabled to identify CBD resistant genotypes in the shortest time possible (just six years) and put CBD under control. Subsequently, with the gradual development of coffee research, seven research disciplines/division, five sub- centers and four testing sites (Annex 2) were established as part of coffee research strategy to tackle all aspects of coffee production, processing and agro-ecological challenges in a holistic approach.

On the other hand, since its inception, coffee research has been facing a number of challenges that had greatly hindered its steady development and advancement in coffee technology. Despite all the challenges or constraints, however, some outstanding achievements have been registered in generating scientific and/or technical information and developing improved technologies. These achievements and the existing research gaps had been well documented in the proceedings of two consecutive national workshops carried out in 199818 and 200716. Among the outstanding achievements, collection and conservation of over 5,500 germplasm accessions in field gene banks at Jimma and its sub-centers; development and release of 34 pure lines and six coffee hybrids (Annex 3); improvement of conventional agronomic (nursery and field management) practices including plant density, pruning and training, rejuvenation methods, etc.; soil fertility management and application of plant nutrients; control of coffee diseases, insect pests and weeds; and pre- and post-harvest processing methods.

The aforementioned research technologies have made considerable contribution to coffee production, productivity and quality improvement in Ethiopia even though a lot is still remaining to address a number of challenges facing the Ethiopian coffee industry. In 1999, a coffee research strategy dubbed “Strategies and Priorities for coffee Research” was developed in an attempt to address some of these problems19. This strategy was not, however, implemented as planned due mainly to [2] structural changes in the research system. The present coffee research strategy developed through the financial assistance of USAID and ATA has comprehensively assessed all those persistent and emerging constraints or challenges currently facing the industry. The aim is to identify and address real challenges and constraints of coffee production in Ethiopia and boost coffee production, productivity and quality with the ultimate goal of making considerable research contribution towards achieving the ambitious GTP II plan slated to rise production and productivity from 420,000 tone and 7.04 Qt/ha in 2014/15 to 1,102,620 tones and 11.1 Qts/ha in 2019/20, respectively9. In effect, the strategy was developed based on practical assessment of internal and external environments using data directly collected from discussions and interviews made with the identified key stakeholders, experimental and farmers‟ field visits and desk studies. The strategy developed comprises six main chapters; but the principal components of the strategy which includes the procedures followed in SWOC analysis, identification of strategic issues and the strategic interventions developed to address the strategic issues are illustrated, in detail, in Chapter 3, 4 and 5, respectively.

Rationale for Developing the Strategy Coffee is the gift of Ethiopia to the world. Nevertheless, those countries of the world such as Brazil, Colombia and many others which received few seeds with very narrow genetic base in the early 1700s from Ethiopia are today producing and benefiting from coffee much better than Ethiopia does. Despite the available high genetic diversity and wide ranges of agro-ecologies under which coffee grows in Ethiopia, productivity and quality is lower than many other countries. Apart from low productivity and quality, currently, the Ethiopian coffee industry is facing a number of other challenges or constraints (see chapter 3 and 4) that need considerable research support to combat them. In view of the immense opportunity the country owes to maximize production and productivity, the ambitious target that the government set in GTP II (2016 – 2020) to be the second exporter in the world after Brazil could be realistic if the government is committed to invest in coffee sector development and appropriate strategy is put in place and effectively implemented. In this regard, the necessity of a sound research strategy such as the present one is indispensable and justifiable for coffee development endeavors for the following salient reasons among others:

Maximize the Role of Coffee in the National Economy Coffee remains an important lucrative commodity in the economy of Ethiopia and other least developped countries, being the main source of livelihoods for millions of rural poor people in the continent of Africa, Latin America and Asia and an important contributor to the foreign currency earnings and the overall GDP of countries in these continents. Among the top three agricultural exports of Ethiopia, coffee stands first followed by oil seeds and pulses. In the past, the foreign exchange share of coffee was as high as 70% and even today after diversification of export commodities, coffee accounts, on average, 29% of the total national foreign exchange income10. In terms of Monitory value, in 2014/15 crop season alone, coffee generated about US$780 million from the exported volume of nearly 184,000 tones. Domestically, about 25 million people directly or indirectly depend on it. In addition, coffee has been proved to be one of the most strategic commodity in alleviating poverty and this has been well demonstrated by the incredible expansion of

[3] coffee prepared in traditional way using „clay pot‟ locally known as „JEBENA BUNA‟ where a poor person with a capital of as low as 500 Birr can commence the business. Undoubtedly, development of a sound coffee research strategy could greatly assist to boost production and maximize the present role of coffee in the national economy and livelihoods of the resource poor community.

Efficiently Utilize and Conserve the Existing Genetic Diversity Effective improvement programs depend on enhanced use of the available germplasm or genetic diversity. In the absence of genetic diversity, any improvement endeavor is very expensive, time consuming and less successful. Ethiopia is the center of origin and genetic diversity of arabica coffee, which provides immense opportunity for the improvement of the crop. The existing germplasm (gene pool) which is the sources of most economically important traits (yield, diseases and insect pest resistance or tolerance, quality, stress tolerance, low caffeine, etc.) lies untapped in the field gene banks, farmers‟ field (on-farm) and in the wild forest. It was not possible to effectively utilize these valuable resources due mainly to limited research capacity and lack of well thought conservation and utilization strategy. Consequently, productivity is constantly below 0.7 tone/ha which is far lower than other countries such as Vietnam where yield per hectare, on the average, is over 1.8 tones.

Support the Realization of Government’s Ambitious Coffee Development Target in GTP II to Address Low Production and Productivity Constraints As indicated earlier, the national average yields per hectare (= productivity) remains quite low, less than 0.7 metric tons per hectare. In order to address this low productivity constraint and boost production, the Government of Ethiopia in its 5 year Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP-II, 2015-2020), has set an ambitious targets to increase coffee productivity/ha from current average of 0.7 tons to 1.1 tones and total production from current 548 thousand to about 1 million tones by end of the plan period in 2019/2020 envisaging a 20% annual increase9. Obviously, achieving this planned target requires concerted efforts of all the relevant stakeholders affiliated with coffee business. In view of this, coffee research holds significant stake as key stakeholder vis-à-vis providing improved technologies and all the required technical backstopping. Under the present status, it is very unlikely for coffee research to accomplish this assignment. Obviously, it is vital to restructure the research system, build capacity and develop sound coffee research strategy that is demand driven and brings direct impact on coffee production and productivity.

Build Coffee Research Capacity In order to play the required role in handling the technical backstopping and technology generation and dissemination services as anticipated in section (iii) above and accomplish its national mandate in general, the coffee research capacity is very much limited in terms of human- physical- and financial resources. The existing coffee research structure and programs as described in detail in Chapter 3 and 4 are another weaknesses to make considerable contributions towards achieving the planned GTP II targets. In this regard, one of the primary inputs of the present coffee research strategy as illustrated in Chapter [4]

5, strategic interventions, is to undertake stringent internal environmental assessment and come up with improved national coffee research structure and programs that facilitates active and productive research undertakings.

Align Coffee Research and Development Agendas to Tackle Production Constraints As repeatedly raised under the aforementioned sections, the national average yield is below 0.7 tons per hectare. Among others, one of the major problems for low production and productivity in Ethiopia is lack of common development agenda between research and development agents and concerted efforts of all for its implementation. There are adequate research technologies for primary coffee management and processing practices, which if properly implemented can easily double or triple coffee production. However, well thought and clear development plan that can easily tackle the low production and productivity constraints through effective use of the available research technologies appears missing.

Similar to other coffee producing African countries, coffee trees are largely over-aged, poorly managed and exhausted to bear enough fruit. The smallholder farmers who are responsible for 95% of coffee production in Ethiopia lack adequate knowledge and capacity to apply the recommended agricultural practices. In order to tackle these key constraints and bring a considerable transformation in coffee development, in the present coffee research strategy, it is envisaged to embark on “Coordinated Coffee Rehabilitation Project” as illustrated in Chapter 5, Strategic interventions, where research and development partners should work together. This comprehensive joint project is considered to be developed and implemented by Coffee Research and ECTDMA and other development partners. Certainly, such fundamental project requires government support, capital investment and determination of all participating bodies; but could revolutionize the Ethiopian coffee industry by doubling or tripling its production and export volume.

Reap the Advantage of the Existing Supply and Demand Imbalance in the World Market According to the International Coffee organization (ICO) report quoted by Sabrina Toppa6, as more of the world population turns to coffee consumption particularly Latin America and the populous nations like India and China, demand for the beverage is estimated to increase by nearly 25% over the coming five years. Currently, consumer intake of coffee stands at 141.6 million bags of green beans; but by 2020, coffee demand is slated to rise to 175.8 million bags. On the other hand, global coffee production and supply is very unlikely to increase since the world‟s largest producer, Brazil, which accounts for about one third (≈ 33%)19 of the world supply is frequently facing recurrent drought, frost and other climatic problems. Other coffee growing Latin American countries are not also expected to produce much because of the devastating coffee leaf rust disease which remains to be a persistent problem in this part of the world. Asian Countries like Vietnam, India and Indonesia are not also expected to produce enough that can stabilize the market because of various internal factors such as land shortage, input supply and high production cost, etc. [5]

In order to fill the expected gap between production and consumption and stabilize the international coffee market, the world is eying at Africa to see another many Vietnam countries to emerge. Africa is the center of origin and diversity for all coffee species including the two commercial species commonly known as Arabica (C. arabica L.) and Robusta (C. canephora Pierre ex Froehner) coffees. The continent also owes a wide ranges of agro-ecologies and incredible landmass suitable for coffee production in all the 25 coffee growing countries of Africa. However, except Ethiopia, Uganda and Cote d‟Ivoire, all the rest countries are producing very small amounts and are not still ready to transform their coffee sub-sector. Currently, Ethiopia is the leading coffee producer in African and the world‟s fifth largest producer after Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, and Indonesia, accounting for about 4.79 percent of global coffee production17. Therefore, Ethiopia has the greatest opportunity, in many ways, than any other African countries to exploit the opportunity from this rising world coffee consumption. In effect, Government support in coffee sector development, appropriate coffee research and development strategies and commitment in implementing the strategy are indispensable.

Stabilize the high Internal Consumption and Export Demands of the Country Ethiopia is the largest coffee consumer in Sub- Saharan Africa and probably the second highest consumer after Brazil among coffee producing countries. According to the recent national coffee statistics and available data40, the domestic coffee consumption in Ethiopia is increasing at faster rate than ever. During the last five years alone (2010/11 – 2014/15), the local coffee consumption has increased, on average, by 11.5% hitting 56.5% of the total production (Table 4). This can be well witnessed from the populaity of JEBENA BUNA business which has flooded the country being available everywhere streching from the road side to five star hotels. On the other hand, the government is more interested to restrict local consumption and greatly increase export volume in order to maximize the foreign currency earnings from the sale of coffee. This stringent competition between internal and export demands has currently led to higher local price over international market price and illegal trades within and outside the country.

It is oclear that the the high domestic consumption could be considered as a backlash to boost export and foreign currency earnings of the country. But, it must also be considered as: a strong hedge for the producer in case of low price scenario on the world market in order to withstand price volatility; a mechanism to controll demand and supply for fair and better price; and a means of avoiding the risk of complete dependence on foreign buyers and consumers. These are the main reasons why promotion of domestic consumption is today one of the strategic approaches in coffee development programs in many coffee producing countries such as Brazil, Colombia and others. Therefore, the increasing trends of domestic coffee consumption in Ethiopia, since the recent past, must be considered as a great opportunity rather than a threat. On the other hand, research and ECTDMA through direct government support need to develop and implement viable research and development strategies to boost production in order to satisfy both local and export demands of the country. In this regard, the present new coffee commodity research strategy is timely and indispensible.

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Vision The vision of the coffee research commodity is to aspire the coffee research system become centre of excellence in Arabica coffee germplasm conservation and research in Africa and beyond that competently contributes towards bringing Ethiopia to the forefront in Arabica coffee production in the world.

Mission To generate and disseminate applicable and sustainable coffee technologies and knowledge through innovative research for improved productivity, processing or quality, value addition and marketing of coffee while conserving the coffee genetic resources and the environment as a whole.

Goal The ultimate goal of the coffee commodity research is to provide all the relevant technologies that are essential to revamp the Ethiopian coffee industry and thereby maximize the country‟s foreign exchange earnings from coffee and improve the livelihoods of the resource poor smallholder coffee farmers and that of all other actors in the value chain.

Objectives

General Objective The overarching objective of coffee research is to build research capacity and undertake competent studies on problems related to coffee development, processing and marketing under different agro-ecologies throughout the country and generate appropriate technologies that would increase production, productivity (yield) and quality of the crop.

Specific Objectives

 Develop and release high yielding varieties with good quality, resistance or tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses including climate change and adaptable to diverse environments; and collect and maintain the existing arabica coffee germplasm in Ethiopia;  Develop and promote improved agronomic (nursery and field management) and processing (pre- and post-harvest) technologies or practices that would increase production, productivity and quality of coffee produce and thereby contribute to increased income of the growers;  Develop appropriate methods of controlling diseases, insect pests and weeds with special emphasis to developing integrated management practices of the pests which is cost effective and efficient;  Develop and promote cost effective and appropriate practices for integrated soil fertility management, soil moisture conservation and erosion control; and provide high quality soil and leaf analytical services to the coffee growers;  Play key role in socio-economic studies, technology transfer and building technical capacity of farmers and other relevant stakeholders to enhance their uptake and utilization of new technologies, knowledge and information generated by coffee research and

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 Nationally coordinate coffee research activities being carried out across the country by EIAR, national universities and Regional Agricultural Research Institutions and other research partners (if any).

Guiding Principles/Values  Integrity and professionalism  Scientific research methods  Team approach and partnership (private and public)  Loyalty and respect to diverse client needs  Responsibility and accountability  Environmental consciousness  Inclusiveness and gender sensitiveness

Importance of the Coffee Commodity

Agriculture Agriculture in Ethiopia is the foundation of the country's economy. According to CSA20, agriculture accountints for half of gross domestic product (GDP), 83.9% of exports, and 80% of total employment. Many other economic activities depend on agriculture, including marketing, processing, and export of agricultural products. Production is overwhelmingly of a subsistence nature, and a large part of commodity exports are provided by the small agricultural cash-crop sector, the major ones being coffee, oil seeds and pulses. Coffee is the most important among the agricultural cash crops which plays a pivital economic role by accounting, on average, 29% of the total government's export revenue10.

Agro-ecology Ethiopia's coffee is exclusively of the arabica type (Coffea arabica L.) which belongs to the genus Coffea and family Rubiaceae. It originated from the humid, high rainfall forests of south western Ethiopia. In Ethiopia, coffee grows in almost all areas as forest, semi- forest, garden and plantation coffees ranging from semi-savannah climate of the Gambella plain (500 m.a.s.l.) to the continuously wet mountain forest zones of the southwest and the moderately wet zones of eastern and northern parts of the country with altitude that goes as high as 2600 m.a.s.l.21 .

Under its natural habitat in the south and south west tropical rainforests of Ethiopia, arabica coffee grows as an understory species between altitudes of 1000 and 2400 m.a.s.l. This part of the country has sub-humid to humid and per-humid moisture regimes and warm to cold thermal regimes. However, coffee can adapt to agro-ecologies of sub-moist to moist moisture regimes provided that the rain is well distributed with optimum temperature regimes (mean between 15oC and 24oC). It may also be grown in hot areas (260 – 300) with enough moisture but may not be potentially productive and yield economic out turn. The minimum precipitation required is 1000 mm while the maximum could be as high as 2400mm; but an even distribution over the growing period is by far the most important. In areas where precipitation is below 1000mm and rainfall pattern is

[8] irregular or erratic, arabica coffee requires supplementary irrigation for normal development and good production. Considering edaphic factors, coffee grows on soils that may vary from sandy loam to heavy clay while the dominant coffee soil types are red to reddish-brown, lateritic loams or clay loams of volcanic origin with pH ranging from 4.2 – 6.8.

Out of the eighteen major agro-ecological zones (AEZs) of the country, seven of them are believed to be suitable for coffee production (Table 1). These zones have coffee types of their own flavor quality and specific characteristics that can be promoted as single-origin specialty coffees. The sub humid zones (within the range of mid to high altitude, 1500- 2000 m.a.s.l.) are highly suitable and the bulk of Ethiopian coffee comes from these areas22. The main coffee growing regions are Oromiya Regional State and Southern Nations and Nationalities Peoples Region (SNNPR) with 63% and 35% share of the total production, respectively. Gambela and Benshangul Gumuz Regions are contributing the remaining 2% of the total annual production. The major coffee growing areas of Ethiopia are depicted in Fig 1. Today, the non-traditional coffee producing areas such as Amhara, Tigray, and Gurage regions have also started producing substantial amounts and seems to be new potential areas for expansions of coffee farms and boosting volume of production.

The availability of such diverse agro-ecological zones under which coffee grows in Ethiopia is an opportunity for the country in that the flavor quality of coffee in each zone is different from one another and this is extremely helpful to promote the production of varieties of specialty coffees for niche market and premium price. On the other hand, agro-ecological diversity could be a challenge for research since technologies generated for one agro-ecology may not fit well to the other. In order to accommodate such challenges, the national coffee research system had been established comprising main center at Jimma and sub-centers and testing sites located in the seven agro-ecological zones (Table 2). In table 2, the major constraints and those that are unique or specific (underlined) to the corresponding AEZ or research center are crudely described.

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Table 1. Description of the major agro-ecological zones (AEZs) suitable for coffee production in Ethiopia Total area coverage

ha. % of the Representative Major soil types suitable Major AEZ country sites/locations/areas for coffee (pH 4.2-6.8)

H2-Humid tepid to cool 2,796,000 2.48 Bedele, Gore, Gera, Hagere Dystric Nitosols, Orthic high lands selam, Aleta Wondo, Limu, Acrisols, cambic Arenosols Jima, Agaro, Mizan & Eutric cambisols H1- Humid hot to warm 1,016,000 0.90 Tepi, Jinka Same as above (Nitosols, low lands Acrisols & Cambisols) SH2-Sub humid tepid to 8,612,000 7.60 Jima, Agaro, gimbi, Areka, Same as above (for H2) cool mid high lands Gelemso, Deder, Mechara, Anfilo, Awassa SH1-Sub humid hot to 8,396,000 7.45 Metu, Anfilo, Dembi dolo, Dystric Nitosols, Ortic warm low lands Kembata & Timbaro areas, Acrisols & Cambic Sawla, Waka Andosols M2-Moist tepid to cool 12,620,000 11.20 Bensa, Awada, Yabelo Nitosls, Acrisols & mid high lands Regosols SM2-Sub moist tepid to 8,588,000 7.48 Mechara, Gursum, North Cambic Arenosls & cool mid high lands Wollo areas Calcaric Regosols PH1-Per humid hot to 488,000 0.43 Mizan, Bench Maji zone Dystric Nitosols & Ortic warm low lands (Partly Maji) Acrisols Source23: JARC Coffee Research Strategy (1999)

Table 2. Potentials and constraints of the major agro-ecological zones (AEZ) with respect to coffee production and quality

AEZ Research Potentials Constraints centre H2 Gera, Wenago Highly suitable for CBD, Ascochyta, cyperus weeds, variety, pruning, production, high quality, physiological disorder, shade, population density speciality coffee H1 Tepi Suitable for production, Low quality, CLR, Digitatria spp., erratic rainfall, fair average quality antestia bug, berry borer, trachemoycosis, fast aging/growth, pruning SH2 Jima, Harru, Highly suitable for coffee Variety, quality, CBD, CLR, leaf minor, pruning Agaro production, High quality, population, shade specialty coffee SH1 Mugi, Metu Highly suitable for coffee Variety, quality, moderate CBD, CLR, leaf minor, production, fair average pruning, population, Antestia quality M2 Awada Suitable for coffee CLR, Moisture stress, pruning, population, variety production, high quality SM2 Mechara Moderately suitable for Variety, low moisture, CLR, pruning, population, coffee production, shade management speciality coffee Source23: JARC coffee research strategy (1999); The underlined indicates major constraints corresponding to each AEZ or research center

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Fig 1: Areal map of the major Coffee growing areas of Ethiopia

Genetic Diversity Ethiopia holds a unique position in the world with regard to arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.) for two main reasons among others. Ethiopia is the sole primary center of origin and genetic diversity of arabica coffee and coffee is the gift of Ethiopia to the world. These facts had been well substantiated by a number of early international travelers, missionaries, expatriates and scientists31,30,29 and more recently, by several studies conducted using DNA-based genetic markers28,33,32. The existence of such high genetic diversity of a self-pollinated arabica coffee is believed to be attributed to the availability of extremely diverse agro-ecological variations under which coffee grows in Ethiopia, evolutionary tendencies or changes of the species or natural mutations occurring to the population of the crop26,27. According to World Coffee Research (WCR) 2014 Annual Report, over 90% of the world‟s Arabica coffee genetic diversity thrives in Ethiopia and what has been collected and ex situ conserved in different research centers and institutions around the world only represent less than 10% of the total genetic diversity available indicating the significance of Ethiopian coffee genetic resources to the future of the world coffee industry.

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Ethiopia has benefitted from the existence of such high genetic diversity, but a tiny fraction of it, in developing a number of improved pure-line and hybrid varieties and producing and marketing of single-origin specialty coffees (Fig.2, Annex 3). The existence of this genetic diversity has also made incredible contribution to the development of the world‟s coffee industry. However, despite its significance, these valuable genetic resources are currently under grave threat from genetic erosion caused by various agents. The major agents of coffee genetic erosion in Ethiopia include deforestation of forest coffee habitat, high demand of land for food crops owing to population pressure, settlement program, and replacement of the landraces with few narrow genetic base improved varieties among others24.

Compared to its accelerating pace, the efforts made in Ethiopia and by the international community to counterbalance the effects of coffee genetic erosion and conserve the existing arabica coffee germplasm is very little. In fact, cognizant of the seriousness of the problem, the GoE has made considerable efforts through Coffee Research Center (JARC) and Ethiopian Institute of Biodiversity (EIB) in conserving the germplasm both ex situ (≈ 10,000 accessions) and in situ (3 sites with high genetic diversity were identified and protected by law). Compared to the extent of genetic diversity available, however, the effort made to conserve and efficiently utilize them is still very little. On the other hand, with the exception of European Union (EU) which is supporting coffee improvement program in Ethiopia in various ways, the rest of the international organizations or institutions concerned with this issue appear reluctant to actively participate in the conservation program and support the efforts being made by Ethiopia due mainly to conflicts of interest in property right and equitable benefit sharing issues. In the present coffee research strategy, the gap in coffee germplasm conservation and efficient utilization in coffee improvement program has been well recognized. Therefore, this issue has been considered as one of the major strategic issues and appropriate intervention measures leading to address this issue and establishing center of excellence for conservation and research has been provided (See chapter 5).

Fig 2- Some most important origin-based coffee types and their geographic locations in Ethiopia

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Production and productivity Ethiopia ranks first in Africa and fifth in the world after Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia and Indonesia in coffee production (Table 3) and is the tenth coffee exporter with 4.79 percent share of the world total12,25. According to CSA12, the total productive coffee area in Ethiopia is estimated at 561,761.82 hectares with annual average production of 419,980 tons and productivity of 748 kg/ha12 even though the total area covered with coffee is believed to be higher than what has been quoted. According to ICO statistics, the production of Ethiopian coffee has been constantly increasing since 2000/01 harvest season. The annual production has hit the highest level of 8.10 million bags (= 486 thousand tons) in 2012/13 against 3.11 million bags (= 186.6 thousand tons) in 2000/01 crop season (Table1). The productivity has also reportedly reached 748 kg/ha in 2014 crop season as indicated earlier against 300 – 500 kg/ha before a decade or so. It is believed that the surge in production is largely attributed to the increase in cultivated area from 400,000 ha in the early 2000s to roughly 560,000 ha currently25,12.

Table 3. The top five African and world coffee producers during 2014/15 season (million bags)

Country 2000/01 2001/02 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 Africa 16.9 14.9 18.5 16.2 16.96 Ethiopia 3.11 4.04 8.10 6.53 6.63 Uganda 3.40 3.16 3.00 3.60 3.80 Cote d’Ivoire 4.85 3.60 2.00 2.11 2.18 Tanzania 0.80 0.62 0.92 0.81 1.03 Kenya 1.00 0.99 0.87 0.84 0.85 World 112.7 107.4 144.6 146.8 141.73 Brazil 31.1 31.36 50.83 49.15 45.34 Vietnam 14.84 13.09 22.00 27.50 27.50 Colombia 10.40 11.96 8.00 12.12 12.5 Indonesia 6.99 6.88 11.25 11.67 9.35 Ethiopia 3.11 4.04 8.10 6.53 6.63 Source: Extracted from ICO statistical data (www.ico.org)

The steady increase noted in coffee production and productivity in Ethiopia is remarkable; but compared to the other top producing countries such as Brazil,Vietnam, Colombia and indonesia, it is still far lower. Apparently, Ethiopia need to triple or quadriple the current production volume to bit Vietnam and become the second world producer after Brail as projected in GTP II (2015 – 2020). Achieving this target, not in the next five years, but in the next 15 years, however, requires strategic and critical thinking to primarly identify the opportunities available and key constraits detering efficient use of the opportunites. Ethiopia has unique potentials and opportunities to increase coffee production and productivity. It is endowed with high genetic diversity, diverse and suitable agro- ecologies (suitable elevation, temperature and soil type and sufficient rainfall) and suitable land mass in coffee growing belts of the country. On the other hand, there are enumerable constraints that hinder efficient exploitation of the existing potentials or opportunities to increase production and productivity and achieve the desired targets. Among others, some of the key constraints are the following:

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 It is known that 95% of Ethiopia‟s coffee is produced by smallholder farmers on less than two hectares of land while the remaining 5% is grown on modern commercial farms. These smallholder farmers have limited knowledge about proper coffee production and processing. They are also resource poor, have no access to credit and hence cannot afford to apply the recommended package recommendations.  In Ethiopia, there are four systems of coffee production viz. forest coffee, semi - forest coffee, garden coffee, and plantation coffee. Forest coffee is a wild coffee grown under the shade of natural forest trees with no management input and defined owner. Semi- forest coffee farming is a system where a farmer does little management practices such as thinning, pruning and once slashing just before harvest. The forest and semi-forest coffees which respectively account for 10% and 35% hardly yield 250 – 300 kg/ha;  Majority of the coffee tress/farms produced under the first three production systems (forest, semi-forest and garden coffees) which altogether account for 95% of the total production are age-old and lack proper management and hence produce less than their productive potential;  There are research technologies (agronomic practices) at hand that are at least necessary for routine nursery and field management and primary processing practices. Improved varieties are also available if not for all agro-ecologies. However, these technologies are not effectively transferred to the grassroots smallholder coffee growers due mainly to limited linkage between research and development agents such as ECTDMA and poor extension services. Access to basic elements such as farm tools, inputs (improved seeds or seedlings, fertilizer, chemicals such as herbicides and fungicides, etc.), and similar others are not well facilitated for these farmers;  Unlike in the past, today, land degradation (poor soil fertility and soil erosion) and climate change with consequent drought, high temperature, and erratic rainfall, etc. are real constraints in many of the previously major coffee growing areas such as Eastern and South- Eastern parts of the country and  Above all, the capacity of research as well as that of the development organizations in terms of human-, physical- and financial-resources is limited to design well thought development programs and effectively implement it.

In the present research strategy development, the above and many more constraints have been identified through critical assessment of external and internal environments and strategic intervention measures have been proposed as indicated in Chapter 5. Above all, the strategic intervention gives due emphases for research and development partners to largely focus on joint efforts such as the one proposed, Coordinated Coffee Rehabilitation Project, in order to bring an immediate impact on coffee production and productivity and thereby increase the livelihoods of the growers and national revenue from coffee.

Food and Nutrition Coffee is a centuries-old beverage plant prepared from its roasted beans and has been enjoyed for over 500 years, dating back to the 15th century35. Worldwide, coffee is the second most consumed beverage to water in many nations, and it‟s the leading contributor of caffeine to the average person‟s diet. Studies have confirmed that coffee beans are a high-antioxidant food and the leading contributors of disease-fighting antioxidants in coffee consuming societies.

Coffee is commonly consumed at breakfast and during the daytime between meals as an energy vector or after a meal as digestive. The nutritive value of coffee is attributed to its [14] vitamin (Niacin, Riboflavin, vitamin B6,.) and minerals (P, K, Na, Ca, Fe, Manganese, Pantothenic acid,) contents34,35. The main biochemically active component of coffee is caffeine. Modern pharmacological studies have confirmed the ancient belief that caffeine has a stimulant action, which is the basis for the popularity of all the caffeine-containing beverages34. It makes you feel more alert, productive and motivated and avoids fatigue. Not only as beverage but coffee is also commonly used in food items such as biscuits, cakes, chocolates, soft drinks, etc. as additives and flavoring. Economy Coffee is one of the world‟s lucurative and most widely traded tropical products, produced and exported by over 50 developing countries around the world. It makes an important contribution to socio-economic development and poverty alleviation mainly in the rural community. Coffee is of exceptional importance to exporting countries where some of them depend on coffee for over half their export earnings. Coffee is exported in its raw, roasted, or soluble product forms to more than 165 countries. About 17 of the the coffee producing countries get 25 percent of their foreign exchange earnings from coffee. Out of the 50 developing countries that produce and export coffee, 25 of them are from Africa and coffee is one of the major sources of export earnings for many of them40. Coffee is an important source of cash earner for over 25 million smallholder farmers and their families who account for 80% of the world production. World export revenue from coffee during 2014/15 crop year was about US$19.1 while the retail value was estimated at about US$183.8 billion. These facts clearly indicate that working towards securing a healthy coffee economy is important economically, socially and politically to improve incomes of all actors in the entire value chain, particularly coffee farmers in cofee producing countries of the world42.

In Ethiopia, coffee plays a pivotal role in the socio-economic, cultural and spiritual life of the society since Ethiopia is the center of origin and the plant and the people have been together for time immemorial. Coffee accounts for 2-3% of the gross domestic products (GDP), 29% of total national export (average of the last 10 years) and about 37% of the total agricultural export revenue (Table 7). Furthermore, a total of 4.7 million smallholders directly involved in coffee production, and about 25 million people directly or indirectly depend on the sub-sector for their livelihoods12. Cognizant of the significance of coffee to the nation, the GOE in its GTP I (2010/11 – 2014/15) targeted to double the production and export projecting to arrive at 831,000 and 600, 000 tones, respectively; but only about 54% of the production and 30% of the export targets were achieved (Annex 4). From the lessons learnt in GTP I, the government is determined to greatly improve the performance of GTP II (2015/16 – 2019/20) implementation which is well underway at present through Ethiopian Coffee and Tea Development and Marketing Authority (ECTDMA).

Domestic Consumption Ethiopia is the largest coffee consumer in Sub- Saharan Africa and probably the second highest consumer after Brazil among coffee producing countries. Coffee consumption in Ethiopia is cultural and apart from its social, spiritual and cultural values, coffee ceremony is the platform for conflict resolution among individuals, groups or tribes. It is

[15] consumed at least three times daily (at breakfast, after lunch and in the afternoon) and even more frequently during social events such as family gatherings, spiritual celebrations and at times of mourning. According to some reports41,36,47, the per capita consumption of Ethiopia is estimated at 2.6 – 3.0 kg/year and this ranks Ethiopia in the middle among the top 50 coffee consuming countries. The national coffee statistics and available data40 indicate an increasing trend of domestic coffee consumption in Ethiopia which is growing at faster rate than ever. During the last five years alone, the local coffee consumption has increased, on average, by 11.5% hitting 56.5% of the total production (Table 4). The increasing domestic consumption could be attributed to various factors including increasing population, economic growth, change in living style in rural and urban areas, and more dependence of the resource poor society (lower social class) to generate income for living among others. This could be evidenced from the incredibly increasing popularity of the traditional coffee ceremony, JEBENA BUNA, due mainly to its low capital investment, as low as ETB 500 business start-up; ease of access to the consumers as it is everywhere extending from road sides to five star hotels; lower price despite its better quality; and higher social preference over the machine brewed cup of coffee.

Table 4: Total coffee production, export and domestic consumption during the last five years (2011-2015).

Exported coffee Domestic consumption Year Production Volume (ton) % Share Volume (ton) % Share 2010/11 363,232 196,119.22 54.0 167,112.78 46.0 2011/12 498,767 169,392.13 34.0 329,374.87 66.0 2012/13 486,685 199,103.58 40.9 287,581.42 59.1 2013/14 400,852 190,875.93 47.6 209,976.07 52.4 2014/15 449,646 183,840.36 40.9 265,805.64 59.1 Average 439,836.40 187,866.24 43.5 251,970.16 56.5

In the eyes of many people, the high domestic consumption is sometimes considered as a backlash to boost export and foreign currency earnings. But, it must also be considered as: a form of a hedge for the producer in case of low price scenario on the world market; a mechanizm to controll demand and supply for fair and better price; and a means to avoid the risk of complete dependence on foreign buyers and consumers. It is clear that high domestic consumption could be counterproductive to Government plan to increase export volume and achieve the anticipated increase in export earnings if proper development plan is not in place to accordingly increase production and productivity that could compensate the domestic consumption demand without affecting the desired export volume. In this regard, Government‟s GTP II and the production and productivity targets projected in the plan is a perfect and strategic approach to attain the anticipated foreign revenue and at the same time satisfy the local demand.

In view of the present situation of world coffee business and politics, promotion of domestic consumption, primarily by the producing countries, is considered as one [16] of the best strategic approaches to guarantee sustainable coffee industry, stabilize world coffee demand and supply and become resilient to price volatility. In this regard, Ethiopia is a very lucky country to register such high percentage of local consumption without any capital investment for the promotion of local consumption. The high local consumption in Ethiopia has already demonstrated its real effect in that the local price of coffee is quite often higher than export price. Obviously, this success story is a good lesson for other coffee producing countries of the world, specifically African countries, which consume less than 2% of their total coffee production and almost entirely depend on foreign importers to sell their product which otherwise could have forced them to either damp it or abandon coffee production. This is why promotion of domestic consumption is vital. It is in cognizant of this that Brazil had spent billions of dollar for the promotion of domestic consumption, which today has become the second largest coffee consumer in the world after the United States. Since the recent past, Brazil annually consumes over 18 million bags and this is greater than the annual production of all African coffee producing countries together. As a number of reports witness, the soaring internal demand or consumption which raised domestic price over international market price has incredibly strengthened Brazil‟s coffee market clout and helped the country‟s coffee growers to sell their coffee to either local industries or abroad44. In general, the fastest increase of domestic coffee consumption in Ethiopia, since the recent past, must be considered as a great opportunity rather than a threat. In this regard, research and ECTDMA through direct government support should develop and implement viable research and development strategies to boost production in order to satisfy both local and export demands and exploit the advantage of increasing consumption.

Supply of Raw Material for Local Agro-Industries Ethiopia exports coffee almost all in raw form, unprocessed green coffee beans. Processed coffee – roasted, grinded and packed coffee – export if available is very little. Due to Government restrictions for the benefit of boosting export volume for foreign currency, the limited coffee roasters and processors available in the country are expected to use the rejected lower quality beans (broken, damaged by insect or during processing, shrunken or poorly developed beans, etc.) which are only allowed to remain in the country for processing and domestic consumption. This types of inferior green beans, even if processed, can only be used for local distribution since it cannot qualify the standard quality for export. Currently, because of the Government‟s policy support of investment on coffee value-addition or processing, certain private entrepreneurs processing coffee (roasting, grinding and packaging) are emerging in the country. It, however, appears that the processed coffee business is largely targeting the present booming international hotels and coffee shops in the country since access to high quality green beans for export processing is limited. In order to promote value-added products and consequently maximize the foreign exchange earnings from coffee, the government should continue putting in place favorable policy environment that

[17] further encourage more private entrepreneurs to involve in coffee processing for both internal and external markets and make the country more competitive in the global market.

Export Market and Foreign Currency Earnings As indicated in the previous sections, coffee is a prime foreign exchange source of Ethiopia. Based on the methods of processing, Ethiopian coffee is exported in two forms, as washed and sun dried or natural coffees. Coffee is commonly processed using wet processing and sun-drying methods to finally produce green beans. The sundried coffee, on the average (2005/06 – 2014/15), accounts for 70.2% of the total export while washed or wet processed coffee contributes the remaining 29.8% to the central markets in Addis and Dire-dawa (Table 5). In terms of monitory value, however, the share of washed coffee was equivalent to 41% while that of sundried coffee stood at 59% indicating the net increase in the price of washed green coffee beans by 11.2% over sundried coffee. Therefore, promotion of washed coffee export should be considered as an alternative strategy for value addition and maximizing foreign exchange earnings from coffee sale.

Table 5: Trends of coffee (sundried and washed) arrival to the central market, 2006-2015. Sundried coffee Washed coffee Total arrival Volume Share Volume Share Year (ton) (ton) (%) (ton) (%) 2005/06 202,657 143,002 70.6 59,655 29.4 2006/07 236,712 166,000 70.1 70,712 29.9 2007/08 230,248 168,779 73.3 61,469 26.7 2008/09 144,188 98,240 68.1 45,948 31.9 2010/11 208,833 142,574 68.3 66,259 31.7 2011/12 221,062 154,112 69.7 66,950 30.3 2012/13 232,401 181,703 78.2 50,698 21.8 2013/14 239,778 160,651 67.0 79,127 33.0 2014/15 235,000 156,275 66.5 78,725 33.5 Average 70.2 29.8

The Ethiopian fine coffee is highly demanding and exported to different destinations around the world. The major importing and re-exporting countries among the traditional markets include Germany, Saudi Arabia, Japan, Belgium, USA, France, United Kingdom, Sudan, Italy, Canada, EU, Norway, Switzerland and others. The demand for Ethiopian coffee is also high among the emerging markets which has the biggest potential in the future. These emerging markets include countries like Algeria, Australia, Russia, South Korea, Turkey, Ukraine, China and others12. During 2015/16 fiscal year, nine of these leading countries among the traditional markets imported Ethiopian coffee worth of $241.74 million, which accounted for 79.22% of the total export of that season37 (Table 6). In general, the present as well as the future market opportunities appears very promising but a lot of promotion work is needed to properly introduce the Ethiopian fine coffees in order to earn a better price which is equitable or even better than those countries fetching the highest price.

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Country Value % share (million USD) Germany 57.66 18.89 Saudi Arabia 52.18 17.10 United States 34.28 11.23 Japan 26.16 8.57 Belgium 21.54 7.06 France 14.56 4.77 Italy 12.78 4.19 Republic of South 11.43 3.75 Korea United Kingdom 11.15 3.66 Total 241.74 79.22

In terms of hard currency generation, the coffee commodity as reiterated many times in this text stands first compared to all export commodities including mining, agriculture and industrial products (Table 7). Over the last ten years (2005/06 – 2014/15), the total revenue from coffee export was US$6.13927 billion with an annual average of US$613.927 million accounting, on average, for 28.92% from total export and 37.35% from agricultural export commodities. The data over the past decade also depicted that coffee export value has increased on the average from US$365.84 million in 2005/06 to US$784.0 million in 2014/15, an increment of 113% between the PASDEP and GTP-I periods (Table 7). These figures clearly indicate the incredible role of coffee in the national economy regardless of export diversification efforts being made to minimize the heavy dependence on coffee while still continuing to maximize the export revenue from coffee. However, in view of the existing high genetic diversity and availability of large land mass with diverse and suitable agro-ecologies under which coffee grows in Ethiopia, the existing potential from coffee is yet untapped. The highest ever export revenue Ethiopia recorded from coffee is US$841.7 million which was achieved in 2010/11 crop year. This is yet very low compared to other competitive countries such as Brazil and Vietnam. In 2014-2015, Vietnam, the second largest producer, exported 1.269 million tons of coffee which brought a revenue of $2.648 billion to the country and yet this was reportedly the lowest export volume and export value since 2010-201145. Similarly, [19]

Brazil, the world‟s biggest coffee producer and exporter, generated US$6.36 and US$5.15 billion in revenue from coffee export in 2012 and 2013, respectively46.

In GTP II, Ethiopia has set a plan to become the second largest world coffee producer after Brazil and generate over a billion dollar from coffee export. In order to achieve the desired goal and earn the maximum possible foreign currency from coffee export, it is of paramount importance to put in place the right coffee research and development strategies which takes in to account some key strategic issue which may include the following among others: (1) As indicated in sections 2.1.3,

Table 7: Export diversifications, export value and share of coffee over a past decade.

Export Value (million US$) Coffee share Coffee share Agricultural Coffee Industrial Mining Total from total from agric. commodities export products products exports export(%) Commodities Year (%) 2005/06 818.68 365.84 94.67 69.06 1008.57 36.27 44.69 2006/07 941.68 424.14 118.00 103.12 1185.08 35.79 45.04 2007/08 1224.50 525.20 140.40 100.60 1481.06 35.46 42.89 2008/09 1211.08 375.84 113.44 107.14 1449.83 25.92 31.03 2009/10 1598.16 528.16 83.39 291.15 1998.85 26.42 33.05 2010/11 2015.46 841.70 184.80 495.74 2747.12 30.64 41.76 2011/12 2286.68 832.91 221.87 627.49 3152.69 26.42 36.42 2012/13 2222.13 746.42 245.70 596.40 3081.21 24.22 33.59 2013/14 2393.25 718.79 365.62 475.78 3260.00 22.05 30.03 2014/15 2232.00 780.23 389.09 363.00 2995.98 26.04 34.96 Total 16943.62 6139.23 1956.98 3229.48 22360.39 289.23 373.46 Avg. 1694.36 613.92 195.70 322.95 2236.04 28.92 37.35 production and productivity are low compared to the competitive countries and effort should be made to improve them; Ethiopian coffees are still too moderately priced despite their finest qualities and special emphasis should be given to embark on the promotion of Ethiopian coffee in the world market in order to reverse the present attitude and obtain better price offer; Like many other coffee producing countries which have largely adopted value chain approach to maximize export volume and values, it is imperative to give due emphasis for processed coffee export by encouraging the private sector to engage in this business; and In line with the existing high coffee genetic and agro-ecological diversities, Ethiopia has a unique opportunity than any other country in the world in providing diversities of single-origin specialty coffees to niche markets around the world and fetch better price; hence, emphasis should be given to promote the production of specialty coffees through studies and identification of coffee terroirs including complete description of each.

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Environmental Sustainability Coffee is naturally a shade loving plant which grows in the forest as an under story bush plant. In Ethiopia, coffee is largely grown under shade trees planted by man or natural forest trees in a forest or semi-forest production system. The forest and semi-forest production system is responsible for about 45% of coffee production in Ethiopia. The garden and modern plantation coffees are also largely grown under shade as planting coffee under shade is a traditional heritage for Ethiopian coffee farmers. In terms of environmental protection and sustainability, shade system of coffee production practices provide multiple benefits, though coffee yields remain low as compared to open sun conditions. Growing coffee under shade trees and in forest or semi-forest system reduces use of artificial inputs (inorganic fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, etc), enhance nutrient recycling, conserve soil moisture, sequester carbon dioxide which is of prime importance to mitigate climate change challenges, host rich biodiversity, and is source of food, feed, firewood, non-timber products (honey, spices, herbs,) and other ecosystem services.

Coffee processing by-products can be used as sources of organic fertilizers to improve soil conditions and reduce environmental pollutions. The leguminous coffee shade tree species fixes nitrogen and their litter fall is helpful to build soil orgaic matter when decomposed. Because of its shade loveing habit, in areas where there is forest, semi-forest or patches of trees, there is always coffee under neath which means coffee production in Ethiopia is a means of conserving forest. In general, coffee production is environmental friendly and growing coffee under shade is greatly an additional benefit specially in the fight against climate change emanating from green house gas problem. It is, however, very sad that this shade-grown coffee production system in Ethiopia is gradually diminishing since the small-scale farmers are not fairly benefiting from their de facto organic and high quality coffee production system. These farmers are also more vulnerable to impacts from low coffee yields because of shade effects, inefficient marketing system, and effects of climate change. Consequenly, smallholder farmers are replacing their coffee farms with other cash crops such as Khat (khata edulis) and food crops such as maize, teff, beans, etc. to generate income and household food supply, suggesting the gradual loss of such valuable coffee production system and more vulnerability to climate change in the future if appropriate measures are not taken.

Studies by various investigators38,43 indicated that severe climate change could impose a lot of impacts on coffee production. Some of these impacts may include losses of genetic diversity of the indigenous arabica coffee gene pools from their original places, physiological disorders in mature coffee plants (drying and non-bearing) due mainly to flactuating weather patterns that trigger continuous flowering and heavy crop loads, development of new insect pests and diseases, declining soil ferility status, and many other associated problems. These climate change impacts on coffee production are highly considerable and may call for immediate action in developing appropriate climate-smart practices and various mitigation and risk management options for use by the smallholder farmers. Infact, the ability of human systems to adapt to and cope with climate change generally depends on such factors as wealth, technology, education, information, skills, infrastructure, access to resources, management capabilities, and socio-political will39. In [21] terms of all these limiting factors, strong collaborative actions rather than independent effort are required to conserve, develop and protect sustainable utilization of the genetic diversity and natural resource bases of the coffee production systems in the country for better resilience to climate change and sustainable production while maintaining the natural environment.

Assessment of External and Internal Environments

General Principle: For the assessment of External- and Internal-Environments, SWOC (strength, weakness, opportunities and challenges) analysis is recommended as an appropriate approach particularly for agricultural research strategic planning process. The planning team is also advised to explore the environment outside the organization (external environment) to primarily identify the opportunities and challenges and the environment inside the organization (internal environment) to primarily identify strengths and weaknesses. This does not mean that there is no internal opportunities and challenges and external strengths and weaknesses but it is to emphasize that we shall follow the aforementioned general principles/recommendations in this text to undertake external and internal assessment. The recommendation is also based on the fact that external strength and weakness are more or less synonymous to opportunities and challenges, respectively. Similarly, internal opportunities and challenges are also more or less respectively synonymous to strengths and weaknesses. For purpose of simplicity, the highlights of the SWOC analyses are given in section 3.1 and 3.2 below while details of the elements of strength, weakness, opportunities and challenges and the interplay between these factors on coffee research program are summarized in Table 8.

Approach: To carry out the SWOC analysis and finally identify critical challenges facing the National Coffee Research Program, a roadmap showing the stepwise approach to be followed in order to accomplish the task or assignment was primarily outlined. The steps followed as stipulated in the roadmap briefly include: collection of relevant documents and reference materials for desk studies, identification of key stakeholders, development of salient checklist or discussion points relevant to the respective stakeholders, holding of independent meetings with each stakeholder and undertaking discussions and interviews, experimental and farmers field visits and interviewing farmers and researchers, (collecting all the relevant qualitative and quantitative data from each stakeholder consulted, and data summarization, SWOC analysis and identification of salient external opportunities and challenges affecting coffee research and internal strengths and weaknesses of the research system. The number of key stakeholders identified for the assessment of internal and external environment were 14 but due to time constraints and other factors ten of them were consulted. The stakeholders considered for the assessment of internal environment, coffee research team and support staff, are not actual stakeholders but the consultant considered them as stakeholders for this assignment since they were the main sources of information for the analysis of all sorts of the organization‟s internal strengths and weaknesses.

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Stakeholders considered for the assessment of internal environment:  Jimma Agricultural Research Center (JARC) – Involves discussion with coffee research team and support staff, experimental field visit, and evaluation and assessment laboratory facilities;  Jimm Agricultural Research Center Coffee Research Sub-centers - Involves coffee research team and support staff, experimental field visit, and assessment of available facilities (Agaro, Gera, mettu and Tepi). Stakeholders considered for the assessment of external environment:  Model and ordinary coffee farmers – Agaro/Gomma II (3 farmers), Gera (1), Mettu (3), Tepi (2)  Large scale coffee producers (2):  Tepi Green Coffee Plantation Private Limited Company  Horizon P.L.C. Limu Coffee Plantation (Jimma Head Quarter and Gomma II coffee plantation)  Ethiopian Coffee and Tea Development and Marketing Authority (ECTDMA)  Oromia Coffee Union (Addis Ababa)  Ethiopian Coffee Exporters Association (ECEA)  Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (MOANR)  Jimma Zone Agricultural Office  Mana District Agricultural Office  Ethiopian Coffee Producers and Exporters Association (not consulted)  Oromia Regional Coffee and Tea Development and Marketing Authority (not consulted)  Southern Region Coffee and Tea Development and Marketing Authority (not consulted)  Ethiopian Commodity Exchange (ECX) (not Consulted) The collected data were summarized and SWOC analysis was thoroughly conducted enumerating salient opportunities, challenges, strengths and weaknesses found out as summarized in Table 8. Based on the SWOC analysis, key strategic coffee research issues were carefully identified and properly outlined or listed in a more precise and concise manner for ease of understanding as given in Table 9. Taking in to account its practicality to implement and applicability to use the outcomes, an output oriented short- medium- and long-term strategic interventions were developed for the coming 15 years (2016 – 2030) (Table 10) in order to address all the strategic research issues, strengthen National Coffee Research Program and maximize research contribution to increasing coffee production, productivity and quality in Ethiopia.

Assessment of External Environment In the analysis of external environment, an institution finds its greatest reason for existing; identifies its stakeholders, i.e. its clients, users, beneficiaries and competitors; and understands the existing opportunities and challenges that may face the organization due to these external forces. Commonly, the external environment includes general- and operational-external environments. In this text, these external environments have been thoroughly examined to have clear understanding and make best use of the opportunities available and also be vigilant of the negative influences of these external factors (challenges) while drafting the strategy.

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General external environment General external environment is the macro-environment that affects an institution, no matter what sort of research is done. This may encompass political, economic, socio- cultural, and technological dimensions occurring outside the institution. It is therefore of paramount importance to clearly understand and take in to account these external forces to take advantage of the opportunities available and beware of the challenges while developing strategic interventions.

Operational external environment Operational external environment is the environment in which and for which the institution develops its activities. It mainly concerns with present and potential stakeholders which includes the users, clients, partners and competitors available at national, regional and international levels. In general, operational external environment is largely about analysis of stakeholders which mainly includes identification of key stakeholders in the coffee value chain, the role they play in the coffee sub-sector and their demands that the coffee research needs to address.

Clients/Users The main clients/users of coffee research in particular include the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (MOANR), the Regional Bureaus of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Ethiopian Coffee and Tea Development and Marketing Authority (ECTDMA), Regional Coffee and Tea Development and Marketing Authorities, Small holder coffee farmers and Farmers Organizations (associations, cooperatives and Unions), Large-scale coffee plantation P.L.C.s, Ethiopian Coffee producers and exporters Association, primary Market Suppliers, Ethiopian Commodity Exchange (ECX), Ethiopian Coffee Exporters Association, and all others involved along the value chain.

Partners National Unlike other crops research, none of the 15 EIAR national research centers were collaborating with National coffee research program in the past. Coffee research was operating across the country through its own main center at Jimma, five sub-centers and four testing sites located in different regions and agro-ecologies. Since the recent past, however, certain federal and regional research centers such as Oromia Research Institute, Assosa, Pawe, Adet and Mehoni research centers are working in close collaboration with national coffee research system due mainly to the expansion of coffee research program to non-traditional coffee growing areas.

Even though Universities are primarily learning institutions, they are also engaged in research and technology generation through direct involvement or postgraduate students. Currently there are a number of national agricultural universities including Jimma, Walkite, Haromaya, Mada walabu, Hawassa and others that have expressed their willingness to work on coffee research in collaboration with national coffee research coordination.

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There are also other partners including the Ethiopian biodiversity Institute (EBI), Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST), Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED) and others which are collaborating with coffee research in one way or another.

International Development partners engaged in coffee sector development that directly or indirectly collaborate with coffee research include USAID, JICA, Techno-Serve coffee initiative, Hans Neumann Foundation, coffee certifying agencies (4C, Coffee Forest Alliance, etc.), and many others. In addition, the European Union is the most important single donor partners which is financing coffee research since 1970 through its four consecutive “coffee Improvement project – CIP”.

Unlike other crops such as cereals, there is only one international coffee research institute, World Coffee Research (WCR), which is founded in 2010. EIAR or Coffee Research has not yet established partnership with this organization due to various reasons. Ethiopia is a member of African Coffee Research Network (ACRN) but this regional network only plays a coordination role and at the same time very much limited in its capacity to undertake any regional coffee research program.

Assessment of Internal Environment In the strategic planning process, analysis of the environment inside the organization, National Coffee Commodity Research in particular and EIAR in general, is one of the most important steps to follow. Above all, it is important to precisely single out and articulate key weaknesses and strengths of the coffee research system and its research program in relation to its objectives or mandates and come up with viable strategies that can greatly improve the performance of the system in order to provide better services to the best satisfaction of its stakeholders. Indeed, discussions were held with coffee research team at the main and sub-center and thoroughly discussed on the performance of the commodity research vis-a-vis capacity-, technical or technological-, and administrative-issues. In addition, all the field and laboratory research activities were evaluated on-site to figure out real strengths and weaknesses of coffee research and this has been illustrated in detail in Table 8. The highlights of this internal environmental assessment is also given below in section 3.2.1 – 3.2.4.

Capacity Capacity in this context refers to human, physical and financial capacity of Coffee Research to design and implement coordinated coffee research program at national level. The synthesis of the discussions and observations made with the coffee research team at various levels and concerned bodies in this regard are indicated below.

Human Power:Coffee research is one of the centers experiencing ups and downs over years largely enduring limitations in human power capacity, vis-a-vis quality and quantity. The problem was largely attributed to high staff turn-over owing to lack of incentive mechanisms to maintain both senior and junior staff who are working on such perennial crop with persistence and great patience. Currently, the research is suffering from lack of adequate number of qualified and junior staff at both main coffee research [25] center and sub-centers levels across all research disciplines or divisions. The available staff are predominantly junior requiring training in various aspects. The research is also facing critical problems for most of the disciplines from lack of independent researchers that are solely assigned and dedicated their time to coffee research per se. Most of the researchers are working on multiple crops (coffee and other crops), their primary mandate being coffee. These researchers are usually tempted to tilt towards other crops because of the comparative advantage of annual crops in terms of training opportunities and production of scientific papers which are critical for salary increment, promotion and building personal profile or CV under EIAR management system.

Physical: Despite all the efforts made since its inception, coffee research has never been adequately equipped in terms of physical facilities (buildings - laboratories, greenhouses, stores, offices; Equipment – laboratory equipment and consumables; vehicles and farm machineries and farm tools; and services – telephone/internet, libraries). Some elderly people who have been in coffee research for long years comment that the earlier period was better than the present in this regard. Currently, there is unprecedented shortage of vehicles for field trips and tractors mainly for transporting harvested coffee cherries from the farm at both main coffee research center and sub- centers impeding effective implementation of field trials and data collection. The electric and water supply system of the age-old laboratories and greenhouses (e.g. pathology) are outdated and operates erratically. There is serious shortage of offices and lack of internet and library services particularly at coffee research sub-centers causing unconducive working and dwelling environments for the technical staff. The biotechnology laboratory could not function effectively over the last many years due to shortfalls in basic facilities including green house facilities required for acclimatization, standard benches, equipment (centrifuge, deionizer, autoclave, temperature regulator, etc.), store room, water tanker, waste management facilities and standby generator among others. There is critical shortage of farm tools largely emanated from inefficient procurement system in terms of buying best quality materials. Furthermore, nursery site development at all centers is below standard and lacks modernization in terms of having concrete ditches, reservoir (concrete water tanker) and nursery beds and tildenet or polynet with metal support for durable and proper nursery shade to mention the least.

Financial: Financial resource is the most critical factor governing the effectiveness of research program implementation and infrastructure development. The underperformance of most of the coffee research activities and poor infrastructure development at coffee research center and sub-centers are largely attributed to inadequate annual budget allocation. The annual budget for coffee research is reportedly within the range of six to seven million Ethiopian Birr or US$273,000 – 318,000. This is far below expected compared to other countries such as Colombia where the annual budget for coffee alone is quoted at ten million USD.

Intra-and Inter-disciplinary Integrations, Complementarities and Synergies Intra-and inter-disciplinary integration, complementarities and synergies are gorgeous values and principles of ethical research and decisive for a successful multidisciplinary [26] approach which is imperative to address multi-faceted problems and deliver package recommendations of research technologies. Coffee Research was an exemplary among EIAR centers in this regard. However, since the last one decade or so, these important values were eroded due to the introduction of new research structure. The discussions made with coffee research team and information gathered thereof have well indicated that the new structure had disintegrated the various coffee research divisions/disciplines and segregated their accountability or chain of command to different Directorates, processes and case teams that include coffee and other commodities. It was only coffee breeding and genetics division that belongs to coffee research even though coffee agronomy and physiology division which was previously under “soils process” has recently restructured as another coffee rsearch core division. In general, the structural adjustment had far- reaching repercussions on national coffee research program with regard to research proposal development and review, coordination and budget utilization. These critical issues were, therefore, assessed and recommendations were made in the present coffee research strategy to establish core coffee research team which includes all the relevant disciplines and showcase the integration, complementarities and synergetic effects of these disciplines (See Chapter 5).

Technologies Since its establishment in late 1967, coffee research has registered commendable achievements in coffee research by generating technologies that are beneficial to improved coffee production, processing and marketing. The first ever technologies generated in the early 1970s were stumping techniques for the rejuvenation of old coffee trees and proper forest coffee management practices followed by spacing, hole size, nursery management and intercropping ratio of coffee with compatible crops such as ensete (Ensete ventricosum). Following its development in human-, physical- and financial-resources, coffee research has managed to carry out fundamental research programs across the whole coffee value chain throughout the country using its seven technical disciplines, one main center, five sub-centers and four testing sites. Today, the center has developed and released 37 varieties along with improved management practices that covers the whole practices from nursery up to export market as well as cupping. Recently, the National Variety Release Committee has approved the release of three additional hybrid varieties and preparation is under way to multiply and distribute them to the growers. List of the released varieties and their areas of adaptation is given in Annex 3.

On the other hand, the demand for new and improved technologies has continued increasing due to the inadequacy of the technologies availed to address all the persistent and emerging constraints. High yielding and resistant varieties adaptable to each and every agro-ecology; information on socio-economics; provision of extension services; agronomic and physiological studies to mitigate the effects of climate change (shade management, drought tolerance, irrigation scheme.); improved soil management practices (soil erosion, acidity, and fertility); studies on existing and emerging pests, technologies on processing and machineries useful for quality control and value addition to satisfy consumers preference for higher/lower quality and varying taste profile; and GIS and agrometeorological data collection and management among others are all limited. These

[27] situations were thoroughly assessed to identify strategic issues and strategic interventions to address these shortfalls in coffee research.

Organization, Implementation and Geographical Coverage Analysis of the organization structure is one of the major factors to be considered during the assessment of internal environment and identification of the strengths and weaknesses of an organization. The success of the work needed to carry out and achieve the mission of the organization greatly depends on the standard quality of the organization structure. Development of a viable structure and its proper implementation is therefore imperative to lead both administrative and technical issues/activities in a proper and well organized manner and thereby achieve the mission, objective and goal of the organization. EIAR in general and coffee research in particular have suffered from frequent structural changes over the last several decades because of various reasons. Obviously, these structural changes have considerably affected its effectiveness in terms of capacity building and technology generation.

National Coffee Research Center at Jimma is the center of excellence for coffee genetic resources conservation and research. It is responsible for the coordination of national coffee research program throughout the country. Unlike other crops, there were no collaborating centers in coffee research in the past even though some regional agricultural research centers (Assosa, Pawe, Adet,) are currently emerging. The main coffee research center at Jimma plays its national coffee research coordination role through its own coffee research sub-centers (Gera, Haru, Awada, Tepi and Mechara) and testing stations (Agaro, Metu, Mugi and Wonago) that represent different agro-ecologies under which coffee grows in the country (Table 2 & Annex 2). Since the recent past, there is some sort of structural change in terms of accountability, administrative management and principal mandates of some of these coffee research sub-centers further weaking the strength of the national coffee research system. Positive dialogue is required between EIAR and concerned Regions in order to take corrective measures and establish binding mechanisms between main coffee research center and its sub-centers as well as Regional Agricultural Research Centers/Institutes (RARIs) dealing with coffee research.

Summaries of SWOC (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Challenges) Analysis by Research Theme

In Section 3.0, 3.1 and 3.2, the general aspects of the assessments of external and internal environments were described. Here below, summaries of the SWOC analysis are presented enumerating critical points with respect to strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and challenges identified in each coffee research disciplines/themes.

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Table 8. Summary of the analysis of external and internal environments (SWOC) External Environment Internal Environment Opportunities Challenges Strength Weakness Theme 1: General  Government support as realized  Lack of coordinated coffee  Operates across the country  Limited capacity in skilled human power, through establishment of ECTDMA, rehabilitation program and limited through its own main-center, budget and facilities; GTPII plan to increase productivity participation of key stakeholders in the sub-centers and adaptive trial  High staff attrition rate (11Qt/ha), and existence of coffee sector’s development endeavors; sites;  Weak intra-and inter-disciplinary sector development strategy;  Limited sources of finance and lack of  Long experience in coffee integration, complementarities and  Annual coffee day has become a guiding principle that prompt research, development and synergies due to poor restructuring; good stakeholders’ forum for stakeholders to support coffee processing;  Core coffee research team and disciplines discussion on coffee sector research;  Moderately equipped have dissociated and currently limited to development issues along the value  Low production and productivity to laboratories for most breeding and agronomy alone; chain; satisfy domestic and foreign demands; disciplines;  Some coffee research sub-centers do not  Increasing demand for Ethiopian fine  Climate change, deforestation and  Beginning of partnership have direct accountability to National coffee coffee in the international market and environmental degradation building with academia and commodity research high domestic consumption;  Limited market promotion and development partners  Lack of incentive mechanisms to maintain  Existence of Agricultural Development popularization of Ethiopian fine coffees  Expansion of coffee research in coffee researchers and compensate for the Partners Linkage (ADPLAC) in the world market; to non-traditional areas; long-term nature of coffee to obtain results responsible to liaise coffee Research  Lack of viable extension system  Compiled and made available as compared to other crops with extension agents;  Absence of certified coffee seed or decades of achievements  Poor linkage between research and  Presence of well structured seedling enterprises and adulteration  On-farm demonstration, training relevant stakeholders along the value agricultural extension system that of seed purity; of extension staff and provision chain; extends to village level with adequate  Weak linkage among coffee of advisory services  Poor infrastructure development (farm extension staff (50 Das/district) stakeholders (Research, Development roads, nursery sites, communication  High diversity of flavor quality profile and Marketing agents); facilities,); for more brandings of Ethiopian  The emergence of Robusta coffee  Critical shortage of vehicles for field visit coffees and increasing its Introduction that may spoil the program and transportation of harvested competitiveness; reputation of Ethiopia as sole fine coffee from the farms;  Increasing involvement of investors Arabica coffee producer;  Most equipment and supplies in all and NGOs in development and  Government investment on coffee laboratories are obsolete but not yet processing; research is minimal; replaced;  Emergence of regional institutions  Limited policy support specifically in  Inadequate secretarial role to effectively and universities interested in coffee the areas of germplasm conservation utilize the existing Zonal Agricultural research; and exchange, public-private Development Liaison Council to enhance  Continuous EU financial support to partnership building, extension services; [29]

coffee improvement program;  Despite the willingness of all parties, there  Three public entities viz. MoANR, is no binding mechanisms between MoT an MoI respectively oversees the research and academia (universities, production, marketing and value regional research centers,); addition of coffee;  Less attention to upgrade Coffee research  Indigenous knowledge and organization and experience in coffee production and  Inefficient procurement process and traditional cultivar selection and purchase of low quality goods. naming

Theme 2: Genetics and Breeding  Availability of high genetic diversity as  High genetic erosion due to  Germplasm collection &  High genetic erosion and limited collection Ethiopia is the center of origin & deforestation of forest coffee habitat, maintenance; and conservation of coffee genetic diversity for Coffea arabica L. expansion of improved varieties and  Persistence and patience of the resources;  Possibility to develop and promote several other agents; research staff in breeding on  The available accessions are not single-origin specialty coffees as  There is high illegal germplasm perennial crop like coffee; adequately characterized and documented; there exist huge genetic- & transfer and Lack of cooperation by  Development and release of 40  The varieties so far available do not ecological- diversities in the country the international community to support varieties along with its package address all the specific agro-ecological  High demand for improved varieties conservation efforts in Ethiopia ; recommendations; niches; and single-origin specialty coffees  Low productivity due to lack of  Existence of moderate  Lack of varieties developed for specific improved varieties for each agro- biotechnology laboratory for objectives such as drought tolerance, dwarf ecology, limited producers capacity to advanced in vitro breeding and and compact habit, tolerant to soil acidity/ employ intensive farming practices, tissue culture propagation of reactions, superior quality, and inadequate input supply and old age of hybrid varieties and  Lack of systematic, comprehensive and coffee trees  Existence of generic national continuous hybridization activities for the  Inability to exploit the advantage of coffee improvement strategy, development of hybrids that combine key hybrid varieties owing to lack of public “Local Land Race Development desirable traits. or private coffee seed enterprises for Program”  Breeding method is still classical and multiplication and distribution advanced in vitro techniques have not yet  commenced;  Lack of well coordinated and centralized system to protect and benefit the country from its rich genetic resources;  Lack of adequate genetic information on important agronomic traits,; diseases and insect pests [30]

 Lack of qualified staff and complete facilities for bio-tech laboratory to develop efficient tissue culture protocol and commence advanced in vitro breeding research;  Weak breeder seed and pre-basic seed maintenance and supply and  Lack of efficient vegetative propagation techniques. Theme 3: Agronomy and Physiology  Existence of traditional knowledge in  Climate change, land degradation and  Developed and disseminated  Inadequate skill and facilities for coffee management practices agro-ecological diversities have improved agronomic practices physiological studies including growing of coffee under complicated the development of along with improved varieties  The available agronomic recommendations shade system; suitable agronomic practices requiring  Prepared coffee production are largely general and not tailored to  High social acceptance and continuous fine tuning; manual with full package specific agro-ecologies and local production preference for intercropping, agro-  High competition by other high value recommendations together with systems (e.g. Hararghe); forestry and mixed farming which is crops (e.g chat or khat in various other coffee research  Limited research on coffee diversification, useful for the promotion of places) and shift in cropping system disciplines intercropping and agroforestry systems to diversification practices; and  Commenced advisory services avoid the risk of dependence on sole coffee  Existence of diverse agro-ecology,  Limited knowledge of intercropping and climate change mitigation revenue; socio-economic and cultural and diversification in the predominantly research  Inadequate research on pruning, cycle conditions suitable for coffee coffee producing areas and conversion, biennial bearing and shade tree production in the country and consequent high poverty rate. management;  Government policy support for public-  Lack of adequate information on drought private partnership in intensive coffee tolerance and supplementary irrigation; farming system.  Limited research on integrated soil fertility management;  Lack of research on methods of reducing management costs of coffee production  Limited research on shade trees management  Theme 4: Soils and Water Management  Existence of strong National Soils  Land degradation, soil nutrient  Existence of relatively well  The available Fertilizer recommendation is Laboratory that is capable to provide depletion and increasing acidity in equipped and standardized soil decades old and not tailored to specific soil all kinds of analytical services most coffee growing areas laboratory at JARC and farming conditions; [31]

 Existence of advanced technology  Regular soil and tissue analytical services (software) that based on tissue and and revision of fertilizer rate is limited or leaf analysis can automatically lacking; generate the required fertilizer rate  Information on best practices to control soil erosion and improving soil fertility are scanty;  Limited integrated soil fertility management and moisture conservation in collaboration with other disciplines;  Research on alternative sources of organic fertilizer and rate of application is either limited or lacking;  Limited recommendations on problematic soils such as acidity;  Optimum combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers best suited to coffee is not determined;  Limited information on coffee byproduct utilization and waste management Theme 5: Crop Protection (Coffee Pathology, Entomology & Weed Science)  There is ample information available  Coffee production is continuously  Coffee pathology laboratory is  Laboratory equipment and supplies are in other countries that can serve as a suffering from some Persistent one of the oldest and relatively obsolete and the floor, electric and water baseline to investigate the newly diseases (CBD, CWD and CLR) and well equipped laboratories systems lack modernization; emerged coffee diseases (BBC and recently, new scaring ones such as available under EIAR  Inadequate information and research on CTB) bacterial blight (BBC) and coffee trade  Release of couple of CBD some of the major diseases (CWD and  There are ample information on IPM blight (CTB) have emerged resistant selections and long CLR ) and pests (BLM, Antestia and Thrips; that can be adopted to coffee  Coffee Insect pests of minor experience with major coffee  Limited research on Integrated disease management system importance in the past are becoming diseases and insect pests management despite its high demand in major ones requiring a great deal of coffee management system (e.g. weed research work (e.g. Antestia, BLM slashing is a means of spreading CWD); ,Thrips and green scale)  Little information on weed flora, its  There are a number of noxious weeds abundance and biology; with little information about their  The multidisciplinary work lacks proper biology and control methods coordination and systematic planning Theme 6: Coffee processing and Quality Improvement  National coffee liquoring unit (CLU) in  Low quality emanating from poor  Existence of recommended pre-  The effects of newly introduced processing [32]

Addis Ababa which is well equipped processing practices which in turn and post-harvest coffee machines (artificial, solar & tunnel driers, with facilities and highly skilled Q- emanate from lack of knowledge or possessing technologies for and pulper or demuscillager) on quality is graders is one of the strong partner finance to apply the recommended basic practices not well studied; and collaborators of Coffee Research practices mainly by the small-scale  Presence of moderately  Lack of adequate information on the effects Program farmers equipped liquoring lab and Q- of altitude and soil type & its composition  The introduced high-tech processing graders on quality to guide quality profile mapping; technologies or facilities by large   The available technology on fermentation scale plantation companies are useful process as influenced by altitude, To and to learn more about new techniques time of fermentation is decades old and not of coffee processing and its effect on updated or refined; quality  Lack of research on prolonged fermentation  time & dry processing and vice versa;  Lack of agricultural engineering research on processing machines and value addition (packaging design and secondary processing); Theme 7: Socio-Economics, Research Extension and Gender  There are adequate number of  Overwhelming demand by the  Involvement in foundation  Lack of capacity to adequately popularize adaptive trial sites throughout the stakeholders for extension services seeds and seedlings supply as and disseminate research technologies and major coffee growing areas for variety (seed, training, etc.) against limited additional assistance to the provide expected extension services; verification, demonstration and capacity; growers despite its mandate  Lack of capacity to expand pre-scaling up training purposes;  Lack of viable research-extension and  Training of DAs and SMS or of technologies using model farmers as  There is well structured extension seed systems that include all the extension staff of development planned; system with adequate number of relevant stakeholders to provide organization (ECTDMA,  Lack of impact and adoption rate extension staff (50/district) within the quality extension services; MOANR, etc.,) and the farmers assessment or economic analysis of Ministry of Agriculture that stretches  Price volatility, unfair farm gate price for the transfer of research released technologies; up to village/Kebele level and. and rising production cost are great technologies  Precise information on cost of production is  EIAR has adopted government policy discouragement to the producers; lacking; of gender mainstreaming and owns a  Weak link between research and its  Lack of market research that provides up- coordinating office at head Quarters development partners and other to-date information on internal- and external level for its implementation. stakeholders; marketing system and  Inadequate awareness creation,  Weak linkage between research and training and encouragement to involve extension agents. women and youth in coffee  development & entrepreneurship;  Inadequate market information system [33]

and the resultant unfair farm gate price and market sabotage by brokers and collectors and  Lack of seed/ seedling purity control system to avoid illegal /uncertified seed agents. Theme 8: Biotechnology  Availability of advanced molecular  Limited government support to  Availability of moderate  Inadequate laboratory rooms and research techniques abroad establish standard biotechnology biotechnology laboratory built incomplete laboratory and acclimatization adaptable to coffee laboratory for coffee research and with special emphasis to coffee facilities (equipment and supplies)  There are certain national universities other agricultural crops research  Poor water and electric supply, waste and organizations which have  Successful development of management, and drainage system moderate capacity in molecular tissue culture protocol for some  Lack of qualified personnel research and coffee research may crops such as pine apple  Lack of well- established tissue culture work with them protocol for the propagation of coffee hybrids  Lack of research on molecular breeding and screening for disease free planting materials Theme 9: GIS and Agro-Meteorology  Existence of modern GIS facilities and  Lack of well documented  Existence of weather stations in  Lack of standard and fully equipped expertise at national level agrometeorological data of major different research centers and meteorology stations at main-and sub-  Good collaboration from National coffee growing areas to properly follow sub-centers even though poorly centers Meteorology Institute in providing up changes in suitability of the areas equipped  Lack of skilled personnel in GIS at center weather data and predict future possible scenarios  Qualified personnel on GIS at and sub-centers levels EIAR level  Lack of GIS based information in coffee based farming system

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Strategic issues facing the coffee commodity research The strategic issues presented under this section are synthesized from the analysis of external and internal environments (SWOC analysis) which as indicated in the previous chapter were primarly based on direct interviews and discussions made with key stakeholders. In addition, issues being frequently raised by coffee research team and other relevant institutions and /or stakeholders in various ways over the last so many years were considered. The strategic issues identified are organized under eight disciplinary themes and one general thematic area. The later deals with general issues that are relevant to all disciplinary themes, not specific, and concerned with overall coffee research Centre issues and coffee research undertakings. The coffee research disciplinary themes identified are: Genetics and Breeding, Agronomy and Physiology, Crop protection which includes coffee pathology, Entomology and weed science), Soils and Water Management, Coffee processing and Quality improvement, Socio-Economics, Research Extension and Gender, Bio-technology, and GIS and Agro-meteorology. Details of the strategic issues identified under each theme are given in Table 9

Table 9. Strategic issues facing coffee research commodity as identified under each disciplinary theme Theme Strategic Issues

Poor Coffee Research Organizational Structure

General (Relevant to all  Core coffee research team and disciplines have dissociated in to other crops and coffee research practically limited to breeding and agronomy (recently) disciplines or themes)  Weak intra- and inter-disciplinary integration, complementarities and synergies  Some of coffee research sub-centers do not have direct accountability to national coffee research system  Coffee research programs that are run by RARIs are not under direct national coffee research coordination Limited Capacity Building  Inadequate skilled human power across all disciplines  High staff attrition rate and lack of incentive mechanisms to maintain them  Poor infrastructure development (farm roads, nursery sites, inadequate offices, old and incomplete lab. equipment and supplies, internet system, etc. ) at main center & its sub-centers  Critical shortage of vehicles (4-wheel drive and tractor) have severely affected frequency of field visits and transportation of harvested cherries from the farm  Inadequate budget allocation for coffee research and center development has disabled steady development of the main-and sub-centers Poor Partnership Building with relevant Stakeholders  Poor linkage between research and relevant stakeholders along the value chain in strengthening research and extension and having common development agenda  There is no binding mechanism between research and academia (universities, RARIs, etc.) despite their willingness to collaborate with coffee research Limited Role in Coffee Sector Development Endeavors to Address Low Production and Productivity Issue  Viable research and extension system is not well established  Regular extension servces such as training, supply of seeds, etc. and technical backstopping to development agents (ECTDMA & MoANR) is limited  There is no common agenda between Research and Development (ECTDMA, MoANR) to embark on “coffee Rehabilitation Program” as a major strategy to address low production and productivity issues  There is no established system to advice development partners in the introduction of [35]

planting materials from abroad Lack of or limited policy support for certain issues that requires government support /intervention for its implementation Well documented and strong policy guide lines are lacking to address the following issues:  Coffee germplasm conservation (ex situ, in situ and cryopreservation) and material exchange in parallel to International Biodiversity Convention  Public-private partnership in coffee sector development, modernization of production and value addition  Coffee seeds/seedlings production, distribution and purity control system  Internal and external marketing systems  Introduction and expansion of planting material (e.g. Robusta, improved varieties, etc.) from abroad  Imposition of levy on coffee sale to generate adequate budget for coffee research and development  Rules and procedures of coffee certification that defend the interest of the farmers and deploy criteria that best fit to Ethiopian conditions  Strict policy guide lines for coffee pulping stations establishment and coffee effluent management  Empowerment of women and youth to encourage their involvement in coffee production, processing and marketing Inadequate Work on Germplasm Collection, Maintenance, Characterization and Documentation Genetics and Breeding  High genetic erosion and inversely limited germplasm collection and conservation  Lack of systematic collection, adequate characterization and documentation  Lack of well-coordinated and centralized system to protect and benefit the country from its rich genetic resources Germplasm Screening and Variety Development for each Agro-ecological Zones is not Exhaustive

(a) Selection and Pure line variety development  The varieties so far available do not address all the specific agro-ecological niches in both traditional and non-traditional coffee growing areas  The available accessions were so far screened only for few desirable traits (yield disease and growth characters), others not yet considered  Promising lines advanced to variety trial and verification test in different sites lack proper attention (remoteness, logistic, staff shortage, etc.)  Lack of screening for quality characters (cup taste, bean size and shape, etc.) (b) Intra-Specific Crosses and Hybrid Variety Development  Lack of systematic, comprehensive and continuous hybridization activities between promising Arabica lines to develop high yielding hybrids that combine other desirable traits (disease resistance, quality & adaptability)  Lack of breeding efforts for specific traits more importantly dwarf/compact habit, stiff stem and primary branch, drought tolerance, low caffeine content, superior quality, resistance to CWD and CLR, soil acidity) (c) In vitro Techniques useful to Enhance Variety development Process and Rapid Multiplication of F1 Hybrids have not yet Effectively Commenced  Lack of qualified staff and well equipped biotechnology laboratory  Tissue culture protocol for the multiplication of F1 hybrids is not optimized

 Breeding methods are still classical and in vitro technics such as marker assisted selection and other molecular studies useful to reduce coffee breeding cycle and provide genetic information have not yet started  Molecular tools useful for effective screening against disease free germplasm materials have not yet been employed  Finger printing of the released varieties useful to describe their genetic makeup and protect property right are still far from reality

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Limited Genetic Information on the Inheritance of certain traits to base on and plan proper breeding methods for the improvement of those traits  There is no adequate research on the inheritance of CWD, dwarf character, bean size, stiff stem and primary branches, etc. which are of high priority Seed System is not Well Established  Breeders seed and pre-basic seeds maintenance, seed supply and purity control system is not strong enough  Efficient vegetative propagation techniques (Macro propagation such as cutting and micro propagation such as tissue culture) are not yet well developed Agronomy and Limited Research on Coffee Pruning and Handling Physiology  Proper time of cycle conversion (stumping) under low- medium and high-land conditions is not determined  Proper pruning method (single- double- triple- and multiple-stem) considering low- medium and high-altitude is not adequately established  Proper handling (number of primaries/tree, desuckering, removal of unwanted secondary and tertiary branches, etc.) is not well established  Comparative advantage of cupping and free growth in relation to pruning method (number of verticals) is not well studied The existing Agronomic Recommendations are not Updated and tailored to Specific Agro-Ecologies and Local Production systems  The existing management practices are not updated and fine-tuned to fit to each agro- ecologies and in cost effective manner (e.g. hole size, fertilizer rate, etc.)  Proper planting density for maximum productivity is not well determined for varieties of different growth habit  Limited research on integrated soil fertility management (compost, inorganic fertilizer, mulch, tide ridge, etc.) Limited Research on Intercropping, Diversification and Agro-forestry Systems Useful to Avoid the Risk of Mono-cropping in Predominantly Coffee Producing Areas  Intercropping of coffee with compatible and locally preferred crops and determination of proper ratio for maximum output per unit area is not adequately conducted for each localities/agro-ecologies  Proper coffee diversification practices (coffee, animals, vegetable, bee keeping, etc.) are not introduced to coffee based farming system  Limited research technologies on best agro-forestry practices Limited Research on Shade Tree Management  Appropriate shade trees suited to local environment are not adequately identified  Lack of sufficient knowledge on nursery (raising of seedlings) and field management practices for each of the recommended shade tree species  Limited research on appropriate shade level required under different (hot, moderate and cooler) climatic conditions Lack of Research on Climate Change Mitigation in Coffee Based Farming System  Effects of shade trees on soil moisture conservation, nutrient depletion or addition and micro-environment temperature regulation is not studied  Lack of research on water harvesting and supplementary irrigation aimed to determine irrigation schedule and frequency in relation to local rainfall pattern and volume in moisture stress areas  Research on proper soil conservation and fertility management is limited Information on Physiological functions of desirable traits and Ecophysiology of coffee is scanty  Research on physiological mechanisms and water use efficiency of coffee for drought tolerance is limited  There is no efficient screening method and well known standard physiological and/ or biochemical parameters for selecting drought tolerant lines among national coffee [37]

collections  Physiological development stages where water/rainfall is critical to prevent flower abortion, fruit fall and poor endosperm filling are not well known  Information on ecophysiology of coffee is limited  Limited skill /Knowledge and lack of well-equipped coffee physiology laboratory to conduct qualified research Soils and Water Limited Recommendations on Soil Fertility Management and Fertilizer Rate for Management Different Coffee Soils and Farming Systems  The available fertilizer recommendation is decades old and not tailored to specific soil types and farming conditions  Provision of regular soil and tissue analytical services to the coffee growers which is a base for fertilizer recommendation (type and rate) is lacking, and there is no annual review of fertilizer rate recommendations according to soil fertility status yield of coffee plant  Inadequate research work on alternative sources of organic fertilizer (coffee husk, Farm yard manure, different crops residues, etc.) and proper rate of application per tree or hectare  Optimum combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers best suited to coffee production potential is not determined  Lack of research on integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) in collaboration with other relevant disciplines which is imperative to maximize productivity and nutrient and water use efficiency Land Degradation, Soil Nutrient Depletion and Increasing Acidity in Most Coffee Growing Areas  Information on best practices to control soil erosion and improving soil fertility are scanty  Limited recommendations on problematic soils such as acidity which is on the increase in coffee based farming system  Soil moisture conservation techniques on sloppy lands and moisture deficit areas is lacking Limited information on coffee byproduct utilization and waste management  Limited research on coffee byproducts (pulp and husk) utilization  Limited recommendation on effluent management and proper locations for the establishment of pulping stations Crop protection (Coffee Pathology: pathology, Entomology (a) Persistent problems of Major Coffee Diseases (CBD, CWD & CLR) and Emergence & weed science) of New Ones (BBC and Trade Blight) Persistent Problems of Major Coffee Diseases (CBD, CWD & CLR)  Screening method at seedling stage or in the laboratory for CBD, CWD and CLR requires fine tuning taking in to account techniques available elsewhere  Limited recommendation on integrated disease management options for effective control and cost minimization  Regular training of DAs and SMS on the symptoms and control methods of the major diseases specially that of CWD and BBC is limited  Screening work for resistance to CWD and CLR is negligible Regular survey program at certain time interval is lacking  Regular survey program at certain time interval intended to understand and document the status of the previously known major and minor diseases and monitoring for new outbreaks is lacking  Complete list of major and minor coffee diseases in Ethiopia with their detailed description (symptom, biology, geographic distribution, etc.) is lacking Emergence of New Coffee Diseases (BBC, CTB)  Lack of adequate knowledge on the biology, epidemiology, and severity of bacterial blight of coffee (BBC) and coffee thread blight (CTB)  Screening methods for resistance to BBC and CTB are not developed [38]

 Different control methods (chemical, cultural, etc.) are not available (b) Support to Coffee Breeding Program in Variety Development Process is not well strategized  Involvement in germplasm collection and screening for resistance to major diseases is not well planned as a component of pathology activities  Evaluation of promising lines for resistance to major diseases and monitoring for other minor diseases is not systematic (continues through all variety development steps) Entomology: Coffee Insect Pests of Minor importance in the Past (Antestia, BLM, Thrips and green scale) are Becoming Major Ones  Limited information on the biology, epidemiology, occurrence and spatial distribution of Antestia, BLM, thrips and green scale  Little knowledge on the control of these insect pests through cultural, chemical, biochemical and natural enemies  Lack of effective Integrated Pest Management (IPM) options that is readily available for use as these pests reach their respective threshold level  Screening method for tolerance to the major pests at laboratory and field level is lacking  There is no regular survey program to understand the status of the existing pests and follow up the emergence of new ones Weed Science : There are a number of Noxious Coffee Weeds with Little Information About their Biology and Control Methods  Little information on coffee weed flora and their abundance, distribution, biology and control methods  Limited recommendation on integrated weed management (IWM) for the control of common and problematic coffee weeds  Research on chemical weed control using commercialized and new chemicals and cost-benefit analysis of them is limited  Recommendations on cultural control options (slashing, mulching digging, hoeing, cover crops, etc. ) is limited  No information on impact of herbicides on the environment (soil micro-organism, honey bees and coffee quality)  Survey and awareness creation on invasive weeds in coffee based farming system is lacking Coffee Processing and Persistent Low Quality Problem Emanating from Poor Processing Practices Quality Improvement  Regular training of Development Agents (DAs) and Subject Matter Specialists on the best processing practices so far available is limited  Training modules for the DAs and SMS who train the grassroots coffee growers is not well organized  Limited capacity of the small holder farmers (who produce about 95% of the supply) to apply the recommended pre- and post-harvest processing practices The Existing Wet- and Dry-Processing technologies are Decades Old  Updated recommendation on fermentation process as influenced by altitude, temperature and fermentation time is not available  The available dry processing technologies are not updated and and the ones available abroad are unaffordable by majority of the smallholder producers  Information on the best recommended moisture content after drying is highly variable (8 – 13%) and posing problems to traders at quality control units Lack of Research on Processing Machines and Value Addition  Coffee processing work is limited to sensorial analysis and no work on physical and biochemical analysis  Limited research on secondary processing (roasting and grinding levels, and packaging design) intended to add value  Lack of some level of engineering research on the maintenance and operation of [39]

processing machines (pulpers, roasters, grinders and driers)  Information on storage duration in relation to quality is limited Limited support to Coffee Breeding Program for Variety Development  Simple and quick methods of mass-screening for quality are not available  The available germplasm collections maintained in the field gene bank have not been tested for different quality traits  Hundreds of promising selections (core collections) identified for deployment in breeding program are not sufficiently tested for quality traits  There is no work on searching for progenies with inherent low caffeine content  Limited studies on coffee quality profile mapping, traceability and natural environment (altitude, soil type & composition, weather condition, etc.) affecting quality Research-Extension, Research-Extension Socio-Economics and Overwhelming demand by the Coffee Growers for all kinds of Extension Services Gender Against Limited Research Capacity  Weak extension services (training, seed supply, technology popularization, etc.) due to lack of capacity and poor coordination  Lack of capacity to expand the pre-scaling up program started using model farmers as the best approach to popularize and disseminate research technologies Lack of Viable System for Seed/Seedling Multiplication, Distribution & Purity Control  Insufficient seed supply due to lack of viable seed multiplication and distribution system for coffee  Lack of seed/seedling purity control system and consequent expansion of illegal or uncertified seed agents and increasing vulnerability of small-scale farmers to such poor planting materials Weak Research and Extension Linkage  Lack of viable research-extension linkage system  Limited linkage between research, extension agents and all others involved in coffee business along the value chain Socio-Economics: Lack of Market Research on Internal and External Marketing Systems  Challenges facing the farmers in selling their coffee due to various malpractices by the collectors, brokers and middle merchants is not studied  Causes for the increasing trends of illegal domestic and cross-border trading is not well understood or documented  There is no research on price volatility and unfair farm gate price to advice policy makers in order to protect the farmers and guarantee sustainable coffee production Limited Research on the Economics of Released Technologies  Lack of impact assessment and cost-benefit analysis of the released technologies  Lack of precise information on the cost of coffee production and its out-turn to counter- check the competition by other high value crops  Limited studies on the adoption rate of the released technologies specially that of pre- and post-harvest processing and agronomic practices Gender Mainstreaming: Inadequate training, Awareness Creation and Encouragement to Involve Women and Youth in Coffee Production and Trade  Little participation of women in training and use of disseminated technologies  Limited awareness creation to educate and empower women and youth to involve in coffee production and trade Biotechnology Limited capacity of the Available Biotechnology Laboratory to Undertake In vitro Research Activities  Inadequate laboratory rooms, lack of critical equipment and supplies and poor acclimatization facilities  Poor water and electric supply, waste management, and drainage system  Lack of qualified and experienced staff owing to high staff attrition rate and limited annual budget [40]

Limited Research on the Optimization of Tissue Culture Protocol for the propagation of Coffee Hybrids  Coffee tissue culture protocol optimization is long overdue and yet efficient protocol is not established to propagate the released hybrid In vitro Research Intended to Enhance Variety Development Process and Selection for Disease Free Materials has not yet Started  Breeding methods are still classical and in vitro breeding techniques such as MAS selection, double haploid formation, etc. useful to reduce breeding cycle have not yet started  Modern molecular tools useful to screen disease free breeding materials have not yet been introduced and employed GIS and Agro- Limited Capacity Meteorology  Lack of standard and fully equipped meteorological station at main- and sub-centers  Lack of skilled personnel in GIS and Meteorology  Lack of well documented meteorological data of the major coffee growing areas to base on for proper follow up of changes in suitability and predict future possible scenarios

Strategic interventions to address the issues

The strategic interventions recommended under this section directly stemmed from strategic coffee research issues indicated under Chapter 4. The aim is to address the real challenges facing coffee research and its stakeholders in coffee research, development and marketing with the ultimate goal of increasing, production, productivity and quality and thereby maximize the contribution of coffee research towards the achievement of the government‟s target elucidated in GTP II (2015 – 2020)9 and beyond. Coffee yield and quality are complex traits that are highly governed by genetic (varietal differences) and environmental (management, agro-ecology, edaphic and climaticfactors. Therefore the present strategy has carefully considered all possible constraints or strategic issues that directly and indirectly affect yield and quality. These constraints were largely identified through consultation with key stakeholders along the value chain (researchers, growers, processors and consumers). In general, effort has been made to develop a strategy that is problem solving and client oriented or demand driven. The strategic intervention described in Table 10 below has carefully considered to address all the strategic issues or constraints facing coffee research, development and marketing as described earlier in Table 9. On the other hand, the research strategy is developed taking in to account the technologies needed for each of the very diverse agro-ecologies under which coffee grows in the traditional (South, East and West) and non-traditional (North and North-west) areas in Ethiopia.

Cognizant of the complexity and diversity of the issues to be addressed, the strategy begun with general coffee research issues which in part include restructuring of coffee research organization and reinstitution of core coffee research disciplinary themes which are dedicated to coffee research and development per se. In fact, there are some disciplines such as research-extension, socio-economics, biotechnology and Agro- meteorology which have cross cutting characteristics and required to provide services to other commodities, coffee being their primary focus. The objective of having these different disciplines is to address the complex strategic issues elucidated above in all

[41] angles through a multidisciplinary approach and finally provide package recommendations to the end users in the coffee value chain. The disciplinary themes recommended as components of core coffee research discipline or team include: Genetics and Breeding, Agronomy and Physiology, Crop protection which includes coffee pathology, Entomology and weed science, Soils and Water Management, Coffee processing and Quality Improvement, Socio-Economics, Research Extension and Gender, Biotechnology, and GIS and Agro-meteorology.

The strategic interventions designed to tackle the issues enumerated under Chapter 4 in respective of each disciplinary theme in short- medium- and long-term are summarized in Table 10 under this Chapter. In relation to the developed strategic interventions, expected outputs in respective of each disciplinary theme are also set-forward to guide the implementing bodies towards which they need to exert their maximum efforts. In addition, the strategic intervention stipulated in Table 10 is also designed to achieve some important development and research targets summarized in Table 11. These development and research targets are basically parts of the expected outputs but separately illustrated in a table form for purpose of clarity and ease of follow up by the implementing agencies. At this junction, it is worthwhile to note that the development targets are those that are largely concerned with development agents such as ECTDMA and coffee research has no principal role in its implementation but could provide considerable technical support. On the other hand, research targets are those that coffee research is directly accountable for its implementation and achievement.

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Table 10. Strategic interventions designed in respective of each disciplinary theme to address the critical issues facing coffee research in short-, medium-, and long-terms. Strategic Intervention Short-term (5 years) Medium-term (10 years) Long-term (15 years)

General (Relevant to all coffee research disciplinary themes) Poor Coffee Research  Restructure National Coffee Research Organizational Structure Coordinating Center comprising of all the previous and (to be identified) sub-centers and testing sites, collaborating RARIs’ in coffee research and the recommended core coffee research disciplines mentioned above  In agreement with RARIs, create coffee research departments in all collaborating regional centers that will be technically answerable to National Coffee Commodity Research Coordinating Centre  Identify representative locations for the Establish the sub-stations in the Commence using the sub-stations for establishment of more coffee research sub- identified areas /locations with all the intended research purposes, agro- stations in both traditional and non- the necessary facilities and human ecology based research and traditional coffee growing areas power adaptation tests Limited Capacity Building Human Resource  Develop and implement well planned Continue skilled human resource Continue skilled human resource human resource development program that development program through development program through training includes training and recruitment to provide training and recruitment to and recruitment to adequately staff all adequate number of skilled human power adequately staff all coffee research coffee research sites to the main- & sub-centers sites  Taking in to account the tedious- and painstaking-nature of research on perennial crops like coffee, develop and implement incentive mechanisms that can mitigate high staff attrition rate Physical Resources  Provide adequate infrastructure for both Continuing infrastructure Complete infrastructure development main- and sub-centers including offices, development commenced in the activities initiated in the previous years green houses for pathology & biotech, first phase; in addition, construct [43]

nursery site & farm roads development, residential houses, standard social water and power supply and internet as centers and libraries among others first phase  Provide adequate number of vehicles (4- Depending on the needs and Depending on the needs and WD, tractor) for field trip, ploughing and availability of resources, continue availability of resources, continue transportation of harvested coffee purchasing more vehicles to purchasing more vehicles facilitate adequate supply of vehicles  Lab. Equipment and supplies:  Modernize the internal water and power supply systems and replace old equipment & supplies for all the laboratories (pathology, entomology, physiology, processing & biotechnology)  Commence constructing coffee Continue the construction of coffee Finalize the construction, organize all laboratory building complex to bring laboratory building complex laboratory facilities in systematic closer together all the laboratories manner to bring closer together all the and organize general purpose laboratories and use general purpose equipment in pool system for efficient equipment in pool system and in more and cost effective use of resources efficient way Financial Resource  To alleviate critical shortage of budget:  Option I: maximize budget sources Establish legal institutional linkage that may include EARI, ECTDMA, agreement for sustainable financial Exporters, private producers and supply and research services to its other internal and external partners stakeholders (e.g. EU)  Option II: Lobby the Government to Depending on the progress of the Depending on the progress of the impose a levy on coffee export short-term, continue lobbying the medium-term, continue lobbying the earnings that can cover coffee Government to impose the Government to impose the planned research and development budget planned levy on coffee export levy on coffee export earnings earnings Weak Partnership Building with  Establish coffee development platform that Continue strengthening the coffee Continue strengthening the coffee Relevant Stakeholders brings together research and all the key development platform development platform local stakeholders and the academia [44]

(universities, research institutions) for a concerted effort in research and development  Identify potential partners at regional and Continue strengthening the linkage Continue strengthening the linkage international level and establish linkage for with regional and international with regional and international technical and financial cooperation technical and financial institutions technical and financial institutions Limited role in coffee development  Develop viable research and extension Continue strengthening the Continue strengthening the activities aimed at addressing low linkage system that facilitates effective established research extension established research extension production and productivity issues transfer of technologies to the grassroots system for sustainable provision of system for sustainable provision of coffee growers services to the stakeholders services to the stakeholders

 Provide regular training to development Provide regular training to Provide regular training to agents or extension staff who in turn train development agents or extension development agents or extension staff the coffee growers staff who in turn train the coffee who in turn train the coffee growers growers  Together with ECTDMA, design and Continue the implementation of Continue the implementation of Implement “Coordinated Coffee coordinated coffee rehabilitation coordinated coffee rehabilitation Rehabilitation Program” as a common program in Ethiopia (Target: ≥ program in Ethiopia (Target: ≥ 35,000 research and development agenda which 35,000 ha /year ) ha /year ) to finally rehabilitate 520, is the best strategy to alleviate production 000 ha as planned and productivity issues in Ethiopia (Projection: 525,000 ha of coffee farms in the coming 15 years) o Research mandate – Training on Provide all the required training for Provide all the required training stumping, sucker management and rehabilitation of old coffee farms required for rehabilitation of old coffee good agricultural practices, pure pre- and establishment of new ones farms and establishment of new ones basic seed supply, identification and marking of mother trees for conservation from those farms to be replanted, involvement in coffee rehabilitation project development and continuous technical backstopping o ECTDMA mandate – Develop and Pursue implementation of the Pursue implementation of the implement coffee rehabilitation project rehabilitation program and the rehabilitation program and the which includes: (i) survey and expansion of new coffee farms in expansion of new coffee farms in both Identification of coffee farms that both traditional and non-traditional traditional and non-traditional coffee [45]

require rejuvenation, amelioration coffee growing areas growing areas (=that revives with application of good management), and complete replanting; (ii) drawing practical action plan including logistics and implement the rehabilitation of old coffee farms; (iii) assist farmers in the expansion of new coffee farms in both traditional and non-traditional areas There is no rule of procedures in the  In collaboration with CTDMA, establish In collaboration with ECTDMA, In collaboration with ECTDMA, follow introduction of planting materials from procedures and principles for the follow up proper implementation of up proper implementation of the rules abroad introduction of coffee planting materials the rules and procedures and procedures established on the from abroad and advise development established on the introduction of introduction of planting materials by partners on the subject planting materials by any private or any private or public organization public organization Lack of or limited policy support for Together with concerned bodies such as ECTDMA, IBC, MoANR, and many others, advise the government to put in place strong certain issues that requires government policy guide lines to address the following issues: support /intervention for its  Coffee germplasm conservation (ex situ, in situ and cryopreservation) and material exchange in parallel to International implementation Biodiversity Convention  Public-private partnership in coffee sector development, modernization of production and value addition  Coffee seeds/seedlings production, distribution and purity control system  Internal and external marketing systems  Introduction and expansion of planting material (e.g. Robusta, improved varieties, etc.) from abroad  Imposition of levy on coffee sale to generate adequate budget for coffee research and development  Rules and procedures of coffee certification that defend the interest of the farmers and deploy criteria that best fit to Ethiopian conditions  Strict policy guide lines for coffee pulping stations establishment and coffee effluent management  Empowerment of women and youth to encourage their involvement in coffee production, processing and marketing

Salient Outputs Expected from Strategic Interventions on General Issues: 1. Short-term: Well-structured coffee research system with identified core research team/discipline; capacity built having qualified human power, infrastructure and facilities; appropriate and efficient procurement procedures for research facilities established; partnership established with relevant national, regional and international stakeholders; together with ECTDMA a coordinated coffee rehabilitation program commenced and at least 140,000 ha of old coffee farms rehabilitated; Rules and regulations formulated for the introduction of planting materials from abroad. 2. Medium-term: Strong coffee research system built with skilled human power, infrastructure, facilities and dependable budget; well established coffee development platform and partnership with relevant stakeholders at national, regional and global level; in collaboration with ECTDMA, over 175,000 ha of old coffee farms [46]

rehabilitated. 3. Long-term: At least 4-5 additional coffee research sub-stations established in different agro-ecologies with full facilities and human power; competitive coffee research system with modern tools, infrastructure, facilities and dependable budget established; under research technical leadership, over 175,000 ha of old coffee farms rehabilitated bring up the total over 15 years to about 500,000 ha.

Coffee Genetics and Breeding Little work on coffee germplasm  Develop and implement viable coffee Continue systematic (random and Continue systematic (random and collection, maintenance, germplasm conservation program by pointed) collections for ex situ pointed) collections for ex situ characterization and documentation considering possible conservation options conservation and identification and conservation and identification and (in situ, ex situ and cryopreservation) to protection of in situ conservation establishment of in situ conservation capture the maximize genetic diversity sites by law sites; establish facilities for cryopreservation  Embark on systematic and continuous Continue systematic Continue systematic characterization, germplasm characterization, characterization, documentation documentation and data base documentation and data base and data base management of the management of the collected management collected accessions accessions  Together with IBC, develop guidelines for Vigilantly follow up and protect Vigilantly follow up and collaborate to coffee germplasm protection against illegal germplasm flow and strictly stop illegal germplasm flow and strictly looting and systematic transfer through implement the germplasm implement the germplasm exchange various means. In addition, develop well exchange agreement newly agreement newly established during thought germplasm exchange agreement established during the short-term the short-term that defends the best interest and benefit of the country Germplasm screening and variety (a) Selection and pure line variety development development for each agro-ecological  Promote the existing “local landrace Continue screening/evaluation of Continue screening/evaluation of zone is not exhaustive development Strategy” and develop collections and pure-line varieties collections and pure-line varieties adaptable pure line varieties for each agro- development for each agro- development for each agro-ecological ecological zones using local landrace ecological zones zones collections of the respective zones  Screen the existing accessions in the field Summarize data and Identify Maintain the core collections under gene bank for not only yield, growth promising lines for specific good management to use as sources characters and CBD but also for other desirable traits such as dwarf of parental lines in the development of desirable traits of breeding interest such as habit, stiff stem and primaries, varieties for specific traits mentioned dwarf habit, stiff stem and primaries, bean bean size, low caffeine, etc. and earlier but that also to combine high size, quality traits, low caffeine content, establish them as core collections yield, quality and disease resistance unique quality flavor, drought tolerance, for use in breeding program

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disease resistance (CWD, CLR, etc.), etc.  Evaluate the existing germplasm and Identify accessions with different Continue the field trials and select select for quality characters to benefit the and unique quality characters and promising lines that can be directly country from its unique and diverse flavor establish field trials under different commercialized or used in the qualities agro-ecologies to verify the breeding program for quality persistence of the characters improvement observed

(b) Intra-Specific Crosses and Hybrid Variety Development  Develop and implement continuous and Continue the crossing program While continuing the crossing program comprehensive crossing program in order and testing of the hybrids under for various breeding objectives, to develop high yielding hybrids that different agro-ecologies to develop identify and verify heterotic hybrids combine other major desirable traits heterotic hybrids that perform from the previous trials in order to (resistance, quality, etc.) for each agro- better than the pure-line selections recommend the best ones for release ecology using intra- and inter-region already released in each specific crosses among promising selections and area or locality released varieties Limited Genetic Information on the  Design and implement breeding program Continue the study on the Design a breeding program and Inheritance of Certain traits to Base on for the inheritance study and development inheritance of the priority traits implement for the development of and Plan Proper Breeding methods for of hybrids for specific traits while (CWD, dwarf, stiff stem or primary hybrids that possess any one of the the Improvement of those Traits maintaining major traits (yield, quality, branch & bean size) of interest and specific traits in addition to the major resistance). CWD resistance, dwarf and determine their mode of desirable traits (yield, quality and if compact habit, stiff stem and primaries, inheritance to design a breeding possible CBD resistance) and bean size are of high priority traits of program to improve the traits and interest by coffee growers develop hybrids There is no work on In vitro breeding (c ) In vitro Breeding to Enhance Variety Development Process and Rapid Multiplication of F1 Hybrids Using Tissue Culture (TC) and tissue culture protocol for hybrid  Hire and/or train adequate number of Continue strengthening the Continue strengthening the coffee multiplication is not yet qualified molecular biologists and equip the biotechnology laboratory to biotechnology laboratory to capacitate developed Biotechnology laboratory and its green capacitate it for conducting it for conducting advanced molecular houses with all the necessary facilities for advanced molecular breeding work breeding work its full functioning  Adopt arabica coffee TC protocol from Fine tune the TC protocol Continue massive multiplication and elsewhere and optimize it under our continuously and undertake distribution of F1 hybrids condition to commence multiplication of the massive multiplication and released F1 hybrids in the shortest time distribution of F1 hybrids possible [48]

 Organize the required facilities to introduce Depending on the availability of the Depending on the availability of the modern molecular breeding tools (e.g. required facilities, commence required facilities commence MAS, double haploids (DH), etc.) to reduce molecular breeding activities molecular breeding activities the classical breeding cycle and also provide more genetic information of desired traits  Organize the required facilities for genetic Depending on the availability of the Continue the genetic fingerprinting of fingerprinting of the released varieties and required facilities commence the released varieties and promising promising selections (core collections) to genetic fingerprinting of the lines describe their genetic make up for the released varieties and promising protection of Ethiopia’s property right lines Establish Seed System: Variety Maintenance, Breeder seed Production and Purity Control Seed System: Variety Maintenance,  Carefully establish and maintain in the field In collaboration with research- Continue supplying of pre-basic seed Breeder Seed Production and seed the original “parent material” of each of the extension department and and overseeing of seeds or seedlings purity control system is not well released pure line varieties that forms the ECTDMA supply pre-basic seeds multipliers established basis for the production of breeder seeds to basic seed producing agents which is very pure and represents the and oversee to avoid any variety malpractices in the process of producing and supplying pure seed or seedlings to the end users  Carefully establish and maintain in the field Continue proper maintenance of Continue maintenance of parental the very original parental lines of the parental lines and produce F1 lines and production of F1 seeds released hybrids for future use and F1 seed seeds for experimental and production commercial purposes  Optimize the vegetative propagation Multiply seedlings through rooting Multiply seedlings through rooting of techniques specially that of cutting and of cuttings and TC and effectively cuttings and TC and effectively tissue culture as early as possible distribute distribute  In collaboration with Research-Extension Provide regular technical Continue regular provision of technical Department and ECTDMA closely backstopping and closely backstopping and inspecting of the supervise and control the purity of seeds supervise the purity of seeds and purity of seeds and seedlings supplied and seedlings supplied by seed/seedling seedlings supplied to the farmers to producers producers and some individual farmers Salient Outputs Expected from Strategic Interventions on Genetics and Breeding: 1. Short-term: Germplasm collection, conservation, characterization and documentation system established; together with IBC, germplasm protection and exchange guideline formulated; at least 4000 accessions collected and established in field gene bank; accessions possessing specific traits of interest (dwarf, stiff stem & prim. Branch, etc.) identified among national collections; at least two major pure-line variety development programs commenced; Biotech. Lab. moderately equipped with [49]

facilities and skilled human power; vegetative propagation (TC & cutting) protocol optimized and utilized; mother garden for pre-basic seed supply and crossing activities established. 2. Medium-term: At least two in situ conservation sites identified and protected by law; ≥ 5000 accessions collected for ex situ conservation; large number of accessions characterized and documented; Germplasm protection and exchange rules and regulations enacted; the accessions identified with specific traits established in core collection block for use in breeding program; potential genotypes with various and unique quality traits identified among national collections; various hybrid development trials initiated in different agro-ecologies; The existing F1 hybrids adequately multiplied and distributed; together with CTDMA coordinated seed supply and quality control system established. 3. Long-term: Altogether over 14,000 accessions collected and five in situ conservation sites identified and protected; Most of the existing accessions characterized and documented; All together, about 100 promising lines identified and advanced to variety trial or verification test; two to three selections with special quality traits identified; at least 5 – 8 hybrids from different sets of crosses advanced to variety verification; Molecular breeding commenced and the released varieties fingerprinted; Cutting and TC propagation techniques transformed in to the highest level of efficiency for routine practices. Agronomy and Physiology Limited research on coffee pruning and  Determine proper age of coffee trees for Complete the cycle conversion trial handling cycle conversion through stumping in low- and develop recommendations for medium- and high-altitude areas technology transfer  Determine proper pruning method (single Continue the different pruning trials Summarize results of pruning trials, stem, double stem, etc.) considering considering agro-ecologies develop recommendations and altitude or agro-ecology for maximum out organize regular training program for turn per unit area technology transfer  Generate best recommended practices for Complete the trials, develop Initiate similar other trials to fine tune proper handling of coffee trees (No. of recommendations and organize and enrich the technology for proper primaries per tree, desuckering, removal of regular training for technology handling of coffee trees unwanted braches, etc.) transfer  Conduct trials comparing the advantage of Continue the comparative trial on Based on the results achieved, initiate cupping and free growth in relation to cupping versus free growth and related experiments to fine tune and number of verticals and recommend the generate best recommendations enrich the recommendations best practice The existing agronomic  Initiate a number of agronomic trials to Continue the various agronomic Generate recommendations from the recommendations are not updated and update or fine-tune the existing agronomic trials under different agro- agronomic trails and disseminate the tailored to specific agro-ecologies and recommendations to fit to each specific ecologies taking in to account improved practices.; Initiate similar local production systems agro-ecologies and the changing climate changes in each area other trials for those practices that environment in cost saving manner (e.g. may still need more investigation hole size, fertilizer rate, etc.)  Determine the best planting density Continue the trials on the Generate recommendations from the (population per hectare) for maximum determination of planting density density trials and introduce the most productivity taking in to account the three per hector for compact, appropriate densities for maximum [50]

canopy classes (compact, intermediate and intermediate and open coffee productivity. open or spreading) types  In collaboration with soils and water Continue the investigations on cost Generate recommendations on cost management discipline, develop cost effective integrated soils fertility effective and best ISFM practices and effective recommendations on integrated management (ISFM) provide regular training for technology soil fertility management (organic- & transfer inorganic-fertilizers, improved variety, good agronomic practices, etc.) Limited research on intercropping,  Identify locally preferred compatible crops Continue the various intercropping Draw recommendations on diversification and agro-forestry and determine best intercropping ratios of trials in different localities using appropriate ratio of coffee with other systems which are very essential in coffee to other crops in the respective locally preferred crops that are crops in different areas predominantly coffee producing areas localities for maximum output per unit area compatible with coffee  Develop proper coffee diversification Continue the investigation on Develop appropriate practices (coffee and other husbandries various diversification practices recommendations that can best assist such as small animals, food crops, through farmers participatory those coffee farmers vegetables, etc.) for predominantly coffee research approach producing areas to avoid the risk of price volatility and dependency syndrome on coffee  Develop appropriate recommendation on Continue the investigation and Summarize results obtained and agro-forestry husbandry practices which is knowledge building on best knowledge gained and Generate sustainable, climate smart and agroforestry husbandry practices recommendations on agroforestry environmental friendly practices and introduce to producers Limited research on shade trees  In addition to what is already available, Study nursery and field Introduce best shade tree species management survey and identify more shade tree management of the newly best suited to local environment in species well suited to each local identified shade tree species each agro-ecology environments  In collaboration with Forestry Institute, Develop recommendations on develop seed germination and nursery seed germination and nursery and management practices for the known field management of the common coffee shade tree species (e.g. albizia, shade trees and transfer the acacia, etc.) as high priority knowledge to the growers  Determine appropriate shade level required Continue the investigations on Analyze the results obtained and for normal functioning of coffee trees under shade level determination taking in determine the best shade level different environments (Low- medium- and to account variations in shade tree required for best coffee growth, high-altitude) species and altitude development and productivity [51]

Lack of research on climate change  Generate precise information on the effects Continue the investigation on the Continue the investigation on the mitigation in coffee based farming of shade trees in soil moisture contribution of shade trees to contribution of shade trees to climate system conservation, nutrient depletion or addition, climate change mitigation as change mitigation as reflected in micro-environment temperature regulation, reflected in coffee growth and yield better coffee growth and yield etc. that contributes to climate change mitigation  In collaboration with soils and water Develop recommendations on Provide training on supplementary management discipline, conduct trials on supplementary irrigation including irrigation scheduling, frequency, supplementary irrigation including watering watering frequency and schedule volume and method of application per frequency and schedule in relation to in relation to irrigation method tree irrigation methods (e.g. sprinkler, drip, employed, local rainfall pattern and etc.), local rainfall pattern and volume in volume for different coffee growing moisture stress coffee growing areas (high areas (high priority) priority)  Undertake various trials on proper soil Continue investigation on best Develop recommendations on best moisture conservation and fertility methods and practices of soil methods and practices of soil moisture management in collaboration with soils and moisture conservation and fertility conservation and fertility management water management discipline management Information on physiological functions  Hire and/or train adequate number of Continue strengthening the Continue strengthening the physiology of desirable traits and ecophysiology of qualified physiologists and equip the physiology laboratory in manpower laboratory in manpower and facilities coffee is scanty physiology laboratory with all the and facilities necessary facilities for its full functioning  Develop simple early selection methods for Develop more efficient and Undertake well designed and efficient screening national coffee collections advanced screening methods and screening program for drought against drought, cold and high temperature establish strong physiological and tolerance and other common stresses tolerances /or biochemical parameters for among national coffee collections drought tolerance and other stresses  Initiate some preliminary studies to Depending on the availability of continue more advanced physiological generate information on physiological facilities and skilled researchers, studies on drought tolerance and other mechanisms and water use efficiency of continue more advanced desirable physiological traits drought tolerant coffee plants physiological studies on drought tolerance and other desirable physiological traits  Investigate physiological stages as to when Develop recommendations on adequate water/rainfall is critical in order physiological stages where [52]

to prevent losses due to flower abortion, adequate water/rainfall is critical in berry fall, poor endosperm development, order to prevent losses due to etc. flower abortion, berry fall, poor endosperm development, etc.  Depending on the availability of facilities, Continue studying and generating Continue studying and generating generate information on eco-physiology of information on eco-physiology of information on eco-physiology of coffee in order to better understand how coffee in order to better coffee using more advanced coffee plants sense and respond to understand how coffee plants techniques environmental changes sense and respond to environmental changes Salient Outputs Expected from Strategic Interventions on Agronomy and physiology: 1. Short-term: Some information on proper coffee pruning and handling available; a number of agronomic trials intended to fine tune the existing practices initiated; Suitable crops compatible for intercropping with coffee in each locality or agro-ecology identified; coffee diversification and agro-forestry practices in coffee based farming system available; New shade trees suited to each locality identified; Similar to coffee, proper nursery and field management practices for coffee shade trees developed; Physiology laboratory capacity built and physiological studies commenced. 2. Medium-term: Proper age of coffee tree cycle conversion under different environments determined; proper coffee pruning and handling practices developed and disseminated; most of the existing agronomic practices fine-tuned; adequate information on intercropping, diversification and agro-forestry practices for different areas available; Nursery and field management practices for the common shade trees established; proper shade level required for coffee under different environments determined; different climate change mitigation options (use of shade, soil moisture conservation, irrigation, etc.) developed; Some information on coffee physiological functions and eco-physiological responses available. 3. Long-term: Results of various coffee pruning and handling trials compiled and disseminated; Improved and /or fine-tuned agronomic practices compiled as production manual and disseminated; Certain cost effective management practices developed and introduced to growers; Recommendations on proper intercropping, diversification and agro-forestry practices developed and disseminated; Knowledge and information on climate change mitigation options and adaptation under varying scenarios adequately available; Information on different aspects of coffee physiology adequately available. Soils and Water Management Limited recommendation on soil fertility  Update the available fertilizer rate Continue fertilizer rate and fertilizer rate for different soils and recommendations in relation to soil type determination trial according to soil farming systems and farming systems for different agro- type and farming system in ecologies different agro-ecologies and provide appropriate recommendations  Build capacity and provide well organized Strengthen the provision of regular Strengthen the provision of regular regular soil and tissue analytical services tissue and soil analytical services tissue and soil analytical services to and fertilizer rate recommendations to the to the stakeholders in a the stakeholders in a sustainable coffee growers using software that based sustainable manner manner on soil and tissue analysis automatically

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generates the required fertilizer rates  Explore alternative sources of organic Continue the investigation on In collaboration with research- fertilizer (coffee husk, farm yard manure, different sources of organic extension, provide training to the different crops residue/stocks, etc.) and fertilizer and provide growers on how to prepare and apply determine their application rates recommended rates of their the organic fertilizers application  Develop recommendations on optimum combinations of organic-and inorganic- fertilizer application which is cost effective and responsive  Undertake studies on integrated soil fertility Continue the studies on ISFM Develop recommendations on ISFM management (ISFM) practices (organic & practices (organic & inorganic practices (organic & inorganic inorganic fertilizer, improved variety, good fertilizer, improved variety, good fertilizer, improved variety, good agricultural practices, etc.) in collaboration agricultural practices, etc.) in agricultural practices, etc.) that could with other disciplines that could maximize collaboration with other disciplines maximize productivity and nutrient & productivity and nutrient & water use that could maximize productivity water use efficiency efficiency and nutrient & water use efficiency Land degradation, soil nutrient  Develop management options for soil Continue development of best depletion, and increasing acidity in erosion control and soil fertility management options for soil most coffee growing areas improvement erosion control and fertility management  Survey and identify problematic coffee soils Continue the studies on the such as acidity which is on the rise in management of soil acidity and many coffee growing areas and develop other soil problems and develop management options recommendations on different management options  Develop soil moisture conservation Continue the development of soil Complete the studies and develop techniques and irrigation system for sloppy moisture conservation techniques recommendations on soil moisture lands and moisture stress areas in and irrigation system for sloppy conservation and irrigation practices collaboration with agronomy/physiology lands and moisture stress areas in that best fits to coffee culture discipline collaboration with agronomy/physiology discipline Limited information on coffee byproduct  Develop practical recommendations on Continue the study and develop utilization and waste management efficient utilization of coffee byproducts recommendations on the utilization (pulps & husks) as organic fertilizer of coffee byproducts and (including its rate of application), biofuel disseminate the results [54]

and other possible forms  Develop coffee effluent management Develop recommendations on Together with relevant government options and identify proper locations for the coffee effluent management bodies formulate guidelines for establishment of pulping stations to avoid options and guiding principles for effluent management and coffee river pollution and hazards to human and the identification of proper pulping pulping stations establishment animals stations

Salient Outputs Expected from Strategic Interventions on soils and Water Management: 1. Short-term: Proper system established for sustainable supply of soil and tissue analytical services to the coffee growers and service delivery commenced; cost effective and optimum organic and inorganic fertilizer recommendations available; survey and identification of acidic coffee areas completed; development of proper practices on soil moisture conservation, supplementary irrigation, fertility management and ISFM commenced; ample information available on coffee by product utilization and effluent management 2. Medium-term: Up-to-date fertilizer recommendation available for different agro-ecologies; recommendations available on different sources of organic fertilizer and proper rate of application; proper soil erosion control, soil acidity and fertility management practices developed; complete recommendation on efficient use of coffee byproducts and effluent management practices developed and disseminated. 3. Long-term: soil and tissue analytical services provided to the growers adequately; full recommendations available to the growers on proper use of organic fertilizer and ISFM practices; efficient soil moisture conservation and supplementary irrigation techniques developed and disseminated; guide lines for effluent management and installations of pulping stations formulated and enacted. Crop protection (Coffee Pathology, Entomology and Weed Sciences) (a) Coffee pathology Persistent problems of major diseases  Standardize or fine tune pre-selection tests (CBD, CWD, CLR) for CBD, CWD and CLR considering methods available elsewhere in order to maximize selection efficiency and correlation with field resistance  Together with coffee breeding division, Continue pre-selection and field Generate list of resistant lines that commence comprehensive screening testing for resistance to the three may be directly recommended for program for resistance to CWD, CLR and major diseases commercial use or used in the CBD with special emphasis on the first two. breeding program to combine other (CLR has become very aggressive in desirable traits moisture stress areas of Eastern and South eastern Ethiopia)  Develop recommendations on integrated Continue the development of Develop recommendations on best disease management options that integrated disease management integrated disease management minimizes cost and maximize efficiency of options for each of the major practices for each of the major disease control diseases diseases and disseminate the [55]

technologies  Compile the available information and Complete the compilation of prepare booklets, leaflets and training information and preparation of modules explaining the description, booklets, leaflets and training symptom and control methods of these modules on the major diseases major diseases  Provide regular training program to Provide regular training program to Provide regular training program to development agents in coordination with development agents in development agents in collaboration ECTDMA coordination with ECTDMA with ECTDMA Regular disease survey program at  Conduct national survey of coffee diseases Organize the second national survey certain time interval is lacking intended to understand the status of all to continue regular inspection of known coffee diseases in Ethiopia and coffee diseases in Ethiopia identify new ones (if any)  Prepare a booklet containing complete list Based on the survey result, revise the of major and minor coffee diseases in previous booklet (containing complete Ethiopia with their detailed description list of major and minor coffee diseases (symptom, biology, geographic distribution, in Ethiopia with their detailed etc.) description) and publish the second edition Emergence of new coffee diseases  Study and generate information on the Continue the study on the biology, (BBC, CTB) biology, epidemiology and incidence as epidemiology and incidence as well as severity of bacterial blight of coffee well as severity of bacterial blight (BBC) and coffee thread blight (CTB) of coffee (BBC) and coffee thread blight (CTB)  Develop pre-screening and field evaluation Standardize pre-selection and field methods for both new diseases evaluation methods for both new diseases  Develop control methods including Prepare leaf lets and training Continue the training of relevant chemical and cultural methods modules vis-à-vis control methods stakeholders on the control methods and typical symptom and provide and diagnosis of these diseases in the continuous training to relevant field stakeholders  Organize the required facilities and skill to Undertake effective screening continue screening work for resistance commence screening for resistance to both work for resistance to both new to both new diseases among national new diseases among national collections diseases among national collections collections [56]

Support to coffee breeding program in  Draw proper plan and participate in continue germplasm collection and Continue germplasm collection and variety development process is not well germplasm collection and undertake rigorous screening for resistance rigorous screening for resistance to strategized rigorous screening for resistance to major to major diseases as a major major diseases as a major diseases (CLR, CWD, CBD, etc.) as a components of pathology activities components of pathology activities major components of pathology activities  Strictly test promising breeding materials Continue testing of promising Continue testing of promising breeding for their resistance to major and minor breeding lines for their resistance lines for their resistance to major and diseases before or during variety trial to major and minor diseases minor diseases (b) Entomology Coffee insect pests of minor importance  Investigate and provide adequate Continue investigation on the Compile results and prepare a booklet in the past (Antestia, Blotch leaf minor, information on the biology, abundance, biology, abundance, spatial that provides comprehensive thrips and green scale) are becoming spatial distribution, etc. of anthestia, BLM, distribution, etc. of anthestia, BLM, description about the four insect pests major ones green scale and thrips green scale and thrips  Develop recommendations on different Continue investigation and Continue investigation and control options including chemical, cultural, development of recommendations development of recommendations on biochemical and natural enemies for the on different control options different control options including control of the four insect pests including chemical, cultural, chemical, cultural, biochemical and biochemical and natural enemies natural enemies for the control of the for the control of the four insect four insect pests pests  Develop cost effective integrated pest Continue developing cost effective Compile the results of different options management (IPM) option that is readily integrated pest management (IPM) investigated for the control of the four available for use when the insects reach options that is readily available for insect pests and widely disseminate their respective economic threshold level use when the insects reach their the results respective economic threshold level  Develop pre-selection methods for the four Undertake further studies and Depending on the demand, insect pests that is effective and highly standardize the pre-selection tests commence screening for resistance to correlate with field resistance for screening against the three these insect pests pests Regular coffee insect pests survey  Conduct national survey of coffee insect Organize the second national survey program at certain time interval is pests intended to understand the status of to continue regular inspection of lacking all known coffee insect pests in Ethiopia coffee insect pests in Ethiopia and identify new ones (if any)  Prepare a booklet containing complete list Based on the survey result, revise the of major and minor coffee insect pests in previous booklet (containing complete [57]

Ethiopia with their detailed description list of major and minor coffee insect (symptom, biology, geographic distribution, pests in Ethiopia with their detailed etc.) description) and publish the second edition (c ) Weed Science There are a number of noxious coffee Survey and Compilation of Information on Coffee Weeds in Ethiopia weeds with little knowledge about their  Survey and identify noxious coffee weeds Compile information and prepare Study and generate more information biology, spatial distribution and control in different agro-ecologies of the coffee booklets on the biology, spatial on noxious coffee weeds in Ethiopia methods growing areas in Ethiopia distribution, abundance and control methods of major coffee weeds available in Ethiopia and list of minor weeds with some information  Conduct regular inspection at certain time Continue similar inspection of Continue similar inspection of invasive interval on invasive weeds in coffee based invasive weeds and develop weeds and develop control measures farming system and aware the community control measures (if any) (if any) Develop Recommendations on Cost Effective Control Options  Develop recommendation on integrated Continue investigation and Continue investigation and weed management (IWM) practices which development of recommendations standardizing the recommendations is cost effective and responsive in terms of IWM practices which is cost on IWM practices which is cost plant growth and productivity effective and responsive effective and responsive  Conduct regular testing and screening of Continue testing and screening of Continue testing and screening of new new herbicides to verify company new herbicides to verify company herbicides to verify company recommendations in terms of efficacy and recommendations in terms of recommendations in terms of efficacy cost effectiveness efficacy and cost effectiveness and cost effectiveness  Undertake investigations on cultural control Continue investigations on cultural Continue investigations on cultural methods such as weeding, digging, use of control methods such as weeding, control methods such as weeding, different cover crops, etc. and digging, use of different cover digging, use of different cover crops, combinations of these to come up with cost crops, etc. and combinations of etc. and combinations of these to effective and applicable practices these to come up with cost come up with cost effective and affordable by the smallholder coffee effective and applicable practices applicable practices affordable by the growers affordable by the smallholder smallholder coffee growers coffee growers No information on the impact of  Study the impacts of herbicides on the Continue the studies on the Compile the results of the studies herbicides on the environment environment specifically on soil micro- impacts of herbicides on the develop recommendations on the organisms, honey bees, coffee quality, etc. environment specifically soil micro- appropriates precautions and [58]

organisms, honey bees, coffee measures to be taken quality, etc. Salient Outputs Expected from Strategic Interventions on Crop protection (Coffee pathology, Entomology and Weed Science): 1. Short-term: Pre-selection test for CBD, CWD and CLR standardized in comparison other countries and intensive screening for resistance conducted; regular training program launched on the diagnosis and control of coffee diseases; National survey of coffee diseases, insect pests and weeds undertaken and complete list including their detailed description prepared in booklet for coffee diseases, insect pests and weeds in Ethiopia separately and disseminated; Pre-selection test and evaluation methods for BBC and CTB developed; National coffee collections and promising breeding lines continuously evaluated for diseases; Detailed studies conducted on the different aspects (biology, epidemiology, spatial distribution, control methods, etc.) of antestia, BLM, grren scale and thrips conducted and pre-selection methods developed for each one of them; various weed control methods including IWM practices studied to develop cost effective and efficient methods of control; the impacts of herbicides on the environment studied 2. Medium-term: A booklet dealing with the description, symptom and control methods of the important coffee diseases prepared; training modules prepared and regular training program on coffee diseases provided; the biology and control methods of BBC and CTB studied and their evaluation methods standardized; Large number of national coffee collections and promising breeding lines evaluated/screened for resistance to the important diseases mainly CWD, CLR and CBD; the biology, spatial distribution, and various methods of control (chemical, cultural, biological i.e. predators and biochemical and IPM) for antestia, BLM, green scale and thrips studied; Preselection test and evaluation methods for the three insect pests standardized; A booklet with a complete lists and description of coffee weeds in Ethiopia prepared and distributed; cost effective and efficient weed control measures developed. 3. Long-term: a number of promising lines resistant to CWD, CLR, CBD and others available; Cost effective and efficient IPM practices developed for the control of important coffee diseases; In collaboration with ECTDMA, the continuous training program on the diagnosis and control of important coffee diseases implemented; the second national survey of coffee diseases and insect pests and preparation of the revised version of the booklet based on the survey results completed; the continuous screening program of national collections for resistance to important diseases implemented; a booklet with complete description of important insect pests (antestia, BLM, green scale and trips) prepared and distributed; recommendations developed on different methods of controlling important insect pests; IWM practices standardized and investigation on developing cost-effective and efficient weed control methods completed; Recommendations developed on the appropriate measures and precautions to be taken to prevent the impacts of herbicides on the environment (soil micro-organisms, honey bees, etc.)

Coffee Processing and Quality Improvement Persistent quality problem emanating  Launch long-term program and sufficiently Continue training of more Continue training of more extension from poor processing practices disseminate the available pre-and post- extension officers (DAs and SMS) officers (DAs and SMS) on pre- and harvest processing practices through on pre- and post-harvest post-harvest processing practices training of extension officers ( DAs and processing practices SMS) who shall in turn train the grassroots small holder coffee growers  Prepare training modules in more precise Update coffee processing Update coffee processing and easily understandable style and recommendations and modules recommendations and modules from provide to the extension officers (DAs & from time to time time to time SMS) to train the growers  Advise the relevant bodies to build the Continue providing technical

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financial capacity of the small holder backstopping to the relevant farmers (who produce over 90% of the bodies in organizing farmers and supply) in order to enable them to properly facilitating loan and making apply the recommended pre-and post- required items accessible to build harvest processing practices their capacity in technology adoption The existing wet- and dry-processing  Update the available recommendations on Continue the investigation to refine Develop recommendations on technologies are decades old wet processing practices considering and standardize wet processing improved practices; advise the altitude, temperature and fermentation time practices under different relevant bodies to supply the farmers environments with manageable and mobile hand pulpers and hullers; and farmers’ associations and cooperatives with large size pulping and hulling machines  Revise and fine tune the available dry Continue developing dry Generate improved dry processing processing practices in a way it is cost processing technologies that are technologies that is applicable and effective and affordable by the smallholder simple, applicable and affordable affordable by the smallholder coffee coffee producers by the smallholder coffee producers producers  Develop precise recommendation on optimum level of drying (% moisture) of the green beans for export and advise the relevant bodies for its implementation at all levels (high priority) Lack of research on value addition and  Build capacity and undertake complete Continue building capacity and Continue building capacity and processing machines coffee quality analysis including sensorial, advancing the scope of coffee advancing the scope of coffee quality biochemical and physical while testing quality studies including the studies including the chemistry and samples for quality test chemistry and biochemical biochemical analysis and identify analysis important parameters determining quality  Develop recommendations on secondary Continue investigation and Compile the technologies generated processing practices (roasting and grinding developing technologies on best on secondary processing practices levels, packaging design, etc. ) intended to secondary processing practices intended to add value to the coffee develop different forms of products for and transfer the technologies to product and effectively transfer to the value addition the processors and entrepreneurs processors and entrepreneurs  Study the effects of newly introduced Develop recommendations and

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artificial- and solar-driers on the inherent advise large scale plantation quality of coffee in order to advice large owners on the advantage and scale coffee plantation companies disadvantage of the different types of artificial driers  Build knowledge on the operation, Continue building knowledge and Continue building knowledge and maintenance and improvement of coffee conducting simple engineering conducting simple engineering processing machines (pulpers, roasters, experiments on the operation, experiments on the operation, grinders, driers and demuscillagers) to maintenance and improvement of maintenance and improvement of assist both small- and large-scale coffee different processing machines different processing machines farmers and processors Limited support to coffee breeding  Develop simple and quick methods of Standardize screening techniques program for variety development mass-screening for quality traits for quality to assist the breeding program for quality  Screen the available accessions in the field Continue screening of the Continue screening of the available gene bank for different quality traits available accessions in the field accessions in the field gene bank for gene bank for different quality different quality traits traits  Thoroughly test and document the Thoroughly test and document the promising lines and the released varieties promising lines and the released for different quality characters using varieties for different quality sensorial, biochemical and physical characters using sensorial, analysis biochemical and physical analysis  Develop capacity and assess accessions, Continue developing capacity and Continue assessing accessions, core core collections, landraces and wild types assess accessions, core collections, landraces and wild types for low caffeine as a matter of top priority collections, landraces and wild for low caffeine as a matter of top types for low caffeine as a matter priority and identify genotypes with of top priority low caffeine content  Generate information on the effects of Continue the investigation and Based on the results of the previous natural environment (altitude, soil type and identify critical environmental studies, identify potential areas with composition, weather condition, etc.) on factors determining the quality of their own specific flavor quality and quality to base on in quality profile mapping coffee in a particular area taking embark on “Ethiopian coffee quality and establishment of traceability records genetic factor in to account profile mapping project” Salient Outputs Expected from Strategic Interventions on Coffee Processing and Quality Improvement: 1. Short-term: Well organized training modules and leaflets available and regular training provided to DAs and SMS on pre- and post-harvest processing practices; In collaboration with ECTDMA, farmers capacity of adopting improved coffee processing practices built; various trials conducted to refine the available dry- and wet- processing recommendations; optimum moisture content of green beans for commercial purpose determined; coffee quality research program will be reoriented to

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focus on not only on organoleptic (sensorial) analysis but also consider quality improvement, value addition and processing machines operation and re-engineering; the effects of artificial driers and demuscillagers on quality studied; screening method for quality traits developed; Effects of environmental factors (eduphic and climatic) on quality studied. 2. Medium-term: Large number of mobile hand pulpers and hullers distributed to farmers; Training on pre- and post-harvest processing intended to train as many as possible number of DAs and SMS conducted; various wet- and dry-processing trials conducted and the existing recommendations updated and standardized; the capacity of coffee processing laboratory built in both skilled human power and facilities and coffee quality research program transformed to the highest level conducting research on bean chemistry, value addition and processing machines; screening for quality traits among national collections, evaluation of core coffee collections for quality traits, and variety development for special quality that fits to niche markets commenced. 3. Long-term: Training on pre- and post-harvest practices and updating or fine tuning of the practices to revolutionize quality improvement activities at all levels undertaken; more advanced recommendations developed on pre- and post-harvest processing practices; Relevant government bodies advised to import affordable and manageable mobile hand pulpers and hullers for use by smallholder coffee growers; capacity building and advancing coffee quality research program continues; Recommendations developed on quality improvement, value addition and proper use of processing machines at different levels.

Research-extension, Socio-economics and Gender (a) Research-Extension Overwhelming demand by  Recruit adequate number of skilled stakeholders for all kinds of services Research- Extension staff that can provide against limited research capacity adequate extension services to the stakeholders  Develop well organized extension service Continue providing appropriate Continue providing appropriate plan to provide extension services (training extension serves expected of extension serves expected of research of DAs & SMS, pure seed/seedling supply, research on regular basis to satisfy on regular basis to satisfy the need of etc. ) on regular and sustainable basis the need of the relevant the relevant stakeholders stakeholders  Build human, logistics and coordination In order to effectively and rapidly Continue transfer of package research capacities of research-extension and transfer research technologies technologies to the growers through expand the pre-scaling up of package directly to the grassroots coffee the expansion of the pre-scaling up technologies that has been already started growers, continue expanding the approach on certain model farmers’ farms in certain pre-scaling up approach already areas (the best technology dissemination started on limited model farmers’ approach) farms Weak research and extension linkage  Identify key stakeholders that includes governmental and non-governmental organizations affiliated with coffee development along the value chain  Develop viable research and extension Strengthen the research and Strengthen the research and [62]

linkage system in collaboration with the key extension linkage established and extension linkage established and stakeholders including share of continue providing the required continue providing the required responsibilities of each for effective transfer services effectively and regularly services effectively and regularly of technologies from research to end users via extension agents (b) Socio-economics Lack of Market Research on Internal  Conduct case studies on internal coffee Conduct stringent and systematic and External Marketing Systems marketing system and advice the market intelligence data gathering and government to draw rules of procedures advise relevant bodies to develop that protects the farmers from unfair appropriate internal and external exploitation by the brokers, collectors and coffee market development strategy middle merchants  Study the root causes of illegal domestic Provide continuous feedback to and cross-border trading and advice the the relevant government body to government on the possible ways of draw more stringent rules and stopping such malpractices regulations to effectively control illegal trading  Study internal and external market Compile the results of all market situations and the root causes of price studies and advice relevant body volatility and advice the government on to establish viable internal and possible solutions to protect the farmers external marketing system that from such market shock and offer them fair equally benefits all the actors farm gate price along the value chain Limited research on the economics of  Conduct regular impact assessment and Continue regular impact Continue regular impact assessment released technologies cost-benefit analysis of the released assessment and cost-benefit and cost-benefit analysis of the technologies and advice the farmers on analysis of the released released technologies and advice the best possible options of using it in cost technologies and advice the farmers on best possible options of effective manner farmers on best possible options of using it in cost effective manner using it in cost effective manner  Produce precise information on cost of Taking in to account the economic coffee production, out-turn and socio- benefits of coffee to the nation as cultural benefits to counter-check against compared to other competitive other competitive high value crops such as crops, advise the government to khat (khata edulis), set best farm gate support the producers vis-à-vis against cost of production, and encourage input supply, farm tools, access to coffee farmers to continue producing credit, etc.

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coffee sustainably  Study the adoption rate of the released Identify critical bottle necks to the Conduct regular adoption rate studies technologies specifically that of pre- and adoption of research technology for every newly generating research post-harvest processing and agronomic and develop recommendations technologies practices in order to identify key which are useful to address the bottlenecks to technology transfer problems and maximize adoption rate (c ) Gender mainstreaming Inadequate training, awareness  Embark on sensitization and awareness Continue sensitization and Advise relevant bodies on different creation and encouragement to involve creation of the coffee community on the awareness creation of the coffee alternative measures to be taken to women and youth in coffee production significance of gender mainstreaming to community to encourage more empower women and youth and & trade attract the involvement of more women and women and youth involvement in maximize their participation in coffee youth in coffee production and coffee production and related business entrepreneurship entrepreneurship  Promote participation of women in training Continue training more and more Continue training more and more programs and use of improved women and youth on good coffee women and youth on good coffee technologies in all coffee based farming management practices and management practices and system agribusiness agribusiness Salient Outputs Expected from Strategic Interventions on Research-extension, Socio-economics and Gender: 1. Short-term: Capacity built in skilled human power, facilities and finance; well organized research extension system established; key stakeholders identified, consulted and viable research and extension linkage (RELK) system established; research technology transfer services accelerated to cover large number of growers; internal and external marketing constraints studied and effective system established; rules and regulations established to prevent illegal coffee trade; Floor price and market information dissemination system established to benefit coffee growers; information on the impacts of the released technologies available; cost of coffee production and factors contributing to technology adoption rate determined; sensitization and awareness creation of the coffee community conducted to encourage more involvement of women and youth in coffee production and trade 2. Medium-term: Extension services provided in a more coordinated, regular and sustainable manner; Research and extension linkage system (RELK) more fine-tuned and strengthened; More accurate and detailed data available on market intelligence for use by policy makers to develop proper coffee market policies; impact assessment of released technologies conducted and the results available to users; With strong evidence from research, the government shall provide different forms of incentives to coffee producers as oppose to those producing other competitor crops such as Khat (Khata edulis); critical bottle necks to any research technology adoption identified and addressed; empowerment and involvement of more women and youth in coffee production and trade realized. 3. Long-term: More coordinated and massive extension serves (training on GAP, pre-basic seed supply, seed or seedling quality control, etc.) provided; pre-scaling up and transfer of package recommendations through model farmers greatly expanded; More accurate market intelligence data collected, analyzed and provided to relevant Government bodies to develop more effective coffee market development strategy and policies; more information available on factors affecting technology transfer and adoption; women and youth involvement in coffee production and trade greatly improved. Biotechnology Limited capacity of the Available  Recruit skilled molecular biologists and

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Biotechnology Laboratory to Undertake provide short- and long-term training to the In vitro Research Activities existing junior staff  Strengthen the biotechnology laboratory in Continue strengthening the Continue strengthening the terms of budget, equipment and supplies, biotechnology laboratory in human biotechnology laboratory in human water and electric supply, waste power, infrastructure, facilities and power, infrastructure, facilities and management, drainage system and so finance finance forth Limited Research on the Optimization  Deploy all possible efforts and resources to Fine tune the TC protocol Continue massive multiplication and of coffee Tissue Culture Protocol complete optimization of coffee tissue continuously and undertake distribution of the released coffee culture protocol in the shortest time massive multiplication and hybrids possible in order to commence massive distribution of the released coffee propagation and distribution of the released hybrids coffee hybrids In vitro Research Intended to Enhance  Organize the required facilities to introduce Depending on the fulfillment of the Effectively conduct advanced Variety Development Process and modern molecular breeding tools (e.g. required facilities, initiate some molecular breeding research intended Selection for Disease Free Materials MAS, double haploids (DH), etc.) to reduce molecular breeding activities to support classical breeding, has not yet Started the classical breeding cycle and also fingerprinting of core collections and provide more genetic information of desired varieties, etc. traits  Organize the required facilities to introduce Initiate some preliminary work on Effectively conduct screening and molecular techniques (cell- and tissue- in vitro screening and selection selection for disease resistance using culture etc.) to enhance the screening and techniques for disease resistance advanced molecular techniques such selection for disease resistance as tissue- and cell- culture Salient Outputs Expected from Strategic Interventions on Biotechnology: 1. Short-term: capacity built in human power, infrastructure, facilities and finance; coffee tissue culture protocol optimized; organization of the required facilities completed to commence some molecular work on breeding and screening for disease resistance. 2. Medium-term: Biotechnology laboratory further strengthened; advanced molecular breeding, screening for disease resistance, finger printing and other priority research activities commenced; the released coffee hybrids effectively multiplied through tissue culture and distributed. 3. Long-term: Biotechnology laboratory fully equipped in all aspects in order to accommodate any kind of advanced molecular research work; massive multiplication and distribution of coffee hybrids continued; advanced molecular research for variety development, disease resistance screening, finger printing of core collections and released varieties, and other relevant activities undertaken. GIS and Agro-meteorology Limited Capacity  Establish standard and fully equipped Complete the establishment and meteorological stations at main- and sub- equipping of the new centers meteorological stations at main

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and sub-centers that is fully operational  Recruit skilled personnel in GIS and agro- Continue human power meteorology at main center and trained development data recorders for sub-stations Limited meteorological data of coffee  Extensively collect and collate the available Commence regular climate data Compile and provide adequate growing areas data to provide adequate meteorological collection through the newly meteorological information to serve as information of the major coffee growing stablished meteorological stations main input for the preparation of the areas to base on for proper follow up of in different coffee growing areas suitability map of traditional and non- changes in suitability and predict future traditional coffee growing areas and possible scenarios supplent this map with satellite imagery dependin on its affordability  Collect all the relevant GIS and agro- Continue collecting all the relevant Prepare GIS based suitability map of meteorological data required to prepare physical and agro-meteorological both traditional and non-traditional GIS based suitability map of both data collection and analysis coffee growing areas of Ethiopiaand traditional and non-traditional coffee and use satellite imagery as as a growing areas of Ethiopia supplement if affordable Salient Outputs Expected from Strategic Interventions on GIS and Agro-Meteorology: 1. Short-term: Standard meteorological stations established in different coffee based agro-ecological zones; the existing meteorological data over years collected and collated for coffee zones climatic analysis; 2. Medium-term: Standard meteorological stations with the required human, physical and financial capacity built in different agro-ecologies/coffee main- and sub-centers; all the relevant physical and climatic data in different agro-ecologies collected and compiled. 3. Long-term: The collected and collated climatic data in different agro-ecological zones under which coffee grows analyzed to see climatic changes over time and predict future possible scenarios; GIS based suitability map of the traditional and non-traditional coffee growing areas developed.

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Table 11. Summary of projected targets expected to be achieved in short-, medium- and long-term for some key components of the strategy

Targets Key Strategy Component Current status Short-term Medium-term Long-term Development Target:  Cultivated coffee area (ha) ≈560,000 650,000 800,000 1,000,000  Annual production (tons) ≈400,000 520,000 800,000 1,200,000  Farm level productivity (t/ha) ≈0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2  Washed coffee export (%) 30 35 40 50  Processed coffee export (%) ≈0.0 2 5 10  Rehabilitation of coffee farms (ha) ≈0.0 175,000 315,000 525,000 Research Targets:  Ex-situ conservation (No of accessions.) 5,500 9,500 14,500 19,500  In situ conservation (No. of sites) 3 5 7 10  Pure-line varieties (No) 34 - 39 44  Hybrid varieties (No) 6 - - 10  Coffee sub-centers (No) 5 - 7 10  Testing Sites (No) 4 - 14 20 N.B.: New sub-centers are largely expected for non-traditional coffee areas and two testing sites under each sub-center have been recommended to be carefully located representing different agro-ecology.

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The Next Step

Obviously, once the strategy plan document is developed and approved, the next step is to prepare a sound implementation plan that illustrates, in detail, a clear step-wise guidance to put the strategy in to action. It is a guideline or road map that helps program/project staff in developing their research program or projects from the developed strategy plan and implement it taking in to account any changes that may emerge during the course of implementation. External and internal Changes are certainly anticipated as the strategy plan is going to last over the coming 15 years. Therefore, the implementation plan needs to encompass among others: Annual work plan, monitoring and evaluation plan which will take place at least every five years corresponding to end of short- medium- and long- term strategic interventions, a plan for periodic assessment of external and internal environmental changes and reassessment of the strategy plan in order to proactively respond to any emerging issues arising from both internal and external environmental changes, and impact assessment of the strategy plan at the end of its completion to obtain adequate feedback on the success stories and draw backs of the plan which would be helpful for the preparation of the next strategy plan.

In addition, the implementation plan need to take in to account among others human resource (research staff and upper management team) required, appropriate organization structure that best fit to the strategic plan developed and easily react to changes, financial strength of the coffee research, and the required facilities. Therefore, in the preparation of the implementation plan, these and several other factors need to be carefully considered and illustrated in detail in order to develop and implement successful projects from the strategic interventions developed for short-, medium- and long-term durations. In doing so, just similar to the strategy plan, a generic guide line need to be developed by EIAR for common use by all commodity research team in the preparation of the implementation plan.

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ANNEXES

Annex 1. Glossary of important terms used in the strategy

Adaptation: Adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climate stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. Various types of adaptation can be distinguished, including anticipatory and reactive adaptation, private and public adaptation, and autonomous and planned adaptation. Climate change: A change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable periods. It refers to any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period. In other words, climate change includes major changes in temperature, precipitation, or wind patterns, among other effects. Genetic diversity: is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary. Genetic diversity serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing environments Geographic information system (GIS): A computer-based system designed to collect, store, manage, and analyze spatially referenced information and associated attribute data. Goal: An observable and measurable result having one or more objectives to be achieved within a more or less fixed timeframe. Livelihoods: A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (stores, resources, claims, and access), and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation; and which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels in the long- and short-term. Mission: A written declaration of an organization's core purpose and focus that normally remains unchanged over time. A mission is different from a vision in that the former is the cause and the latter is the effect; a mission is something to be accomplished whereas a vision is something to be pursued for that accomplishment. Partner: Individual who joins with other individuals (partners) in an arrangement (partnership) where gains and losses, risks and rewards, are shared among the partners.

PEST analysis: one of the strategic planning tools which covers the remote external environment elements such as political, economic, social and technological. It also includes legal/regulatory and ecological/environmental).

Policy: A statement of course of actions set by the Government in the management of agricultural development affairs which is formulated and implemented at different

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levels of Government. Policy is commonly expressed in the form of laws, rules and regulations, and broad goal oriented guiding declarations. Program: A framework that contains similar activities designed to bring developmental changes (result-based); it is designed to enhance growth with a continuous resource allocation from internal and external sources. Project: is a unique and time urgent work effort to provide a result according to a certain specification and within fixed time and budget limit. Resilience: The ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate, and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions Stakeholder: is a person, a group or an organization that has interest or concern in an organization. Stakeholders can affect or be affected by the organization‟s actions, objectives and policies. Strategy: The route to achieve the desired policy goals via specific elaborations of the resources to be mobilized (means). Strategies link the policy goals to programs that are set in a given plan period. User: Entity that has authority to use an application, equipment, facility, process, or system, or one who consumes or employs a good or service to obtain a benefit or to solve a problem, and who may or may not be the actual purchaser of the item. Values: Important and lasting beliefs or ideals shared by the members of a culture about what is good or bad and desirable or undesirable. Values have major influence on a person‟s behavior and attitude and serve as broad guidelines in all situations. Some common business values are fairness, innovation and community involvement. Vision: An aspiration description of what an organization would like to achieve or accomplish in the mid-term or long-term future. It is intended to serve as a clear guide for choosing current and future courses of action. See also mission statement

Annex 2: Coffee research center, sub-center and testing sites in the major coffee growing areas of Ethiopia

Center Establishment Total land Elevation Mandate Areas year (GC) holding (ha) (m.a.s.l) Jimma* 1967 183 1753 Jimma/Limu Gera** 1974 280 1900 Jimma/Gera highland Agaro*** 1973 15 1630 Limu/Jimma Metu*** 1974 32 1550 Illu Ababora Haru** 1998 76 1750 West Wellega Mugi*** 1973 27 1553 Kelem Wollega Tepi** 1976 100 1200 Tepi/Bebeka Mechara** 2005 50 1800 West Hararghe Awada** 1997 31 1740 Sidama Wenago*** 1974 10 1850 Yirgacheffe *, **, *** represents coffee research center, sub-center and testing sites, respectively

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Annex 3. Coffee varieties released by Jimma Agricultural Research Centre

N0 Variety Year of release Recommended altitude 1 741 1978/78 1550-2100 2 744 1979/80 1550-2100 3 7440 1979/80 1000-1550 4 7454 1980/81 1000-1550 5 7487 180/81 1550-2100 6 74110 1978/79 1550-2100 7 74112 1978/79 1550-2100 8 74140 1978/79 1550-2100 9 74148 1979/80 1550-2100 10 74158 1978/79 1550-2100 11 74165 1978/79 1550-2100 12 754 1980/81 1550-2100 13 75227 1980/81 1550-2100 14 Desu 1998 1000-1750 15 Catiomor J-19 1998 1000-1550 16 Catimor J-2 1998 1000-1550 17 Ababuna* 1998 1550-1750 18 Melko CH2* 1998 1550-1750 19 Mioftu 2002 1550-1750 20 Gawe&* 2002 1550-1750 21 Gesha 2002 1000-1550 22 Merda cheriko 2006 ≥1500 23 Buno washi 2006 ≥1500 24 Yachi 2006 ≥1500 25 Wush wush 2006 ≥1500 26 Angefa 2006 1500-1750 27 Manasibu 2010 Mid-low land 28 Challa 2010 High- land 29 Haru-1 2010 High- land 30 Sende 2010 Mid-low land 31 Feyate 2010 Mid -High land 32 Odicha 2010 Mid -High land 33 Koti 2010 Mid -High land 34 Mocha 2010 Mid -High land 35 Mehara-1 2010 Mid -High land 36 Bultuun 2010 Mid - low land 37 Hamsa 2010 Mid - low land 38 EIAR50/CH* 2015 Mid - low land 39 Melko-Ibsitu * 2015 Mid - low land 40 TepiHC5* 2015 Mid - low land

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Annex 4: Performance of GTP-I targets for coffee production, export volume and value in Ethiopia.

Target Achievement Performance (%) Export Coffee values Coffee Production export (million Production export Export values Export Export Year (tons) (tons) USD) (tons) (tons) (million USD) Production volume value 2010/11 405790 221115 692 363,232 196,119.22 841.7 89.51 88.70 121.63 2011/12 482890 283907 906 498,767 169,392.13 832.9 103.29 59.66 91.93 2012/13 579468 364531 1187 486,685 199,103.58 746.4 83.99 54.62 62.88 2013/14 695362 468052 1555 400,852 190,875.93 718.8 57.65 40.78 46.23 2014/15 831000 600970 2037 449,646 183,840.36 780.2 54.11 30.59 38.30

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Tea Research Strategy

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Introduction

Ethiopia‟s overall economic and social development is highly dependent on the growth and development of the agriculture sector which contributes almost half of the GDP, employs 85% of the labor force, accounts for 75% of the foreign exchange earnings, and provides livelihood for over 80% of the population living mainly in rural areas . After decades of stagnation, the sector has shown remarkable growth at an average rate of l1percentage per annum since 2005. Since the Ethiopian Government made agriculture its primary priority in 1991, Ethiopia has developed and implemented its Agricultural Development Led-Industrialization (ADLI) strategy. The key concept underlying ADLI is an export-led development strategy aimed at promoting economic growth in Ethiopia while coordinating agricultural and industrial development. As export diversification and import substitution program in the country, tea is one of the strategic crops with significant importance in the national economy, which has been given due emphasis by the government to intensify its production and productivity by subsistent farmers and large scale farming.

Tea (Camellia sinensis L.) is one of the most important cash crops of many countries, including Ethiopia. Currently, tea is the most widely consumed stimulant beverage followed by coffee, and accounts for 46% of the world's beverage market. It served as morning drink for nearly two-third of the world population. For use as stimulant, the young shoots (leaves, leaf buds, and internodes) of the tea plant are harvested and processed using various methods. It is consumed in several forms depending on the type of processing technique involved. Of the different tea types; white, yellow, green, oolong and black tea are the major ones prepared and marketed in the world.

Tea was originated in South East Asia, but due to its wide adaptability it is grown under varying agro-ecological condition throughout the world. Today, the tea plant is cultivated throughout the world in all the five continents from latitude of 43 degrees North in Georgia to 27 degrees South in Argentina. However, its cultivation is still concentrated in Asia and Africa, with China, India, Kenya, Sri Lanka and Turkey accounting for 76 % of global production. Of the different tea types, green tea is mainly produced in temperate regions of Asian countries where as Assam type, on the other hand, most widely cultivated the warmer climates of tropical and sub-tropical countries around the equatorial region. Tea was first planted in East Africa in 1900 at Entebbe in Uganda. African tea- producing countries are located mostly around the tropical regions where Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda are major producers. Apart from these, other tea growing countries in Africa having minimum contribution to the global production include Burundi, Cameroon, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Mauritius, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. Unlike coffee and cocoa, the majority of tea production is consumed locally, in domestic markets. About 85 per cent of global tea production is sold by multinationals, three of which control one-fifth of the market: Unilever (12 per cent), Tata Global Beverages (formerly Tata Tea, 4 %) and Twinings (3 %). China is the largest consumer of tea but per person, Turkey, Ireland, and the United Kingdom are home to the world's biggest tea drinkers.

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Tea in Ethiopia, introduced for the first time in 1927, is relatively a new crop having a recent venture of commercial production. The initial purpose for commencing the tea farms in Ethiopia had been mainly to reduce imports and meet the ever-increasing local demand. Originally, all the tea that was consumed in Ethiopia used to be imported from abroad, mainly Kenya where a substantial amount of foreign exchange was used to spend for importing the tea product. Since 1980s, however, the increased domestic tea production allowed the country not only to satisfy local demands but also to export and earn foreign currency. In the current time, tea companies in the country targeted to increase tea production and productivity and the plan will have significant bearings on the country‟s economic growth and export promotion. . Ethiopian tea is thus fast emerging as a competitive product in the European market and is becoming one of the major sources of income for the national exchequer. Numerous potentials would facilitate the successful development of tea industry in the country. Apart from the conducive and continually improving free market oriented policy environment, the country has various opportunities for the development of its tea sector. These include the availability of a wide-ranging weather and soil conditions conducive for the production of best quality tea, the abundant and capable labor force, low wage levels, preferential access to the European Union markets and proximity to the Middle-East markets.

However, a multitude of problems have been posing sever threat to its development, of which the major ones are: less attention to the tea sub-sector, lack of land use planning, capacity limitations, absence of linkages among stakeholders and conflict of interest, among others.

Owing to the prevailing promising opportunities and potentials in the country, tea industry is one of the most successful sectors that are showing rapid development within a very short period. Investment potential exists in large-scale commercial tea production and modern tea blending and packing industries. The Government has been proactive to increase private investment and out growers in commercial tea plantations in specialized areas.

Until very recently, the cultivation of tea in Ethiopia has been restricted to the expansion of large-scale private farms (Tea plantations of Gumero, Wush wush, Chewaka and Verdanta Harvest). However, presently, the small-scale tea out-growers are rapidly growing-up in vicinities of the existing large tea plantations found in Southwest Ethiopia. Now, the government has established a new Coffee and Tea Development and Marketing Authority (CTDMA) to coordinate the overall interventions along value chains and to meet the GTP-II targets and beyond benefits from the two commodities. The ever- increasing tea domestic consumption and demand in global markets would ensure sustainable production and supply of high quality tea products. Likewise, continuous harvesting of tealeaves can help to supply raw materials to local factories and new integrated agro-industry parks and villages in the country.

Despite the favourable environmental conditions for the production of quality tea in Ethiopian, the improvement of tea production and productivity has been hindered by technology limitation and the direct adoption of all production packages from abroad

[76] mainly due to the weak and infant stage tea research in the country. Accordingly, there is lack of research recommendations for increased production and productivity, scarcity of tea germplasm, and availability of limited number of processing plants with in the country.

In the present day where the expansion of small-scale farmers or out-growers is considerably undertaking, there should be an urgent measure to develop effective extension service and build-up of a strong tea research program in the country. Hence the National Tea Research team needs to be well founded with full equipment of the required material, financial and human resources in all the pertinent research disciplines to enable it well address the prevailing wide gap of technology at all level of production, processing and marketing sector.

In tea, future research effort has to direct towards the adaptation, generation and adoption of technologies suiting to our own conditions, with top priority given in particular to: Tea genetic material enhancement and improved variety development, studies on variability and management of major tea pests (diseases, insects and weeds) associated with tea, at both nursery and plantation conditions, identification of appropriate practices in tea agronomy and physiology, irrigation schemes, soil fertility and plant nutrition and post-harvest management for improved production and productivity of quality tea products for domestic and global markets. Besides, there is conflict of interests in land use planning for expansion of large tea plantations in the natural forest areas, which requires investigation on development of tea- based agro-forestry systems for full participation and benefits of local communities. Future interventions therefore, should target on sustainability of large-scale tea plantations and conservation of the remaining forest areas taking into account the economic, social and environmental aspects. Moreover, adequate information on the costs of production, processing and marketing needs to be researched and scaled up for utilization. Equally important is capacitating the national tea research program to address the serious shortage of research facility and human resource, which is almost nonexistent. Regarding the current weak tea research, it is terribly essential that the research system of the country, which is currently composed of federal and regional research institutes and higher learning institutions, needs immediate attention of coordination in order to ensure effective research to generate solutions to bottleneck problems.

This strategy has, therefore, been developed by different tea research disciplines and will act as the anchor document to guide tea research activities over the next 15 years. It provides an inclusive framework for prioritizing and coordinating research activities towards the achievement of a common vision for the tea commodity based on short, medium and long-term plans.

Rationale for Developing the Strategy In the present days, the demand for technologies and knowledge is changing, because society in general and the agriculture sector in particular are changing. Factors such as sky rocketing cost of inputs and dwindling incomes, urbanization, uneconomical land fragmentation, environmental degradation, and market liberalization have stimulated the demand for better stewardship of natural resources and for increased access to growing

[77] consumer markets. The kind of production technology needed by farmers is also changing, as new inputs and new approaches become available. The quality standards that new technologies must meet are increasingly defined at the global level and farmers‟ products must compete in this level and with imports in the domestic markets. Given the changing global operating environments, research and development of organizations need not only to operate effectively and efficiently, but also to adapt to the changing environment for posterity. The commodity‟s strategic plan will provide the necessary framework and road map for its success in this era of change and competitiveness.

Moreover, with the current government policy of Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP- II), it is important for the Tea Research Program to align its activities with this policy to improve its performance. In this regard, the Tea Research Team has found it necessary to align its activities guided by the objectives and targets of the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) new strategy aligned with GTP-II in order to focus efforts and fast-track desired results contributing to the overall achievement.

Production inputs, with proper utilization of proven technologies and full participation of growers in the implementation process can bring significant success in agricultural sector. In Ethiopia, despite the enormous opportunities fostering tea industry, there are hardly any research effort to guide the increasing tea expansion and development. There is no human resource and facility available in the tea sub-sector. No or very limited budget has been assigned by the government for tea research; neither in the past nor at present. On the other hand, there is a strong push from the producers and industries for improved production and processing technologies applicable to our local conditions. There is great expectation from research in generating and promotion of appropriate technologies suitable for the different agro-ecologies (AEZ), which is totally missing. Therefore, more than ever, there is extremely urgent need to prepare research strategy for tea commodity so that the prevailing technology gaps could be prioritized and addressed in specified time frame of short-term, medium-term and long-term periods.

Vision The vision of the tea research commodity is to see the research system become center of excellence in tea research, technology, information and knowledge and beyond that competently contributes towards bringing Ethiopia to the forefront in tea production in the world.

Mission To avail and promote proven tea technologies, information and knowledge through innovative research for improved productivity, processing or quality, value addition and marketing of tea while ensuring a friendly sustainable natural environment.

Goals The goal of tea research is to enhance export and income of all actors of the value chain in Ethiopia by increasing the production and productivity of tea through efficient development of improved and sustainable tea technologies.

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Objectives To develop, adapt and promote improved tea technologies, information and knowledge increasing the production and productivity of tea and thereby contribute to increased income of all actors in the tea value chain.

Guiding Principles/Values  Changes in attitudes and perceptions on the part of researchers and support staff;  Development and expansion of external and internal linkages;  Team approach and partnership (public and private);  Loyalty and respect to diverse client needs;  Responsibility and accountability;  Environmental consciousness and  Inclusiveness men, women and youth.

Importance of the Tea Commodity

Agriculture Ethiopia is predominantly an agrarian country. Agriculture contributes to almost half of the GDP, employs 85% of the labor force, accounts for 75% of the foreign exchange earnings, and provides livelihood for over 80% of the population living mainly in rural areas. Obviously, the country's future development heavily relies on the efficient and effective mobilization and utilization of agricultural resources. The sector will remain as the mainstay of the Ethiopian economy for unforeseen future and continues to contribute a lot in the social, cultural, economic and political scenario of the country. Recent changes in the national economic policy, as articulated in the programs; Agricultural Development Led Industrialization policy (ADLI) and a Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End Poverty 2006-2010 serve as the necessary institutional platform and a fillip towards a rapid and sustainable growth and development of the agricultural sector

The national GTP- II and I also provide even greater emphasis to the agriculture that the sector would continue to be the main source of economic growth and supply raw materials for the growing agro-industries and import substitutions. Tea is among important components of Ethiopian agriculture sector contributing in the import substitutions and growth of the national economy. Worth mentioning is the role of tea industry in employing large number of permanent and temporary employees. The crop also contributes significantly to the development of rural infrastructure. Tea, unlike many plantation crops, is generally environmentally friendly. One established its canopy covers the entire ground and contributes to environmental conservation through enhanced water infiltration, reduced surface soil erosion, and mitigation of global warming through carbon sequestration.

Agro-ecology Today, the tea plant is cultivated throughout the world in all the five continents from latitude of 43° N in Georgia to 27° S in Argentina. Tea thrives best in regions where the annual rainfall is at least 1500 mm with mean air temperature of 18 – 20 0C, average [79] humidity of 70 - 90 per cent and five hours of sunlight per day. Although tea grows on soils of diverse origin, acid soils that are fertile, well drained, rich in humus and with a pH value between 4.5 and 5.5 are ideal for tea production. When other climatic conditions are met, tea can also thrive well in areas, which were previously planted with other stimulant crops such as coffee. This indicates the fact that tea can be grown in areas, which are ideal for coffee production.

In Ethiopia, tea has grown in the highland dense forest regions of Southwest part of a country where Arabica coffee is believed to be originated and thrives best under shade environments. The area offers ideal climatic conditions and soil type for the growing of good quality tea. The main difference in the production system of fresh tealeaf in southwest highlands of Ethiopia with other country is that, tea grown in high altitudes without dormancy and without irrigation due to the presence of eight-month long rainy season and the plant harvested many times per year with a low agricultural input. The favorable agro-climatic conditions of the country (Annex 2) offer excellent opportunities for production and processing of tea for both export and domestic consumption. Currently, there are three privately owned (Wush wush, Gumero and Chewaka) big plantations that produce tea in a large scale. There is also an increasing demand of tea production by out-growers near the three plantation sites. All these tea plantations are located in the agro-ecology (AEZH2) that is highly suitable for tea production. The available meteorological data of each of the plantation are also indicated in Table (Annex 3).

Genetic Diversity The family Thecae comprises twenty-three genera mostly distributed in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of S. E. Asia and America. The only genus economically important in the family is Camellia, which includes about 80 species.. Generally, tea chromosomes are small and tend to clump together due to „stickiness‟. Tea is diploid (2n = 30; basic chromosome number, x = 15) and is largely propagated vegetative.

The Assam type tea, which grows particularly well in Equatorial regions at high altitudes and which can be successfully grown at low altitudes in high latitude regions, was introduced to Ethiopia long years ago.

The introduced clones were evaluated for various agronomic performances including susceptibility to drought, pests and diseases. Currently, fourteen tea clones are available in the country (personal communication, 2016). Of these tea clones, currently, about ten clones are extensively cultivated while the remaining clones are under maintenance (Annex 4). The availability of these limited numbers of clones and the nature of the current propagation technique of the crop itself have put serious limitations of variability to be used as source of genetic improvement (personal communication, 2016). In contrast, Kenyan tea research foundation, for instance, has developed over 914 improved clones, out of which 49 clones have been selected for consistent superiority in yield and quality and released for commercial exploitation by both smallholder and large estate growers.

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Production and Productivity Tea production in Ethiopia has vividly shown increasing trend (Table 1) owing to the factors such as increased awareness of people about the nutritional and health benefits of drinking tea and its contribution to the national economy. The ever-raising local and export demand for tea and above all the fertile situations created by the government policies regarding restructuring and privatization are also attributed for an increased tea production in Ethiopia. However, the country is not tapping the potential benefits from the commodity for different reasons. Shortage of trained professionals and lack of strong research strategic plan are some of the major bottlenecks attributing to the slow expansion of tea industry in the country. This calls for concerted efforts of developing short, medium and long-term research strategic plans.

Since tea was introduced in Ethiopia in 1927, , cultivation of the crop has expanded in terms of area planted and volume of tea produced. From 2008 to 2012 (Fig. 1), the country has doubled tea production to more than 6,500 tons. In the last five years (2011/12-2015/16), from about 2660 ha, the total production further increased from 6411 to 8,841 tons, 38% increment (Table 3) meeting growing local demand and export to new customers in Europe and the Middle East. The average productivity has also increased from 0.33 to an average of 0.35 ton (ca 6%) of made tea per hectare (Table 1). In Kenya, however, the tea clones are capable of yielding between 5000 and 8000 kg of made tea per hectare per year (surpassing tea productivity in Ethiopia by 52 – 129%). This significant yield increases in Kenya has been achieved through the development of improved tea clones and production technologies.

For the next five years (2015/16 – 2019/20, GTP-II), Ethio-Agri-Ceft P.L.C. Tea Company (private company owning both Wush wush and Gumero tea plantations) targeted to increase tea production, export and the number of out growers that produce tea on their own farmland (Tables 1 and 2). The plan will have significant bearings on the country‟s economic growth and contribute to the significant shift in export development commodities that are at the core of GTP-II.

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Figure 1. Total made tea production in Ethiopia from 1976 to 2012. Source: FAOSTAT (2013)

Table 1. GTP-II targets for tea production (Qt) by Ethio-Agri-Ceft P.L.C. Tea Company Farm Area(ha) Base 2015/16 2016/17 2017/18 2018/19 2019/20 Wush Wush 1,249 41,675 43,750 45,00 46,250 47,500 48,750 Gumaro 869 29,459 30,415 31,284 32,153 33,022 33,891 Total 2,118 71,134 74,165 76,284 78,403 80,522 82,641 Productivity(qt/ha) 34 35 36 37 38 39

Table 2. GTP-II targets from tea production (Qt) from out-growers Farm Base 2015/16 2016/17 2017/18 2018/19 2019/20 Wush Wush 475 500 1,619 3,383 5,383 7,541 Gumaro 504 530 1,168 2,296 4,238 6,311 Total 979 1,030 2,787 5,679 9,621 13,852

Table 3. Trends of made tea production (ton) in Ethiopia from 2011/12 to 2015/16 Production year Plantations Total Wush wush Gumero Chewaka 2011/12 3163.3 2247.6 1000.0 6410.9 2012/13 3996.4 2647.1 1318.2 7961.7 2013/14 3931.4 2946.8 1771.9 8650.1 2014/15 4163.6 2702.8 1849.9 8716.3 2015/16 4190.9 2704.7 1945.2 8840.8 Productivity 0.33 0.34 0.37 0.35 (ton/ha) Source: Wush wush, Gumero and Chewaka tea plantation planning

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Food and Nutrition Tea remains the most inexpensive beverage where it is currently used in different forms. In the United States ice tea is very common in the South and is increasing in popularity. It is now canned as a noncarbonated soft drink. Herbal teas made from other plants have increased in sales. In Arab countries, especially in Morocco, infusions of tea plus mint are very common.

Tea leaves have more than 700 chemical constituents (Table 4), among which flavonoids, amino acids, vitamins (C, E, K), caffeine and polysaccharides are important to human health. Importantly, the vitamin C content in leaves is comparable to that of lemon. Tea is a fine modulator of physiological functions in the human. It has beneficial effects in ant senescent activity, immune function, intestinal micro flora deodorizing and detoxication. It depresses blood pressure and prevents coronary heart disorder, lipid depression, corpulence depression, antiviral and germicidal activity and prevents dental decay.

The bioactive molecules in the species belong to a family of polyphenols (catechins) and flavenols, which possess potent antioxidant activity. Other antioxidants in tea include ascorbic acid and tocopherols, tannins, which are large polyphenol molecules, form the bulk of the active compounds in tea, with catechins comprising nearly 90 % (Table 4). A cup of green or black tea may provide 10 – 40 mg of polyphenols and has antioxidant activity greater than serving of most vegetables and fruits such as spinach, carrots, broccoli and strawberries. The tea catechins provide beneficial health effects against cancer, heart disease, suppressed immune function and accelerated aging. Tea antioxidants have been demonstrated to protect the genetic material (DNA) from damage induced by free radicals and could even slow or halt the initiation and progression of cancerous tumor growth.

Tea has also been associated with lowering levels of cholesterol, decreasing fat tissue accumulation, inhibition of inflammation; normalize diabetes and enhancement of oral health. One of the unique amino acids, L-thiamine found in tea has been demonstrated to have antihypertensive properties and to reduce the symptoms associated with premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and to enhance the body defense against infection. Because of the demonstrated pharmacological value of catechins, numerous decaffeinated polyphenols and supplements are currently being used as drugs. Table 4. Principal Components of Black Tea Beverage Components Concentration (g/100g) Catechins 3 Theaflavins 3 Thearubigins 12 Flavenols 6 Phenolic acids and Depsides 10 Amino acids 13 Methylxanthines 8 Carbohydrates 10 Protein 0.8 Mineral matter 8 Volatiles 0.05 Components measured in wt. percentage of extract solids

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Tea by-products have received attention in recent years mainly in the utilization of low quality made tea for tea pigment, tea polyphenol and caffeine. Antioxidant properties of tea extracts have been exploited for preservation in the food industry and as an ant senile agent. Tea pigment is used in the food industry; tea caffeine is preferred because of its natural origin and tea saponin finds a place in medicine preparation. Saponin has high surface activity and is used in the cosmetic and chemical industries. Tea seeds also contain oil used as lubricant, though extraction from seeds is not yet economical.

Mineral substances constitute 3.5-7.0% of dry weight. Inorganic compounds are divided into two groups – water-soluble (2-4%) and non-water-soluble (1.5-3%). Many mineral substances are bound to complex compounds but being in colloid state are susceptible to dissolution in water and releasing into tea infusion enhance nutrient value of a beverage and can beneficially influence upon human organism. Tea is a natural complex of mineral elements that are actively included in a process of formation of other substances. These elements are present in optimal amounts and, besides that in a form optimally suitable for assimilation. There are various mineral elements in tea and they are presented in following table.

Economy Tea industry makes a vital contribution to the economy of producing countries. The industry played an important role to national economy in terms of export earnings, government revenue and employment for rural households. In the global tea market, the two most important types of tea traded are black tea and green tea. Black tea is predominantly produced and exported by Kenya and Sri Lanka. Green tea is mainly grown, and consumed by China (UNCTAD, 2016). World tea exports reached 1.77 million tons in 2013 that showed a 5 % increase compared to 2012 and export earnings increased by 10 % to USD 5.7 billion. In 2013, world‟s highest tea exporters were Kenya, China, Sir Lanka, India, and Viet Nam. These five countries constitute for 79.1% share of world export and among these Kenya has the highest share that is 23.5% of world tea export (Table 5). In the same year, the country produced 436,300 tons of made tea of which 415,900 tons were exported (FAO, 2015). In Kenya, tea industry provides income and employment opportunities to 600,000 smallholder households and 150,000 workers at tea estates. Smallholders grow over 60% of Kenyan tea and 95% of the country‟s tea is exported as a generic product which is used to blend the low quality teas from other countries (USDA, 2013).

Table 5. Major world tea exporter from 2009 to 2013 (thousand tons) No Country 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 1 Kenya 281.1 362.3 347.5 349.9 415.9 2 China 303.0 302.4 322.6 321.8 329.7 3 Sir Lanka 279.9 305.8 303.2 306.1 311.0 4 India 180.5 182.7 205.3 199.1 209.2 5 Viet Nam 134.1 138.4 122.6 145.0 133.5 Source: FAO IGG Secretariat

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World tea consumption continued to increase in 2013. Total tea consumption increased by nearly 5 percent in 2013 to 4.84 million tons, which was underpinned by the rapid growth in per capita income levels, particularly in China, India and other emerging economies. In 2013, biggest tea consumed countries were China, India, Turkey, Russia, USA, Pakistan, Japan, United Kingdom and Egypt. China and India were the highest exporters and in contrary the highest consumer of tea in the world. During 2009 to 2013, tea consumption increased by nearly 24% to reach 4.8 million tons in 2013 (Table 6). Tea is world‟s most popular and lowest cost beverage drinks after water and it is consumed both at home and at work places (FAO, 2015). As urbanization grows, particularly in cities and towns, tea is widely consumed at almost all meals, during break times, at conferences and seminars and at colleges and hospitals. A wide range of tea types is consumed around the world but black tea is the most consume.

Table 6. Major world tea consumption from 2009 to 2013 (thousand tons) No Country 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 1 China 1045.3 1188.5 1314.5 1481.7 1614.2 2 India 822.1 818.3 922.3 939.2 1001.4 3 Turkey 202.4 241.9 227.4 227.2 228.0 4 Russia 176.2 177.8 182.2 173.3 159.1 5 USA 108.2 123.8 124.6 122.7 127.4 6 Pakistan 85.7 120.3 126.2 131.3 126.6 7 Japan 124.1 124.0 121.9 121.9 119.1 8 United Kingdom 121.0 119.8 129.3 125.2 116.2 9 Egypt 82.3 65.5 95.7 95.4 99.0 Source: FAO (2013)

In Ethiopia, tea is produced by three estates (private tea plantation) viz. Wush Wush and Gumero (Ethio Agri-Ceft P.L.C), and Chewaka (East Africa P.L.C) in south west of the country. Moreover, out-growers have produced and supplied green tea leaves to the three estates. Currently, the three estates hold a total area of 2660 ha under tea production and out-growers hold 437 ha for tea production. In the last five years (2011/12 to 2015/16), the three estates supplied a total of 4570.78 tons export and 34,126.1 tons of tea for domestic market. Tea industry in Ethiopia has provided income and employment opportunities to 575 out-growers, 7139 temporary per annum and 1157 permanent workers at tea estates. It has provided employment opportunity particularly for youth and women who directly involved in land preparation, seedling production, farm management, harvesting and packing at the rural farm areas. Moreover, the tea estates were proactive to improve community relationship through organizing and supporting smallholders as out- growers in the radius of less than 10 km from the processing plants. At Wush Wush and Gumero, the out-growers were organized in associations to improve their linkages with the companies. The out-growers supply green tea leaves to the estates for export as well as for domestic market. They harvest tealeaves throughout the year and get continuous income for their livelihoods. The estates have provided technical and material supports such as training, supervision, tea seedlings, and credit for inputs, transport service for inputs and outputs and harvesting. There is still an increasing interest from farmers and companies to expand out-grower tea production and thus, waits for legal regulation to improve trust and ensure a win-win relationship.

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Domestic Consumption Before 1988, Ethiopia imported tea from Kenya for domestic consumption. For the period 1983 to 1988, the country spent 36.6 million ETB to import 4363 tons of black tea. However, in 1989 the country started to produce tea at Gumero and Wush Wush. Then country's requirement for tea has been met through domestic production and imports. During 1997 to 2006, total supply to domestic market was on average 5308.68 tons, of which 4716.11 tons from domestic production and the remaining 592.57 tons was from import. Finally, the domestic production enabled the country to be self-sufficient for domestic consumption. In the last GTP-I period, the quantity supplied to domestic market was 34126.1 tons or 84.1% of total production. The volume supplied to domestic market decreased from 7677.15 tons in 2013/14 to 6133.35 tons in 2015/16 (Figure 2). This showed the country leads to export promotion.

Volume for Volume for Volume for Volume for Volume for domestic domestic domestic domestic domestic market(ton)… market(ton)… market(ton)… market(ton)… market(ton)…

Figure 2. Tea volume (ton) supplied to domestic market during 2011/12 to 2015/16 Adopted from Wush wush, Gumero and Chewaka tea estates data (2016)

Supply of Raw Materials for Local Agro-industry Tea is agro-processed crop that can be used as raw materials for tea processing industry. Tea processing factories in Ethiopia dominantly produce black tea that is the most important and accounts for about 75% of world tea production and over 90% of international tea trade Fresh tea leaves harvested or “plucked” year round and supplied continuously to factory for processing. Once leaf is plucked, it should be taken to the factory as quickly as possible. After leaving the factory, it can be further processed locally to manufacture instant tea, packaging into tea bags or packets. The increasing domestic consumption and maximum capacity of the tea processing plants call for collaborative action to support sustainable intensification of tea production by private investors and out- growers at potential tea commercialization clusters. The new integrated agro-industry parks and agro-processing would also require consistent supply of tea as raw materials for processing factories, packers, further processors and blenders.

Export Market and Foreign Currency Earnings Ethiopia started to export tea for the first time in 1993/94. The country exported 1458.5 tons of net tea and earned 6.3 million Birr. For the last five years, export volume reached 4570.78 tons or 15.9 % of total production and earned 162.15 million ETB. The export volume increased from 167.21 tons in 2012/13 to 2009.9 tons in 2015/16. Currently, export volume reached 24.68% of annual production and earned about 3.5 million USD foreign currencies (Figure 3). This shows that the industry started to shift the production

[86] from import substitution to export promotion. The last five years, value from export and domestic market reached 1236.10 million ETB of which 156.18 million ETB from export market and 1079.96 million ETB from domestic market. The export value showed an increasing trend except for the year 2012/13 (Figure 3).

Series1, 2015/16, 2009.9 Series1, Series1, 2013/14, 2014/15, Series1, 935.9 1004.8 2011/12, Series1, 452.93 2012/13, 167.21

Figure 3. Tea export volume (ton) during 2011/12 to 2015/16 Adopted from Wush wush, Gumero and Chewaka tea estates data (2016)

2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16

Value (million ETB) (million Value Export value (million 17.7 8.26 28.71 29.29 78.22 ETB) Domestic value 124.36 180.34 284.79 275.84 214.63 (million ETB)

Figure 4. Tea export and domestic market value trend from 2011/12 to 2015/16 Source: Adopted from Wush wush, Gumero and Chewaka tea estates data (2016)

Environmental Sustainability The experience of other producing countries indicates that tea cultivation is especially important in smallholder systems. In Ethiopian, tea plantation is totally owned by large- scale investors, except emerging out-growers around the tea companies in south-western part of the country. In Assam, Ceylon and Indonesia tea is inter-planted with shade trees such as Albizzia spp., Gravellea spp. and Erythrina spp. In Ethiopia, tea is being produced in mono-culture without shade trees and claimed to be a major cause for deforestation of natural forests, though comprehensive investigations is lacking. Consequently, some selected tree species, including Eucalyptus spp, Gravellea spp and others are being planted as windbreak and source of firewood/energy for cooking fresh green tea leaves. For this, establishment of plantation from highly suitable Eucalyptus species (E.saglina) can be [87] considered as a sustainable afforestation practice to support multiple socio-economic and ecosystem serves at the vicinity of tea estates. There is also limited experience on intercropping tea with other annual crops to increase land productivity and reduce risks from fluctuating climate change and market prices. Hence, tea farming and cropping system would help to reduce soil erosion and nutrient leaching, maintain soil fertility and moisture status, and control pests (weeds, insects and diseases) thereby reduce use of agro-chemicals for production and supply of organic tea products to domestic and global markets. More importantly, well designed and established tea plantation, especially on contour hedge rows, would promote sustainable landscape management for carbon sequestration and enhance climate change mitigation over long-years to be studied and considered in incentive mechanisms (certification, carbon trading, ecotourism) geared towards carbon neutral development strategy. It is therefore crucial to identify the major opportunities and threats for sustainable intensification or diversification of tea production in the country. Both technology aadaptation and generation on agronomic practices should deserve due attentions for increased production and productivity of top quality tea types for domestic and global markets by taking into account the economic, social and environmental sustainability components. Nonetheless, due attention should be given to support policy on land use planning, holistic intervention and awareness creation at all levels on the importance of tea sub-sector to the national economy and livelihood of local communities, while conserving the remaining natural forest resources and environmental sustainability.

Assessment of External and Internal Environments

Assessments of external and internal factors affecting tea research and development (RD) help to understand the available opportunities, expected challenges, strengths and weaknesses that exist and operate in tea RD activities. To this end, the team has gone through identifying and analyzing the external environments that promote tea RD (opportunities) and the possible challenges that systematically affect RD strategic plan. The resources and experiences readily available to the research team and weaknesses that put tea RD at risk are also summarized and presented in table form (Table 7).

Assessment of External Environment

Policy dimension Government, policy makers, academic communities and development practitioners have recognized the central role of agriculture in the country‟s economic growth and development. Tea crop is among the important export products that have a huge potential in transforming the agriculture sector from subsistence to market-oriented mode of production Cognizant of this importance for economic growth and employment opportunity much emphasis has also been given to tea production, processing and marketing systems. Ethiopian government has re-established Coffee and Tea Development and Marketing Authority that enables the sector to be productive, accessible for investors engaged in the sector thereby register remarkable economic growth for improved food security and livelihoods. The availability of such policy environments also promotes tea research and development as well as encourages the establishment of

[88] relevant partnerships among different institutions in and out of the country and further investment in tea production. Legal regulations on formal out-grower system and practical implementation of land use planning and extension system call for urgent actions to ensure effective tea production and marketing systems in the country.

Economic dimension Agriculture contributes directly to the objectives of Ethiopia‟s economic growth and is expected to contribute significantly towards the economic pillar of country‟s vision. Social development is also highly dependent on the growth and development of the agriculture sector. As a rural based enterprise, tea contributes directly or indirectly to the economic growth and social development dimensions. Once established the tea plant provides fresh leaf yields and generates high income per unit of land encouraging smallholder farmers and private investors participating in the sector. In those three plantation farms, cultivation of the crop has expanded rapidly in terms of area planted and volume of tea produced. As mentioned above, tea development creates employment opportunities especially for the farming communities. The expansion of tea growing in different agro-ecological zones and under different socio-economic conditions (e.g. out- growers), calls for concerted efforts in tea research and development, technology and information transfer. Tea RD has to keep pace with the growers‟ need and provide improved technologies targeting the key bottleneck constraints in maximizing labor productivity, minimizing harvesting and postharvest losses for improved livelihood of local community and others involved in the value chain.

Socio-cultural dimension The Ethiopian farmers do not have a long culture of growing tea plants. It is, therefore, essential for the research team together with its key stakeholders to create awareness and promote local tea drinking by rural communities to clearly understand the opportunities and challenges in order to address or change the perception of the farming society. Cognizant of the unique comparative advantages in Ethiopia, special attention should be given to socio-cultural dimensions. Growing tea plant should be considered and handled as such to be economically, socially, environmentally profitable, viable and sustainable venture to be exploited in food security and in fighting poverty. .

Assessment of Internal Environment The human, physical and financial resources have a decisive power on program implementation, coordination and administration. The research team examines the capacity that exists within the national research system to deliver the expected outputs. It is about accessing the strengths and weakness of the tea research program in terms of what is available or lacking. These include human power, physical and financial resources; technological capacity and functional integrations within and between disciplines with complementarities and synergies. Therefore, the level of human resources capacity, financial capacity and the physical resources available and lacking were assessed for each research thematic area as strengths or weaknesses (Table 7).

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Resources The human, financial and physical capacity development is the key area for implementing tea research to generate and transfer improved technology, information, and knowledge to target beneficiaries involved in the tea value-chain. Thus, the lack of qualified human power, laboratories and field facilities are considered for the SWOC analysis.

Intra-and Inter-disciplinary Integrations, Complementarities and Synergies There is no researcher or technical staff dedicated to tea research in Ethiopia. The commencement of this strategy, therefore, depends on researchers working on similar disciplines other than tea. The concerned efforts of an inter-disciplinary research team drawn from breeding and genetics, agronomy and crop physiology, crop protection and socioeconomics and extension is critically important to the success of tea research commodity. There is also a need to strengthen intra-disciplinary integrations, complementarities and synergies with all other relevant research programs.

Technologies Available Tea research in Ethiopia, until very recently, had been virtually missing despite a long time history of commercial tea production in the country. A National Tea Research Project was launched since the first Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP- I) period encompassing very few research works in limited areas. Hence, through the efforts made by JARC and Jima University graduate students, very limited research information has been generated yet mainly in areas related to tea clones performance, propagation media, agronomy and postharvest practices investigations.

Needed In the present day where the expansion of small-scale farmers/out-growers is considerably undertaking in the vicinities of the existing large-scale commercial tea plantations, it is becoming critically important that future research effort should direct towards the promotion of small-scale tea production by supporting and equipment with improved tea technologies. This calls for the generation and adoption of technologies suiting to the specific tea producing localities. Therefore, essential investigations need to be undertaken in the field of breeding and improvement, agronomy and physiology, crop protection, soil and water management, processing, and socio economics aspects. Moreover, effective farmer-research- extension linkages should be forged at various levels to disseminate tea technologies. Regarding tea research capacity, the national tea research project has not been provided with the required human resources and facilities. Hence, it is terribly essential to secure a modest facility and human resource for realizing a strong and fruit full national tea research program.

Organization, Implementation and Geographical Coverage Lack of strong systems and procedures (i.e., organizational capacity) at different levels is an area of capacity impediment that affects effectiveness. Lack of intra- and inter-institutional linkages are also sources of limitation for rapid progress. Organizational strengths and weaknesses that would correspondingly make the growth of tea research to take upward or [90] downward trend were analyzed from the center or institutional level and national level perspectives.

Summaries of SWOC (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Challenges) Analysis by Research Theme In Section 3.0, 3.1 and 3.2, the general aspects of the assessments of external and internal environments were described. Here below, summaries of the SWOCs assessed are presented enumerating critical points with respect to strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and challenges identified in each tea research disciplines/themes.

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Table 7. Summary of the analysis of external and internal environments Research External Environment Internal Environment Themes Opportunities Challenges Strengths Weaknesses General  Favourable agro-ecologies and potential lands for tea  Policy on land use planning not  Start up of tea  Lack of human resource production in the country ; practical and there is conflict of research project and (researchers and technical  Enabling policy environments to support private interests ; activities at Jimma staff) working on tea research companies and out-growers in tea development;  Predominant subsistent-based research centre/sub- ; Inaducate facilities, testing  Establishment of ECTDMA to effectively coordinate extensive agriculture ; centres and Jimma sites and budget for tea coffee and tea sub-sectors ;  Increasing risks from global University ; research.  Existence of experienced tea development PLC; warming, costs of inputs and  Restructuring tea  Government plan to establish integrated agro-industrial volatile prices ; research at national parks;  No legal policy framework on tea program level.  Availability of several research and training institutes in out-growers and importing inputs tea growing areas; (e/..fertilizers) and  Establishment of Agricultural Development Partners  Lack of awareness at all levels, Liasory Council at all levels; insufficient attention given to tea  Availability of introduced research technologies in tea; RD and lack of responsible tea  Experience on interdisciplinary research approach in institution. other crops (coffee);  Increasing interest by smallholders and large scale to expand tea plantation at open fields and  Keen interests of tea estates and farmers for future collaborative research works. Breeding  Availability of international sources enriched with high  Low productivity due to lack of  Availability of few genetic  Narrow genetic Base and and Genetics genetic diversity of tea ; improved varieties for each agro- materials (past lack of characterization ;  High demand for improved varieties mainly due to the ecology; Long year requirement of introductions) which can  Maintenance of tea genetic growing emergence of tea out-growers and expansion breeding work for variety be used as initial resources; of commercial plantations andContinual need of development owing to the perennial materials for breeding and  Lack of multi-location breeding for adverse biotic and abiotic factors such as nature of tea and genetic investigation. evaluation and development climate change adaptation, resistance to emerging  Germplasm exchange /introduction of improved tea clones and diseases and pests hindrance because of property right  Absence of hybridization and protection. advanced breeding approaches

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Agronomy  Availability of introduced agronomic recommendations  Full reliance on production  Adoption of agronomic  Lack of research and Crop at the tea estates; technologies developed elsewhere; practices developed recommendations on Physiology  Availability of some laboratory facilities and trained  High risks of soil erosion and elsewhere; appropriate tea nursery researchers in other commodities to conduct dependence on mineral ferilizers ;  Experience of multiple management particles ; physiological studies in tea production and  Climate change and variability stems, close spacing and  Absence of improved field  Exprience on application of crop modeling tools to causing recurrent drought and frost planting big trees as management and cropping predict scenarios and support climate-smart approach on tea production and windbreak and source of practices for target tea agro on other commodities.  Lack of modern equipments and firewood stocks and facilities (ITC, GIS) to support (Eucalyptus spp).  Lack of basic research on climate change resilient mitigation physiological response of tea and adaptation options. clones under different environments and shade levels. Soil and  Experience on use of mineral fertilizers and construction  High risks of land degradation and  Availability of composts  Lack of recommendations on Water of fertilizer factories in tea growing belt ; declining soil quality/acidity; and green manures as soil fertility and nutrient Management  Government plan to develop soil-analysis for suitability  High investment to develop soil-test sources of organic management technologies for mapping and and crop response based suitability fertilizers ; tea production  Awareness on management of natural resources and mapping.  Attention to liming and  Lack of appropriate priority attention given to conservation and blended fertilizers- micro- technologies on land management of natural forest and wetland areas. nutrients by tea preparation and soil moisture ;development companies conservation practices in  Presence of well- young tea fields and equipped and accredited  Absence of research on tea soil lab at JARC and water requirement and  Research experience on irrigation systems. coffee-based integrated watershed management research. Crop  A very good collaborations and synergies created  luck of trained human power and  experiences of research  Lack of studies on status of Protection among different stakeholders; insufficient daily labourers for centres and universities to tea diseases, insects and  Crop protection experiences and resources available in phytosanitary ; work on the basic aspects weed in tea growing areas; these stakeholders ;  insufficient national priority given to of crop protection ;  Absence of basic information  Encouraging policy on controlled crop protection and tea research;  The presence of plant on biology distribution and  Minimum use of agro-chemicals because of divers agro-  absence of mandatory institution health clinic at different economic damage of major ecological conditions . and parts of tea belt zones. tea diseases, insects and  lack of recommended technologies weeds and Lack of [93]

e.g. herbicides. management for economic importance tea diseases, insects and weeds.

Processing  The growing interest of out-growers and cooperatives ;  lack of organised and well-equipped  Long standing research  Lack of research on tea and Qualiy  Increased export and local consumption demands processing pilot and laboratories for institutes and universities; plucking technologies; Improvement  Increased possibilities of product diversification e.g. tea quality analysis;  Experiences available for  Existence of technology gaps green tea, black tea, spiced tea, orthodox tea ;  Lack of sufficient infrastructures processing and quality on mechanical tea harvesting  Year round and continuous harvesting ; and logistics and analysis and and processing for large- and  Minimum price fluctuations at farm gate and  Lack of mechanized harvesting  Availabilities of small- scale tea producers;  Proximity to international market e.g. Mombasa auction. systems and shortage of labour at experience for technology  Limited knowledge on peak harvesting periods. development and biochemical compositions popularizations. and quality of tea leaves and  Absence of tea blending and packaging technologies. Agricultural  Provide bigger employment opportunity  Tea production needs intensive  Agricultural economics re-  Lack of information on tea Economics  Diversification of tea products and value addition inputs and operational costs organized in to a separate production economics.  Tea production is month round income source  Plucking needs highest number of directorate  No information on farming  High demand in world and domestic markets labour days.  Experiences in system dynamics in tea  Tea price fluctuate in world market. agricultural economics growing areas However, price for out growers not study other crops  Absence of information on fluctuate in accordance with world adoption and impact of tea market technologies on tea out-  Limited access to credit as tea growers needs high inputs.  Limited information on tea  Strong competition in world market marketing (domestic and in terms of quantity and quality export) and value addition supply (blending and packaging). Technology  Established out-grower association around tea factories  Less government involvement or  Technology transfer,  Limited awareness creation, Transfer, ; support to tea production, commercialization and technologies transfer and Commerciali  Existence of Agricultural Development Partners Linkage processing and marketing. gender re-organized in dissemination ;No public, zation and Advisory Council (ADPLAC). to separate directorate ; private partnership platform in Gender  Experiences in technology tea sector ; promotion and  Absence of information on dissemination in other gender role differentiation in crops (e.g. coffee) . tea production, processing [94]

and marketing and  No out-growers associations engaged in tea seedlings production and marketing. GIS and  Existence of modern GIS facilities and expertise at  Lack of well-documented agro  Qualified personnel on  Lack of GIS based Agro national level ; meteorological data of tea GIS at EIAR level. information in tea based Meteorology growing areas to properly follow farming system.  Good collaboration from National Meteorology up changes in suitability of the Institute in providing weather data. areas and predict future possible scenarios.

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Strategic Issues Facing the Tea Commodity Research

Communication made with tea producing estates in the country indicates that there are number of constraints in the production, processing and marketing of tea in Ethiopia. From these communications, rresearch issues and strategies for short-term (2016-2020), medium-term (2021-2025) and for long-term (2026-2030) are formulated, summarized for different disciplines and indicated below (Table 8).

Table 8. Strategic issues facing tea research commodity as identified under each disciplinary theme Strategic Issues Relevance in the

Short term Medium term Long term (1-5 years ) (6-10 years) (10-15 years) 4. 1 Capacity Building (General) 4.1. 1 Lack of manpower (researchers & technical staff) in x x x tea research; 4.1. 2 Inadequet facilities, testing sites and budget to conduct tea research. 4. 2 Breeding and Genetics 4.2.1 Narrow genetic base and lack of characterization x x x and maintenance of tea genetic resources. 4.2.2 Lack of multi-location evaluation and improved x x x variety development. 4.2.3 Absence of hybridization and advanced breeding x x approaches. 4. 3 Agronomy and Crop Physiology

4.3.1 Lack of research recommendations on appropriate tea x x x nursery management practices; . Inadequate research on the response of tea seedlings to cutting, media blend, mulching, watering, shading at each agro-ecology. 4.3.2 Absence of improved field management and cropping x x x practices for target tea agro-ecologies o No research on tea spacing and planting density ; o Time and method of frame formation, pruning and rejuvenation cycle and intercropping not studied at each locality. 4.3.3 Lack of research on physiological aspects of tea clones x x under different environments and shade levels.

4. 4 Soil and Water Management

4.4 1 Lack of recommendations on soil fertility and x x x nutrient management technologies; o Properties of tea soils not characterized ; o Plant nutrient (micro and macro) requirement of tea plant not determined for different clones, age groups and AEZs. 4.4 2 Lack of appropriate technologies on land x x x preparation and soil moisture conservation practices in young tea fields ; o No research on water harvesting and soil moisture

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conservation techniques in tea plantation.

4.4.3 Absence of research on tea water requirement and x x x irrigation system; o No information on tea water requirement and supplementary irrigation scheme tailored to specific agro-ecology and production system. 4. 5 Crop Protection 4.5.1 Lack of studies on status of tea diseases, insects x x and weed in tea growing areas. 4.5.2 Absence of basic information on biology, distribution x x and economic damage of major tea diseases, insects and weeds. 4.5.3 Lack of management options for economically x x important tea diseases, insects and weeds. 4. 6 Processing and Qualiy Improvement 4.6.1 Lack of studies on improved tea plucking x x technologies. 4.6.2 Existence of technology gaps on mechanical tea x x x harvesting and processing for large- and small- scale tea producers. 4.6.3 Limited knowledge on biochemical compositions x x x and quality of tea leaves. 4.6.4 Absence of tea blending and packaging x x technologies. 4.7 Agricultural Economics 4.7.1 Lack of information on tea production economics. x x x 4.7.2 No information on farming system dynamics in tea x x x growing areas. 4.7.3 Absence of information on adoption and impact of tea x x x technologies on tea out-growers. 4.7.4 Limited information on tea domestic and export x x x marketing. 4.8 Technology Transfer, Commercialization and Gender 4.8.1 Limited awareness creation, technology promotion x x x and transfer. 4.8.2 No public, private partnership platform in tea sector. x x x 4.8.3 Absence of information on gender role x x x differentiation in tea production, processing and marketing. 4.8.4 No out growers associations engaged in tea x x x seedlings production and marketing. 4.9 GIS and Agro Meteorology 4.9.1 Lack of GIS based information in tea based farming x x x system.

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Strategic Interventions to Address the Issues

The research themes are built on major tea research disciplines as briefly discussed with the key strategic interventions, designed for each of the strategic issues shown above in the short-, medium- and long- terms. Research projects are envisaged to enhance sustainable production and supply of high quality tea products. To this end, the strategic issues and interventions are summarized and presented below in table 9.

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Table 9. Summary of the strategic issues and interventions on tea research in the short-, medium and long-terms Strategic issues Strategic Intervention Short-term (5-years) Medium-term Long-term (10-years) (15-years) 5.1 General (Capacity Building) 5.1. 1 Lack of manpower (researchers and  Recruit, train and organize experience  Strengthen capacity building and  Strengthen capacity building and technical staff) on tea research sharing/exchange visits for technical familiarize technical staff with modern familiarize technical staff with modern staff of the core tea research scientific tools through long- and short- scientific tools through long- and short- disciplines; term trainings; term trainings ;  Stregthen cross- appointment and staff  Organize experience  Organize experience sharing /technology time sharing for tea research. sharing/technology shopping visits. shopping visits and  Maintain adequate level of qualified research staff. 5.1. 2 Inaducate facilities, testing sites and  Provide adequate facilities and budget .  Allocate budget and develop projects  Allocate budget and develop projects for budget for external funding. external funding ;  Identify and establish tea testing sites. Expected outputs from interventions on Capacity Building  human resource required by each discipline employed, technically qualified and maintained ;  Facilities, testing sites and budget made available. 5.2 Breeding and Genetics 5.2. 1 Narrow Genetic Base and Lack of  Characterization and documentation of  Broaden the genetic base through  Continue introduction of tea germplasm ; Characterization and Maintenance of Tea the available tea germplasm ; introduction of tea germplasm;  Continue characterization and data base Genetic Resources  Undertake sustainable tea germplasm  Characterization and documentation of management of tea genetic materials and management and conservation program newly introduced tea germplasm and  Implement sustainable tea germplasm .  Undertake sustainable tea germplasm management and maintenance program management and conservation through different conservation options (field program. gene bank and cryopreservation). 5.2. 2 Lack of Multi-location Evaluation  Test the adaptability and overall  Continue to evaluate tea clones for and  Identify tea clones suiting to mechanical and Improved Variety Development performance of tea clones under adaptation and desirable traits under and hand plucking ; diverse agro-ecologies. diverse environment  Assess quality of tea clones in relation to  Develop suitable tea clones for important biochemical constituents and diversified tea products (Production of seasonal/ecological variations. Black tea, Green Tea, Orthodx Tea).

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5.2. 3 Absence of Hybridization and  Identify breeding stocks (parental  Establishment of crossing blocks ; Advanced Breeding Approaches clones) used in crossing program for  Strengthen crossing using adapted and improving desirable traits ; known tea clones with clones having  Optimize of in vitro culture protocols for desirable quality traits ; mass multiplication of tea seedlings  Broaden the genetic base through hybridization and advanced approaches ;  Generate basic scientific information on pest resistance, inheritance of traits and other genetic aspects ;  Tea Germplasm enhancement via: induced Polyploidy production, mutation breeding and application of molecular technique and  Optimize of in vitro culture protocols for selection of various traits related to stress tolerance. Expected Outputs of the Strategic Interventions on Breeding and Genetics:  Tea germplasm introduced, characterized, documented and tea genetic diversity broadened and conserved ;  Adaptable and improved tea clone identified for specific agro-ecologies and  Basic scientific information on tea breeding/genetics generated, and molecular protocols optimized for mass propagation of tea. 5.3 Agronomy and Crop Physiology 5.3. 1 Lack of research recommendations  Identify major constraits and design  Continue conducting experiments on  Validation and recommendation of on appropriate tea nursery management technology adaptation or generation technology adaptation or generation for appropriate management technologies for practices studies on tea nursery management improved tea nursery management production of quality tea seedlings under pratices at target AEZS. (cutting, media blends, mulching, different agro-ecologies. watering, shading, hardening, translanting stage). 5.3. 2 Absence of improved field  Identify major gaps and design studies  Conduct research on tea agronomic  Continue research on agronomic studies management and cropping practices for on agronomic practices and cropping studies (spacing & population density, (spacing, population density, pruning and target tea agro-ecologies systems at each tea area. pruning and training, rejuvenation training, rejuvenation methods) and methods, )and intercropping pratices at intercropping pratices under different each area. areas. 5.3. 3 Lack of research on physiological  Continue conducting physiological  Identifing and evaluating promising tea aspects of tea clones under different studies (water use efficiency, clones for desirable physiological traits for environments and shade levels photosynthetic efficeincy, nutrient use further research works. efficiency,crop growth and

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development) under different agroecologies and shadinglevels. Expected outputs from interventions on Agronomy and Crop Physiology  Appropriate agronomic and cropping practices developed for tea nursery and field operations ;  Physiological response of tea clones studied under varying agro-ecology and microenvironments (shading, moisture, nutrient levels, etc) and desirable traits identified. 5.4 Soil and Water Management 5.4. 1 Lack of recommendations on soil  Determing soil properties for improved  Conducting soil fertility management  Continue determining optimum soil fertility fertility and nutrient management tea productivity and quality at each and fertilizer studies for different tea and tea ferilization for different tea clones, technologies for tea production location. clones, age groups, growing areas and age grous, growing areas and production production systems. systems;  Generate recommendations on optimum soil and nutrient manageme for improved tea productivity and quality. 5.4. 2 Lack of appropriate technologies on  Conducting studies on land preparation,  Continue conducting studies on water  Developing recommendations on soil land preparation and soil moisture water harvesting and soil moisture harvesting and soil moisture moisture conservation options for tea conservation practices in young tea conservation pratices in open fields conservation options for tea production landscape at each area. fields and young tea plantations at each area. in open fields and young tea plantations at each area. 5.4. 3 Absence of research on tea water  Conducting research on reponse of the  Continue determinining response of  Determinining crop water requirement and requirement and irrigation systems existing tea clones to soil moisture new introduced tea clones to soil irrigation amount and frequency for stress undery nusery and field moistre stress under nursery and field production of tea clones at specific conditions. environments. ecologies. Expected outputs from interventions on Soil and Water Management  Appropriate soil fertility and plant nutrient management determined for tea production  Soil moisture conservation and supplementary irrigation systems identified for specific tea growing agro-ecologies. 5.5 Crop Protection Lack of studies on status of tea diseases,  Conduct survey and identify major tea  Continue survey and documentation of insects and weed in tea growing areas diseases, insects and weeds at tea diseases, insects and weeds dynamics growing areas. in tea growing areas. Absence of basic information on biology,  Investigate and document biology and  Determine yield and quality loss due to distribution and economic importance of major dynamics of important tea diseases major/ emerging tea diseases, insects and tea diseases, insects and weeds. (e.g. Root rot), insects and weeds. weeds. Lack of management options for economically  Develop effective integrated  Develop integrated management important tea diseases, insects and weeds. management options for economically options for major tea diseases, insects important tea diseases, insects and and weeds. [101]

weeds ;  Study on reaction of tea clones to major tea diseases (root root and others). Expected outputs (Crop Protection) o Status of tea diseases, insects and weeds determined ; Biology, dynamics and economic losses of major tea disease, insects and weeds determined and o Integrated management options for major tea diseases, insects and weeds developed. 5.6 Processing and Qualiy Improvement 5.6.1 Lack of studies on improved tea  Conduct research on plucking  Continue study on plucking standard, plucking technologies standard, frequency and season for frequency and season for improved tea improved tea quality. quality. 5.6.2 Existence of technology gaps on  Assess the effectiveness of mechanical  Verify the suitability of mechanical tea  Conduct adaptation studies on home-scale mechanical tea harvesting and harvesting on growth and quality of tea. plucking technologies for large- and tea processing technologies; processing for large- and small- small- scale producers.  Study on efficient energy utilization option scale tea producers for tea processing. 5.6.3 Limited knowledge on biochemical  Conduct research on tea leaf  Continue research on tea leaf  Determine biochemical composition in and proximate analysis of tea biochemical and proximate analysis on biochemical and proximate analysis on relation to tea quality. leaves the existing tea clones. newly introduced tea clones. 5.6.4 Absence of tea blending and  Conduct study on tea blending and  Develop formulation for blended tea packaging technologies packaging technologies. products;  Assessment of quality adultration in domestic tea market. Expected outputs o Improved tea plucking technologies determined ; o Effective mechanical tea harvesting and processing technologies identified ; o Tea leaf bio-chemical and proximate analysed and o Tea blending and packaging technologies identified. 5.7 Agricultural Economics 5.7.1 Lack of information on tea  Conduct study on cost of production,  Continue conducting study on newly  Continue conducting study on newly production economics. production efficiency and profitability; released tea technologies cost of released tea technologies cost of  Conduct study on economic, social and production, production efficiency and production, production efficiency and cultural values of tea production. profitability ;; Conduct study on profitability. comparative advantage of growing tea over other crops.

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5.7.2 No information on farming system  Characterization and diagnosis of  Conduct survey on farming system  Continue conducting survey on farming dynamics in tea growing areas farming system in tea growing areas. dynamics after five years in tea system dynamics after ten years in tea growing areas growing areas. 5.7.3 Absence of information on adoption and  Conduct base line survey on tea  Conduct study on tea technologies  Conduct study on tea technologies impact impact of tea technologies on tea technologies in tea growing areas. adoption in tea growing areas. on livelihood of out-growers in tea growing out-growers areas. 5.7.4 Limited information on tea marketing o Conduct study on tea supply chain ;  Assess tea value addition (blending  Continue assessing newly released value (domestic and export) and value o Assess tea domestic and export and packaging) chain. addition technologies. addition (blending and packaging) market. 5.8 Technology Transfer, Commercialization and Gender 5.8.1 Limited awareness creation,  Create awareness and provide  Transfer and disseminate tea  Continue transfering and disseminating technologies transfer and dissemination trainings to SMS on tea production, technologies. newly released tea technologies. plucking, post harvest handling, utilization and value addition. 4 5.8.2 No public, private partnership  Establish public, private partnership  Strengthen public, private partnership  Continue trengthening public, private platform in tea sector platform in tea sector ; linkage at national and regional levels. partnership linkage at national and regional  Identify relevant partners and establish levels. linkage. 5.8.3 Absence of information on gender role  Conduct study on gender role differentiation  Continue conducting study on gender role  conduct study on cultural dynamics of gender differentiation in tea production, plucking in tea production, plucking and marketing. differentiation on tea technologies. role in communities. and marketing. 5.8.4 No out-growers associations engaged in tea  Establish and train out-growers associations  Support and facilitate associations to  Continue supporting and facilitating associations seedlings production and marketing on tea nursery technologies. . establish tea nurseries to establish tea nurseries. Expected Outputs  Tea technologies transferred and disseminated ;  Develop and maintain partnership and linkage ;  The role of gender in tea sector identified and mainstreamed and  Tea seedlings producer and supplier associations established. 5.9 GIS and Agro Meteorology 5.9.1 Lack of GIS based information in tea based  Undertake extensive collection of the  Continue collecting all the relevant physical  Prepare GIS based suitability map of tea farming system available data to provide adequate and agro-meteorological data and analysis. growing areas of Ethiopia. meteorological information of the tea growing areas. Expected Outputs  The collected climatic data in different agro-ecological zones under which tea grows analyzed to see climatic changes over time and predict future possible scenarios;  GIS based suitability map of the tea growing areas developed.

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The Next Steps

Strategic plan for tea research has now been developed and is to be used as a road map for developing research program or project for the next fifteen years (2016 – 2030). This, however, needs the development of clear and coherent implementation plan and active follow-up of changes that emerge from internal and external environments. The implementation plan should at least incorporate annual work plan, monitoring and evaluation plan, impact assessment plan and in order to respond to any emerging issues from both internal and external environmental changes, the plan should encompass a reassessment plan for the strategy. Similar to the strategy plan, EIAR should develop a generic guideline for common use by all commodity research team in the preparation of the implementation and evaluation plan.

Annexes

Annex 1. Glossary Agro-ecology: The application of ecological principles to agriculture. Black tea: Withered, fermented and dried tea leaves. Blending: Mixing of teas to satisfy market demand. Clone: tea clone is a type of plants that has been propagated through cuttings and is genetically identical. Contour: Line joining to points of the same elevation on the land‟s surface. Green tea: Unfermented tea, leaves are steamed, rolled and dried. Instant tea: Liquor from either black made tea or green leaf dried to produce water- soluble particles. Intercropping: Combination of crops grown simultaneously in a mixture, often in alternating lines. Made tea: Black tea after the firing process has been completed. Orthodox tea: Tealeaves that are rolled by hand or mechanically either on a cylindrical rolling table or a rotor vane. Plant density: Spacing of plants when planted in the soil or other potting medium or it refers to the number of plants planted per unit of land. Plant nutrient: Chemical elements that are necessary for plant growth. Plucking: Harvesting of tealeaves. Productivity: Amount of yield per unit of land. Pruning and Training: Horticultural practice involving the selective removal of parts of a plant. Rejuvenation: Horticultural practice to make plants young and active. Soil fertility: The ability of a soil to supply and support plant life. Tea bags: Individual sachets of tea for retailing. Water harvesting: The collection and concentration of rainfall runoff, or floodwaters for plant production.

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Annex 2. Agro-ecological zones which are potentially suitable for tea production in Ethiopian Agro-Ecological Zone Location Potential

H1 (Humid Hot to Tepi, Jinka and the surrounding, - covers 1.016 million ha; Warm Lowlands) Konso as well as Derashe. -Well-distributed sufficient rainfall - comfortable temperature; -enables the luxurious growth of tea ; - Soils are Dystric Nitosols, Orthic Acrisols, Chromic Vertisols, Eutric Regosols, Eurtic Cambisols, Eutric Fluvisols and Pellic Vertisols type. H2 (Tepid To Cool - Wush Wush Gumaro Gore, Jimma, - Covers 2,796,000 ha ; Humid Highlands) Bedele, Metu, Agaro, Gera, Bore, -both yield and quality of tea can be improved substantially Bensa, Kebre Mengist, Hagere through research ; Selam, Masha, Aleta Wondo, Ticho - A large percentage of the highly suitable area for tea (Robe), Aduke, Limu Mizan Sidamo growth is identified in this AEZ and and North Omo. - The major soil types in the zone are Dystric Nitosols, Orthic Acrisols, Cambic Arenosols, Hinthosols, Chromic Luvisols, Hectareplic Phectarelozoms, Pellic Vertisols, Eutric Cambisols, Eutric Regosols and Pellic Vertisols. SH1: (Hot to Warm Sub Abobo, Asosa, Anfillo, Dembi Dolo, -covers 8.396 million ha, 7.45 percent of the country ; Humid Lowlands) Waka, Sawla, Gibe valley, -areas with rainfall of 1500mm can be used for tea Kembata, Alaba and Timbaro, production ; areas along Bure to Nekemte road, -Areas with 1000 to 1400mm rainfall- marginal to tea Chagni, Dibali, Gojeb valley, Omo production -(irrigation) and valley, Baro, Akobo and Gumer. -The soil types are Mollic Andosols, Eutric Regosols, Eutric Fluvisols, Orthic Acrisols, Dystric Nitosols, Cambic Andosols and Haplic Phaeozems. SH2 (Tepid To Cool Bako, Hwassa, Areka, Gimbi, Nejo, - Covers 8,612,000 ha ; Humid Mid High Lands) Shambu, Along Burie to Nekemet - Soils found in this AEZ include Nitosols, Fluvisols, Mollic road, Gilgel Gibe areas, Sokoru, Andosols, Eutric Fluvisols, Eutric Regosols, Haplic, Asendabo, Arbaminch, Hosaina, Phaezems, Orthic Acrisols, Pellic Vertisols, Lithosols, Silti, Kondaliti, Butajira, Buie, Vertic Cambisols, Chromic Luvisols, Chromic Vertisols, Maseko, Dodolla, Agarfa, Robe, Orthic Luvisols and Dystric Cambisols. Gelmso, Deder, Mechara, Girawa, -there are areas, which are potentially suitable for tea and Kobo (Northern Hararghe), Arjo production. and Endibir. PH1( Hot to Warm Per Mizan and Bench Maji zone (Maji - covers an area of 488,000 hectares (0.43 percent of Humid Low Lands) partly) the country ; -potentially suitable for tea production (rainfall is sufficient and well distributed, conducive temperature) and - soil types are Eutric Fluvisols, Eutric Cambisols, Chromic Luvisols, Dystric Nitosols, Acrisols, Eutric Regosols and Lithosols. M2 (Tepid To Cool Adet, Alemaya, Sirinka, Ambo, - covers an area of 12, 620,00 hectares (11.2 percent of Moist Mid Highlands) Holleta, Sinana, Kulumsa, and the country; Yabello, Dabat, Fonote Selam, -marginally suitable for tea production. Debre Tabor, Fiche and Degem. (rainfall is under optimum-supplementary irrigation) and - Soil types are Vertisols, Nitosols, leptisols, Andosols, Luvisols, Regosols and Acrisols.

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Annex 3. Meteorological data of Wush wush, Gumero and Chewaka tea plantation Tea Variable Fiscal year Plantation 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 Tmax (°C) 25.0 27 27 26.4 Wush wush Tmin (°C) 13 12 10 9.5 RF (mm) 1752 1872 2052 1790.5 Tmax (°C) 27.4 26.9 27.1 27.3 Gumero Tmin (°C) 12.9 13.4 12.9 10.6 RF (mm) 2172.7 2296 1843.3 2530.4 Tmax (°C) 26.7 25.5 25.0 25.0 Chewaka Tmin (°C) 10.6 11.3 10.9 11.0 RF (mm) 4225.7 3718.3 2531 3113.2 Source: Wush wush, Gumero and Chewaka tea plantation planning

Annex 4. Tea clones currently under production and maintenance in Ethiopia Nr. Tea clones Wush wush Gumero Chewaka 1 BB/35 up up up 2 11/4 up up 3 11/56 up up up 4 6/8 up up up 5 12/38 up up 6 31/8 up 7 31/11 up 8 31/77 up 9 14/3 up 10 515/10 up 11 B-9 M 12 L-6 M 13 Sr-18 M 14 Gum M Up: under production, M: maintenance Source: Wush wush, Gumero and Chewaka tea plantation planning

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Spices Research Strategy

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Introduction

The different plant species encompassed under spices group are so numerous. Researchers elaborated that 406 plant species that are used as spice, condiments and/or medicinal plants are listed Ethiopia listed. List of the most important eleven spices (Black pepper, Ginger, Turmeric, Cardamom, Korarima, Long pepper, Vanilla, Cinnamon, Black cumin, Fenugreek, Coriander and White cumin) in Ethiopia were selected for their peculiar potentials in this strategy (Table 2). The criteria used for the selection of each of these species are: their economic importance, potentials for future production, overall local and/or worldwide production and utilisation status, existence of variability within the country, importance as raw material for domestic industries and/or environmental value and farmers' experience.

Most of these spice species have been grown and used in different parts of the world and in Ethiopia since time immemorial. However, unlike other crop species, scientific studies on these invaluable species were started very late. The spices and herbs research program was started in Ethiopia four decades ago, with collection and/or introduction of germplasm. In accordance with this newly raised and nursed issue of crop/coffee diversification, spice crops were given special consideration as alternate cash generating commodity. Because, they have significant untapped potentials to augment the foreign currency earnings, withstanding the impacts of the commonly observed drastic fluctuations of world coffee market.

Consequently, the spice and herbs research team was established in 1980 to run and coordinate extensive research activities at a national level. During this time, however, the program was forced to encompass only those spice crops with highest export demand till 2010. This was one of the basic reasons that resulted in the restricted activities of the program on very few crop species and under limited agro-ecology zones (AEZs) (mainly in Jimma, Tepi and Bebeka). As the Institute gave a due consideration to this research program, recently, the previous Tepi Sub-center was upgraded to a full-fledged research center (Tepi National Spices Research Center) as a center of excellence for spices research. Currently, the research program is being capacitated in human and facility resources. In the meantime, the program has been thriving a lot on collection and /or introduction a number of accessions of varied types of spices, evaluation under different agro ecologies for yield and quality attributes. As a result, the program succeeded in releasing potential varieties during the periods of PASDEP-I (1998-2002 EC) and effective agronomic, plant protection results, technology multiplication and dissemination also reviled in GTPI (2003 to 2007 EC).

However, the achievements recorded so far are so meager as compared to the volume of research problems: occurrence of new diseases and pest as ginger bacterial wilt that need to be addressed. On top of this, due to the prevailing capacity limitations, most of these technologies developed from these narrow-scoped research activities are still not well promoted to the users. This in turn had seriously limited the possible benefits that would [109] have been gained by the producers from cultivation of these invaluable commodities. On the other hand, the aggravating climate change threatening the environment in the world also requires research attention. Spices are known to be high value, low volume commodities and need proper care during production and processing and they have paramount importance to women since they are patient and curious. Thus, this research strategy includes gender issue. The spices research team realized that in the structure established after BPR (Business process reengineering) launched in 2000 EC, national spices joined to coffee and tea commodity. Under this rearrangement the highland seed spices were not given a due attention. All the major spices (low land and highland seed spices) are unequivocally considered in the research and facility allocation.

Rationale for the Strategy Spices are one of the important crops that fit within the commercialization strategy of agriculture, since they have higher market demand both in the domestic and international market. Due to their refined nature and extremely minimized volume, extracts from these plant species, essential oils, are widely used in several industries in substitute for the original plant material, and such extraction of essential oils is an agro-industry venture that effectively fits the national development endeavours of the country. Most of these spices have been used as an important income diversification crop for the majority of smallholder farmers and, have considerable importance to the country‟s economy as export commodities and sources of employment (FAO, 2012/13). Nowadays, individual spice farmers are flourishing at different corners of the country. In accordance with the prevailing demand situation, peasant farmers, as well as private investors in different parts of the country are eager to produce different kinds of spices. In addition expansion of industry for spices processing and use spices as row material force to increasing of volume and kinds of spices produced. Therefore, spices and essential oil bearing plants could be among the promising prime candidates.

Despite the country‟s untapped potential for spice production, appropriate efforts were not made to promote this sub-sector of the national agriculture so that the contribution of these crops to livelihood improvement and the economy is extremely low. The production system is still hardly organized and characterized with low productivity and quality. The availability of scientific information on production, post-harvest handling and processing, marketing and utilization is very minimal. Due to the insufficient supply of raw material, the aforementioned problems of quality defects, as well as insufficiency and irregularity of raw material supply, the factory‟s extraction work had mostly been restricted to very few spices. Furthermore, the absence of improved production and processing technologies could attribute to the prevailing weak development of the sub-sector.

As a result of these and other associated problems, considerable inconsistencies are observed in the country's annual production, extraction and export of spices and/or their derivative products. In accordance with this, from the farmers' point of view, beside lack of improved production technologies (i.e. recommended varieties, cultural practices, and post-harvest handling techniques, etc.), drastic fluctuation of local market prices is indicated as a primary discouraging factor in the production of spices. On the other hand,

[110] traders, exporters and/or spice extraction firms do also complain about irregularities of supply and inconsistent quality status that they prefer to give reduced prices. Almost all these problems could have been addressed and hence resolved and/or compromised, had there been a strong multi-disciplinary research team to act upon them accordingly.

Having these favourable grounds and witnessing all these problems, it is unquestionable that the country could easily exploit these untapped resources of the sub-sector, through developing a strong and co-ordinated spices and essential oils industry at a national level. Nevertheless, to succeed in this endeavour, all development efforts need to be backed-up with a well-planned, client-oriented, agro-ecology based and demand-driven national research program. This, in turn, should undoubtedly be based on a well-prepared and far- sighted research strategy, developed through repeated critical reviews involving all stakeholders. Thus, this strategy was developed to provide an inclusive framework for prioritizing and coordinating research activities towards the achievement of a common vision for the spices commodity and it will guide spices research direction for the next 15 years as per the consecutive GTP plans.

Vision To see improved livelihood of all citizens engaged in the spices sub-sector through use of improved technologies and information in all levels of the value chain.

Mission To generate, develop, adopt and promote demand driven and agro ecology based improved spices technology, knowledge, and information and disseminate to end users for improved livelihood and sustainable development of agribusiness and agroindustry in Ethiopia.

Goal To improve the production, productivity and quality of spices in a sustainable manner and contribute towards the betterment of the overall livelihoods of smallholder growers as well as other actors involved across the value chain.

Strategic Objective/s The overall objectives of national spice commodity research are to Generate and/or adopt and promote spice technologies for sustainable development of spices industry and improved livelihood of all the stakeholders engaged in the sector.

Specific objectives  avail improved technologies, knowledge and information that would increase production and productivity and improve quality of spices product that could be competitive and acceptable for both domestic and international markets;  increase income earning opportunities of those dependent on production, processing and trade of the spice sub-sectors;  ensure that development endeavors exerted on and benefits obtained from the spice sub- sector are socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable and inclusive including

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improving the recognition of women‟s contributions and increasing opportunities for their empowerment in decision making;  coordinate spices research national wide;  prioritize key national research agendas on spices commodities and  to build research capacity and facility.

Guiding Principles/Values  Research for development;  Scientific method in research;  Team approach and partnership (private and public);  Experiential learning, pragmatic and team work;  Loyalty and respect to diverse client needs;  Responsibility and accountability;  Environmental consciousness and  Inclusiveness and gender sensitiveness.

Importance of the sector

Agriculture With 85% of the population living in the rural areas and depending on agriculture for livelihood, there is no doubt for the economic importance of the agricultural sector for sustainable development and poverty reduction in Ethiopia. The agricultural sector accounts for more than 40% of national GDP, 90% of exports, and provides basic needs and income to more than 90% of the poor. A better performed agricultural sector has provided growth to the overall economy, improved the food security and reduced poverty in the recent years.

Agro-ecology and farming system

Agro-ecology Ethiopia has diverse climate and soil types that enable prolific growth of several indigenous and exotic spices. Spices can be grown in a wider agro-ecological of the country from sea level to as 300 masl. Based on agro ecological suitability spices are grouped in to two major classes. The first group can favorably be grown in low altitude areas and spices like black pepper, cardamom, vanilla, ginger, and turmeric cinnamon are grouped in this category. The second groups of spices are majorly grown in mid and high altitude areas and seed spices like black cumin, coriander, fenugreek and korarima are grouped in this category. From the 18 major agro ecological zones of the country spices can be grown in 9 of the following AEZ:

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Table.1. Agro-ecology of spices Zone Description (location) Potential SM2 Tepid to Cool Moist Mid Highland High potential to grow fenugreek, coriander, Debrezeit , Melkasa and similar agro ecologies in rift black cumin and white cumin valley M1 Hot to warm moist lowlands;Pawe, Bale, Asebe Teferi, Potential to grow spices like cardamom, black metema, kefta humera mytsebri, meiso, wenbera pepper, vanilla, ginger M2 Tepid to Cool Moist Humid Mid High potential to grow fenugreek, coriander, Highland black cumin and white cumin Adet, Sirinka, Ambo, Holeta, Sinana, Kulumsa, aletawondo, chena, Robe, Gera, Seka Chekorsa SH1 Hot to warm sub humid lowlands Potential to grow ginger, turmeric, korarima, Pawe, Asosa, Omo Valley, Kambata Alaba Timbaro areas, areas along Bure to Nekemte road, Chagni, Gibe, Gojeb, Gumer and Endibir areas. SH2 Tepid to Cool sub Humid Highland High potential to grow ginger, turmeric Bako, Areka, Arba Minch, Mechara, H1 Hot to warm Humid Lowland High potential to grow majority of perennial Jinka konso, Tepi, Bebeka, sheko, spices H2 Tepid to cool humid mid highlands Potential to grow ginger, turmeric, vanilla, black Gore, Jimma, Limu, Aleta Wondo, pepper, cardamom, korarima, Timiz Metu, Ticho, Agaro PH1 Hot to warm per-humid lowlands Potential to grow ginger, korarima Wonago PH2 Tepid to cool per-humid highlands Potential to grow ginger, turmeric, korarima, Timiz,

Fig.1. Map of agro-ecology of suitable for perennial spices

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Spices farming and cropping system Perennial spices have been cultivated as a sole, mixed, inter crop, and garden crop, as a filler and rotation with coffee, sorghum, maize, and root crops such as taro and yam. Now a days due to the expansion of large commercial farms like horizon plantation, up to 300hactare of land covered by ginger and turmeric, 600 hectare of land black pepper (Bebeka) and up to 10 hectare cardamom at Kabo coffee plantation as a sole corp. The farming system of spices at Sheka, Benchmaji and Majang zones of small scale farmers showed that; ginger and turmeric usually cultivated as sole and mixed crop, whereas, korarimma and black pepper planted intercrop with coffee. Land preparation is done by male, whereas, Planting, weeding and harvesting done by both male and female in the family. Turmeric processing such as cooking is usually done by male, whereas, drying is done both by male and female members in the family. Marketing of processed spices is done by both sexes.

The farming system of Seed spices producing areas such as Arsi, Bale, Wolo, Cheffedunsa and alike reviled that seed spices (fenugreek, black cumin, coriander and white cumin) are grown as a sole crop, after harvesting maize and belg (April to June) season crop, usually planted in the period between end of July (Arsi) to end of September (Bale). They are also cultivated as rotation crop (fenugreek) and garden crop (coriander and black cumin). The major labour share is form female. The area coverage and production dynamics is governed by market.

Most of the spices utilised in Ethiopia are grown as field or garden crops, although some are still collected from their wild habitat (Korarimma and Timize). Seed spices are commonly produced as a component of the prevailing cropping systems of their growing agro-ecologies.

Genetic resource A spice is a dried seed, fruit, root, bark, or vegetable substance primarily used for flavoring, coloring or preserving food (Scully and Terence, 1995). Ethiopia is home to many spices, and due to its ecological richness, the country is suitable for growing 60– 100 species (Herms S., 2015). Perennial and seed spices including black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, fenugreek, black cumin, coriander etc…are naturalized in Ethiopian agro ecologies. A total of 618 germplasm of various perennial and seed spice crops that have been introduced or locally collected, are being conserved at different research centers throughout the country. These germplasm include Black pepper(13), Ginger(45),turmeric(9),cardamom(3),vanilla(3), korarima (83),long pepper(43), cinnamon (1), Annatto (1). Fenugreek (289), black cumin (36), coriander (35), white cumin (56), and Clove (1).

Preliminary information has also been included in one of the aforementioned tables (Table 2) to give some clues regarding the present genetic potentials of each plant species considered in this national research strategy. Therefore, those species for which Ethiopia is known as the centre of origin and/or diversity and having a large number of germplasm were indicated as having ample variability (***). On the other hand, others that were of relatively longer introduction and/or those having a number of accessions at hand were [114] described as having moderate variability (**), while those with recent introductions were indicated as having minimum variability (*). However, Cumin, nutmeg and saffron are those plant species that are not found in Ethiopia and not introduced yet. So these spices require further introductions.

Table.2. Spices Genetic resource, variability and priority Genetic Sn. Common name Scientific name Priority resource Variability 1 Black Pepper Piper nigrum 1 13 ** 2 Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum 1 3 * 3 Ginger Zingiber officinale 1 45 *** 4 Korarima Aframomum corrorima 1 83 *** 5 Long pepper Piper capense 1 43 *** 6 Turmeric Curcuma longa 1 9 ** 7 Vanilla Vanilla fragrance 1 3 * 8 Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum 1 1 * 9 Annatto Bixa acuminate 2 1 * 10 Fenugreek Trigonella foenum- 1 289 *** graecum 11 Black Cumin Nigella sativa L. 1 36 *** 12 White cumin Trachyspermum anni 1 56 *** 13 Coriander Coriandrum sativum 1 36 *** 14 Cocoa Theobroma cacao 3 1 * 15 Clove Syzygium aromaticum 3 1 * ***= high variability **= medium variability *= low variability

Production and Productivity Spices products alone or mixed, processed or raw are used for different purposes such as food flavoring, seasoning, medicinal and coloring in textile industry. According to FAO 2013 data (http://faostat3.fao.org/home/E) global spice production and land area coverage has not showed significant change in the past decades. However, as shown in figure 2 & 3, global production and land coverage has been steadily increased only for chili pepper, black pepper and ginger.

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Fig. 2: Global spices production trend

Fig. 3: Global Land coverage by spices crops

The history of cultivation and use of spice plants in Ethiopia can be traced back to the reign of Queen Sheba (ca. 992 BC). Nowadays, spice crops have become an important cash generating crops for the majority of smallholder farmers. The average land coverage by spices in Ethiopia is approximately 222,700 ha and the production is 244,000 ton/ annum (Hegde and Hegde, 2012). Total area covered (ha) and production (tons) of seed spices (black cumin, fenugreek and coriander) for the period 2005-2007 EC was: 94840 and 21661, respectively (MoARD, 2007). However, the level of production and productivity and area coverage by spice crops in the country is very low compared to other major producing country. Existed document showed that Asian countries are the major player in global spices production. As shown in Table 4, Indonesia is the leading producer of cloves, cinnamon and vanilla in the world. Moreover, Vietnam, India, China and Guatemala are the world leading producer of black pepper, ginger, chili pepper and

[116] nutmeg and cardamom, respectively. Ethiopia rank 9th, 12th, 10th and 14th in the world in black pepper, ginger, chili pepper and cardamom production respectively.

Moreover global trend showed that world spices production and supply has been dominated by only three countries., about 64% of global black pepper production is supplied by Vietnam, Indonesia and India (Table 4), While Indonesia, Madagascar and Srilanka together supply more than 90 % of global cloves production, about 90% of world cinnamon production is supplied by other three countries: Indonesia, China and Vietnam. Here again the contribution of Ethiopia to global black pepper, ginger and nutmeg and cardamom production is below 1%.

As pointed earlier, spices productivity in Ethiopia is one of the lowest in the world. As indicated in Table 3, the productivity level of major spices in Ethiopia is by far lower than the world average. For example, the highest productivity in black pepper is achieved in Cambodia, i.e, 65.6 Q / hectare, whereas the world average is 9.8 Q / hectare. However, black pepper productivity in Ethiopia is lower than the world average and world highest productivity level by 3.5 Q and 59.3 Q, respectively. But, the productivity level in Ethiopia exceeds the world average by 1.1 ql only for nutmeg and cardamom.

Table 3: Productivity of major Spices in the world and Ethiopia Productivity (Q/ha) World Highest Productivity Ethiopia’s World average (WHP) Difference Difference Spices productivity productivity (WAP) Quintal Country from WAP from WHP Black pepper 6.3 9.8 65.6 Cambodia 3.5 59.3 Ginger 28.6 63.6 325.5 Fuji 35 296.9 Cloves n.a 3.2 12 China - - Vanilla n.a 1.02 4.8 Mexico - - Chili pepper, green 27.6 161 552.3 Japan 133.4 524.7 Spices, nes 9.3 21.4 101.9 Malaysia 12.1 92.6 Cinamon n.a 8.7 17.8 Madagascar - - Nutmug and mace 3.9 2.8 116.3 Malaysia -1.1 112.4 & Cardamom Source: 2013 FAOSTAT Data, n.a. = data not available

There is also a huge difference in land allocation among global spices producing country. The significant portion of global area devoted to spice production is allocated by a few countries. As indicated in Table 5, about 73% of global black pepper cultivated land is allocated by Indonesia, India and Vietnam. Similarly, Indonesia, Madagascar and Srilanka cultivate more than 90% of the global cloves area, whereas Indonesia, China and Vietnam cultivate about 90.7 % of global land covered by cinnamon. Despite vast available land resource and favorable agro ecology, the proportion of land allocated to spice production in Ethiopia is quite small. According to FAO STAT (2013 data), 1.3%, 1%, 7.5% and 0.12% of black pepper, ginger, chili pepper and cardamom global cultivated land, respectively is found in Ethiopia.

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Table 4: World spices production and Ethiopia

Spices Production (ton) World share (%) World Total 1st Producer 2nd Producer 3rd Producer Ethiopia The top 3 Ethiopia (ton) Country ton Country ton Country ton producer Black pepper 472526 Vietnam 163000 Indonesia 88700 India 53000 3800 64.5 0.8 Ginger 2140451 India 683000 China 425000 Indonesia 232669 10000 62.6 0.5 Chili pepper, green 31144561 China 15823000 Mexico 2294000 Indonesia 1726382 400000 63.7 1.3 Cloves 137395 Indonesia 98700 Madagascar 22500 Srilanka 3920 n.a 91.1 n.a Cinnamon 199627 Indonesia 89500 China 69500 Vietnam 22000 n.a 90.7 n.a Nutmeg, mece & 94348 Guatemala 38007 Indonesia 25800 India 16565 155 85.2 0.2 Cardamom Vanila 8342 Indonesia 3200 Madagascar 3100 Mexico 463 n.a 81.1 n.a Source: 2013 FAO STAT Data n.a = Data not available

Table 5: Land coverage of major spices in the World and Ethiopia Spices Area Coverage (hectare) World share (%) World 1st Producer 2nd Producer 3rd Producer Ethiopia The top 3 Ethiopia Total (hr) Country hectare Country hectare Country hectare producer

Black pepper 481929 Indonesia 178200 India 125000 Vietnam 50998 6000 73.5 1.3 Ginger 336440 India 136000 Indonesia 51700 Nigeria 50000 3500 70.7 1 Chili pepper, green 1934726 China 712100 Indonesia 232807 Mexico 132910 145000 55.7 7.5 Cloves 436397 Indonesia 329000 Madagascar 83300 Srilanka 7330 n.a 96.2 n.a Cinnamon 230560 Indonesia 101800 Vietnam 55000 China 41000 - 85.8 - Nutmeg and mace & 336327 Indonesia 140000 India 95930 Guatemala 69510 400 90.8 0.12 Cardamom Vanilla 81723 Madagascar 62500 Indonesia 12300 China 2600 n.a 94.7 n.a Source: 2013 FAOSTAT Data n.a= data not available

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Medicinal and industrial value of Spices Spices are used as raw material for pharmaceutical, body care, perfumery, food flavoring and coloring industries. Many of the substances those spices constitute are also used as antioxidant benefits while adding a rich, sunny color to creams, lotions and shampoos. For instance turmeric is also used as a preservative; licorice as a medicine; garlic as a vegetable and nutmeg as a recreational drug; Annatto oil is an emollient, and its high carotenoid content provides beneficial antioxidant properties.

Economy (domestic, import substitution, export market) Ethiopia, with a population today of more than 90 million, was on the ancient spice trail from India and was visited by Arabian and Persian spice traders who left their mark on the cuisine. Ethiopia has become one of the largest producer and consumers of spices in Africa. People use spices to flavor bread, butter, meat, soups, and vegetables. And they use them to make medicines and perfumes. Similar to India, the majority of spices produced in Ethiopia (80 %+) are absorbed domestically. But at the same time, export of spices has been developing and brings increased foreign exchange.

Table.6. Spices export Commodity Spices 20011/12 2012/13 2013/14 Value of export in million birr 59.0 94.9 86.4 Annual growth rate (%) 60.8 -8.9 Share of spices commodity from total annual export in % 1.1 1.3 1.0

Most of the spices have considerable importance to the Ethiopian economy as export commodities and are source of employment. For example, in 2012, spice exports reached 23518 tons with equivalent value (USD) 28 million and the country ranked 9th in world production and export of spices (FAO, 2012/13). The annual world market demand of dried spices is increasing by 10.2% and in 2015 it reached to 85 billion USD Furthermore, due to their refined nature and extremely minimised volume, essential oils are widely used in the world in substitute for the original plant material. Such production of essential oils is an agro-industry venture that effectively fits the national development endeavours of Ethiopia. These commodities could generate significant amount of foreign currency, as they are given very attractive premium prices for their concentrated nature. On the other hand, the prevailing fierce competition in the world market on our major export item, such as coffee, is so serious that the country needs to find other potential alternatives to sustain its foreign currency inflow. Such unstable market situations can only be improved through identification and use of other alternative commercial commodities that have high demand on the international trade. Spices can be more relevant in this case. Therefore, it is imperative to give peculiar attention to the sector so as the nation could reap the benefits from production and marketing of these invaluable crop species. The production development and export market of spices also targets the fast increasing (8-10 % per annum) mega consumption trend of the world top populated and spices consumer countries such as India and China,

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Export diversification Ethiopia have been gained foreign currency by exporting spices 22,321,542.01 birr within three months however kinds of spices we export remain few from the available spies kind for export. From the export spices the huge share goes to ginger, its share have been more than 75% both by volume and value. From 1997 to 2001, a total of 35,508 quintal at a value of 46,229 million USD black cumin seed has been supplied to the world market. At the same period, a total of 58,870 quintal of black cumin seed was produced in Ethiopia and of this, 453 quintal was exported annually. This indicates that Ethiopia has about 12% share in the world market, while 99% of the produce was consumed locally. This is due to inferior quality of the product, inappropriate postharvest handling and processing.

Import substitution Ethiopia have been importing several kinds of spices and providing 3,368,937.48 amounts of birr even if the country has a huge potential of producing these spices.

Raw material for industry Many of these spices crops can be used as row material for industry such as medicine, cosmetics, perfumery and as dye (textile and food). For example, turmeric is also used as a preservative; licorice as a medicine; garlic as a vegetable and nutmeg as a recreational drug. In some cases they are referred to by different terms.

Reduce poverty Spices, being a high value crop, have high market value than traditional food crops, and these roles are paramount importance for poverty reduction by enhancing the purchasing power of small holder farmers.

Environmental sustainability Shade lover spices play a great role in conserving natural ecosystem through various ways. Since majority of high value spices crops (kororima, vanilla, cardamom.) cultivated under more than 50% tree shade. They have a great role in natural resource conservation as carbon sequestration for mitigation of greenhouse effects, reducing soil erosion, deforestation and nutrient leaching and enhance afforestation while maintaining the ecosystem and the forest. For instance the natural forest in south west Ethiopia have been maintain majorly due to the expansion of spices and coffee production in the area. These spices have a great role in maintaining communal forest, mainly at keffa, sheka, Majang zones and Assosa regions by use right of the forest to produce spices under the shade.

Situation analysis

External situations/environment Analysis The external factors were analyzed using the SWOC (Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Challenge) framework with additional analytic tools such as PEST+ (Politics, Economics, Socio-cultural, Technologies and Environments/situation) putting critical considerations of current state of affairs, trends of needs and requirements and best solutions that other countries have adopted to get to their present situation with respect to [120] research and development in these commodities. Three sub-topics are, therefore, discussed below to provide full perspectives. The current state of affairs is discussed under general external situations; trends and needs under operational external situations; and experiences of countries advanced in the research and development of the crops are discussed under the sub-heading benchmarking. Summaries of the external analysis are then presented in a tabular form in Table 7.

General external situation/environments (PEST+) Analysis was made on opportunities and challenges that stem from political, economic, sociocultural, technological/technical, and environmental (PEST +) dimensions. Methodical analysis of these factors would help to better understand the big picture of external environments influencing either positively or negatively and thus to craft the strategy so that it would make best use of the opportunities created by the positive influences and conversely to be cautious about the negative influences they pose and systematically address the challenges to overcome their impediment.

Policy dimension Assessments were made to check if the strategy is aligned with the national, sectorial and institutional policy, strategy and regulatory/legal frameworks and priorities. Currently, there are favourable national policies to undertake research on spices, plants. Since all products obtained from plants under this category are high value commodities with enormous export potential, they are given peculiar attention as prime candidates in the coffee diversification endeavour. The spices, research program are particularly substantiated with several national and international policies, which are given unique attention and hence promoted by the Ethiopian government.

In a "nut shell", the national development policy of the Ethiopian Federal Democratic Republic Government (EFDRG) is "Agriculture-led industrial development". The prime objectives of the policy include:  Develop and adapt agricultural technologies that contribute to food-self-sufficiency or food security;  Promote production of export commodities;  Increase production of commodities for import substitution;  Develop local agro-industries and  Sound conservation, together with systematic and sustainable utilisation of natural resources.

Therefore, all these major objectives of the national policy do directly substantiate the different research endeavours geared towards developing the sub-sector. On top of this, the Federal proclamation for establishing EARI is also considered as the corner stone for this research strategy. In this proclamation, EARI is given the mandate to co-ordinate all research activities at a national level, among which could be included the research program on these invaluable commodities.

On the other hand, the major objective for the establishment of the Federal Investment Office is to create conducive conditions for local and foreign investors and encourage them to involve in development activities that could promote the national economy, through

[121] production of commodities meant for export and/or import substitution. Thus, it enlists different sorts of incentives for those who involve in some sub-sectors, of which production of plants under this category and their derivative products is among the top ones. As a result, private investors involved in the production and processing of some plant species under this category are observed proliferating in the country.

Besides, the former Export Promotion Board, which had been established at the Federal level (Ethiopia, 1995), has recently been reorganised as Export Promotion Agency. It is the top policymaking body of the country given the national mandate for the promotion and diversification of export commodities. Thus, since plant species encompassed under this research category are well known for their export potentials and/or import substitution, the objectives of the agency are directly associated with this research program.

Some of the targets of this strategy document are also in accordance with the prime objectives of the Environmental Protection Authority, which was established at the Federal level to protect and conserve natural resources. Especially, those objectives of the authority that are directed at preventing devastation of natural vegetation, together with the existing flora and fauna of the ecosystem, are highly correlated with this strategic endeavour. Furthermore, in line with modern resource management principles, the systematic and sustainable utilisation of both major and minor forest products is also given strong attention in this document.

Last but not least, different other international policies and guidelines, which Ethiopia has also accepted, do also favour this research strategy. Among these, Agenda 21 of the Rio Earth Summit held in 1992 could be cited as a peculiar example. This policy calls for the preservation of natural resources, especially wild growing plant species, which in turn is directly associated with germplasm conservation and maintenance aspects of this research strategy.

The current GTP II which provides even greater emphasis to industrialization places top priority to those agricultural sub-sectors fostering supply of raw materials for the growing agro-industries and import substitution. Spices, in this respect, fall among the commodities given such precedence. Therefore, so many opportunities are set forth by the policy environment to promote research and development of spices.

As conducive the policy and legal frameworks put in place, there are also a number of challenges that may surface in due course.

Economic dimension The increasingly rising demand for spices as a result of increasing population and changing lifestyle create the opportunity for spices sub-sector to thrive. Such an increase in the demand side will be the impetus for the farmers to increase their outputs. The research has to, therefore, keep pace with the need of the farmers to increase production mainly through increasing productivity and minimizing postharvest losses; while meeting the demand of the industries for raw materials that are not only sufficient to enable them run in full capacity but also fulfill their requirements of quality standards. The presence of

[122] various agro-ecologies and new potential areas to grow spices will allow the country to be competent in the world spices market; and also for supplying spices to the potential export markets in neighboring countries and beyond. There are few commercial spices growers established in different parts of the country which offer additional opportunity to grow and export.

Socio-cultural dimension Ethiopia, with a population today of more than 90 million, was on the ancient spice trail from India and was visited by Arabian and Persian spice traders who left their mark on the cuisine. Ethiopia has become one of the largest producer and consumers of spices in Africa. People use spices to flavor bread, butter, meat, soups, and vegetables. And they use them to make medicines and perfumes. Similar to India, the majority of spices produced in Ethiopia (80 %+) are absorbed domestically.

It is therefore, essential for the research team together with its key stakeholders to clearly understand the opportunities and challenges in order to address or change the perception of the farming society that is growing spices crops should be considered and handled as such to be economically, socially, environmentally profitable, viable and sustainable venture. Therefore, the opportunities accruing and challenges emanating from socio- cultural settings around production, processing and trade of spices are evaluated.

Technological dimension Ever Increasing demand for spices technology and kind by different processing industries, exporters, and value addition, Processing factories opened at the farm get creates opportunity for out- growers and suitable for clustering of production for different spices.

Environmental dimension The presence of wide diversity of agro-ecology in Ethiopia favors to grow spices varieties as it does other crops. Such divers ecological factors and crop types, provides a fertile ground for a range of pathogens, insect pests, weeds especially parasitic weeds and other menaces to co-evolve with and survive on the crops, against the interest of man. The damages from these biotic factors coupled with climatic and edaphic factors hindering normal growth and development of the crops are among the primary issues that the research team would target to address.

Stakeholder analysis More stakeholders; governmental and non-governmental, higher learning Institutions, Federal and Regional Research Centers, farmers, farmers' organizations and associations, small-scale processors (“Baltina” groups), local and international traders at various level participate in the production, processing and marketing of the spices sector. List of more of the stakeholders, their responsibilities and the major research gaps to be addressed by the research is presented in the following table (Table 7)

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Table.7. Summary analysis of major stakeholders and their role in the spices industry development

Actors and Institutions Major functions and responsibilities Ministry of Agriculture & Natural Provide relevant policy, strategy & extension service Resource Coffee, tea development and Provide relevant policy, give assistance in Production, processing and marketing marketing authority of spices Agricultural Research Institutes Collaborate in project development & implementation Horticultural Agency Collaborate in technology popularization Ministry of science & technology Support innovative research, give recognition for developed technology Ministry of Trade Lead, support and monitor, stakeholders involved in spices trade Link spices industry with producers, facilitating and creating conducive policy Ministry of Industry environment in the expansion of agro processing and manufacturing facilities Ethiopia Commodity Exchange Creating market place for all actors (make marketing easier) Ethiopian Pulse, Oil seed and Spices Producers & Exporters Responsible for promotion of the spices products at international market Association (EPOSPEA) Spices, aromatics & herbs Involved in value addition and promotion of the spices technologies growers & processors associations Private investors Easy and effective knowledge transfer Higher learning Institutions skilled human power development, collaborate in research execution Administrative bureaus Responsible for all administrative issues Development partners (NGOs) Participate in research and development at various level Ministry of Finance & Economic Supervise the planning of national strategic development initiatives and provide Development (MoFED) financial support for spices projects Ethiopian standard agency Develop and implement national standards to regulate import and material quality Ethiopian policy study and Provide relevant and evidence based information for policy makers to assist research center spices (spices production and processing road map) Central statistical agency Source of official information on the production, and productivities of spices crop in the country Ethiopian Biodiversity institute Collaborating in germplasm collection, conservation and identification Ethiopian Pharmaceutical & Health Collaborate in research of medicinal value of spices Institute Private Pharmaceutical Industries Collaborate in research and popularization of medicinal values

Benchmarks Experiences of various countries benefited from the industry were referred for some spices. Even if Vietnam started production of black pepper recently (1990), nowadays it remained world number one in black pepper production and productivity (21 Q/ha). This was achieved by producing the spice in suitable agro-ecology, controlling diseases and pests, improving quality and quantity, making the trading of pepper easier, increasing intensive investment and high technique cultivation of black peppers. India is the largest producer and consumer of Turmeric in the world (155800 ha and 598400 tons). New varieties and location specific technologies and favourable extension support were the strategies followed to achieve this production.

India is the first in production and export of seed spices in the world. The seed spices account for about 36% and 17% of the total area and production of spices in the country. India remained number one in production and export of seed spices by: regular and assured supply of seed spices, increasing seed quality, assuring quality of the material

[124] through improved harvest and postharvest practices, testing and certification of the produce for export, promotion of value added products (essential oil, oleoresin), standardization of technologies, transfer of modern production and postharvest technology, establishment of market intelligence and production planning and lower cost of production.

Recently, China and India have continued to lead the world in fresh ginger production with a global share of over 50%, followed by Indonesia, Nepal and Nigeria. Ethiopia ranked 15th in ginger production (8000 MT).The country exported 47180 tons of dry ginger and generated 38 million USD that accounted for 71% of the total four major spices exported (Masresha, 2010). Crop loss of edible ginger resulting from bacterial wilt exceeded 50% in 1998 and 1999 in Hawaii. In India bacterial wilt was widespread on edible ginger and 100% yield loss have been reported.

Ginger bacterial wilt epidemics occurred in Ethiopia in 2011 and caused 50% to 100% yield loss in 2012. Then, area and production volume significantly reduced. This year (2015/16) no ginger production reported from potential growing regions. To mitigate this challenge and return ginger to production, India, China and Hawaii used the following strategies; assure healthy ginger seed rhizome source, assure the soil free from the bacteria, training of farmers, quarantine potential growing areas, avoid suitable climatic condition that favor bacterial wilt epidemics (irrigation),

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Table.8. External and internal situations analyses on spices research Thematic area Internal environment /situation External Environment/situation Strength Weakness Opportunity Challenge Breeding and  More than 15  Narrow genetic base  high spices genetic diversity on  Climate change and environmental genetics improved spices  Lack of improved technologies some spices degradation variety released  Limited number of improved variety  wider agro-ecology  Genetic erosion on indigenous spices  Available of high  No application of modern breeding  High demand of the  Nature of indigenous spices like demanded tools technology by end-users kororimma make breeding and spices species  Fragmented research on spices  Have high experience and improvement difficult like vanilla  narrow scope in breeding objective knowledge on spices in  spices genetic resource collection countries like India and conservation practices are  have conducive policy unorganized and un-exhaustive environment

Crop  Availability of  Lack of modern plant protection  Possibility of acquiring IPM  Outbreaks of new diseases and pests protection some diseases, Research facility, and highly trained options from different research (ginger bacterial wilt pest, and weed technical stuff institutes and countries  Lack of coordinated work for pest management  Lack of IPM and IDM technologies  Diverse fauna and flora in the surveillance recommendation suitable for organic spices production. Country  Lack of quarantine service s  Limited information on biology and  Encouraging policy and Public  Lack of central laboratory for ecology of major pests of spices crops and private investment on systematics  protection  Change in the farming system from complex to simple like using of single variety make diseases epidemics recurrent Agronomy and  Availability of  Lack of agronomic recommendations  Availability of fertilizer factories  Climate change physiology some agronomic (for seed spices)  Soil nutrient status of Ethiopia  Inherent nature of some spices make and physiology  Soil characterization, nutrient mapped them unsuitable agronomical practice requirement and mapping  Suitable policy environment for  Complex nature of perennial spices recommendation unaddressed input utilization (which require special technique) for major spices  Climate change and mitigation options  diverse agro- ecology  Narrow adaptability unaddressed  Little or no study have been conducted on spices physiology  Unavailability of modern research facility [126]

 Lack of area and end user/customer specific agronomic recommendation Irrigation water  Initiation of  Lack of attention on irrigated spice  Better expansion and  Climate change management irrigation crops increased emphasis for  Salinity activities on  No recommendations for irrigated irrigated agriculture  Lack of information on spices spices spice production  Land and water resource irrigation  Lack of attention for drainage practice availability for irrigation  Climate change production Postharvest  Availability of  Limited PHM and value addition  Government focus on agro-  Strict quality standards, costly management some technologies industry venture certification process and value recommendation  Little studied on quality determinants  Increase in attention both by  Research priority area of the country addition  Quality and influencing factors research and the countries (food crop) laboratory  Unstandardized quality parameters  High demand for quality  Both national and international (food safety) products and spices derivatives competition for market and quality  Limited knowledge on industrial and (natural products)  Lack of infrastructure for processing, medicinal values/properties  marketing etc. at all level of the value  Limited trained personal on the sector  chain  Lack of market oriented competitive   postharvest technologies Agricultural  Awareness  Inadequate technology adoption,  Availability of Government  An availability of crop specific economics and created ,spices dissemination and impact study extension system extension system extension technology  Little commitment to identify and  High information demand  Absence of national Data base for demonstrated, validate efficient extension method  Expansion of Modern spices marketing, and production and popularized  Limited information on spices farming communication technology  Week linkage among extension  information on system dynamics and  Availability of supporting actors spices marketing, commercialization organization commercializatio  Limited knowledge on cost of n and utilization production and efficiency generated and  Limited knowledge on spices value documented chain dynamics and market interaction  Absence of gender disaggregate information  week linkage between research, – extension , and stalk holders

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 Farm  Availability of  No improved Mechanization  Expansion of Large  Unsuitable agro ecology for adoption machineries agricultural equipment’s for spices production , commercial spices farming of some machinery developed /agricultural mechanization handling and processing  Government policy on value  limited manufacturing of farming and mechanization research  Expertise shortage in the field addition processing equipment’s Technology  Availability of  Limited seed research  High Demand for improved,  Absence of spices seed multiplication tissue culture  lack of modern facility for vegetative quality seed multiplication, and dissemination and mass propagated spices  Availability of private tissue system dissemination propagation  Lack of strong mass propagation culture laboratory protocol for (tissue culture) unit ginger, vanilla,  limited work on seed quality analysis and kororimma  Luck of skilled personal GIS and Agro-  GIS and agro  Limited work on mapping of suitable  Sophisticated GIS and agro-  Big technological and research meteorology meteorology agro-ecologies and spatial analysis for meteorology  capacity gap and the research units major Spices crops  technologies are  technologies are expensive are established  Insufficient information on seasonal  available worldwide  Global warming and increased in most research variability of climate and weather climate change variability have made  Centers elements agriculture more risky  Lack of highly trained research staffs and modern  facilities for GIS and meteorology research

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Resources The internal environment assessment of the commodity is important. The performance of the commodity research should be evaluated with the external environment as a reference point. It is necessary to look into the commodities products and services, and the problems, needs, and challenges of its external environment. The outputs of the commodity research should also be judged in relation to how they satisfy external environments. The internal analysis of the Commodity is an assessment of the commodity to identify its strengths and weaknesses in relation to its objectives.

EARI, through its Tepi National Spices Research Center as the center of excellence (CoE) for Spices, is responsible for the coordination of Spices research country-wide, while other Federal Agricultural Research Centers and the RARIs are responsible for targeted research within various geographies to identify region-specific recommendations. As far as this strategy is concerned, nine of the Federal Research Centers under EARI are especially important. These include Agricultural Research Centers of Tepi (TNSRC), Jimma (JARC), Pawe (PARC), Assosa (AARC), Debrezeit (DARC), Kulumsa (KARC), Wondogenet (WARC), Ambo (APPRC), National Agricultural Biotechnology (NBARC) and Agricultural Research on Nutrition and quality laboratory (ARNQL)

Capacity Building

Human As we know half of the spices under national priority is introduced from abroad and has limited knowledge in our countries. Since they are a cash crop it is difficult to outsource the technology and knowledge with free like food crops as well as has no support with outside project. These resulted limited human resource capacity (both in terms of quantity and quality). The most valuable indigenous spices like Korarimma and Timize due to their perennial and wildish nature they require persistence and patience researcher. Lack of skilled technical staff and means for maintaining capable technical staff (e.g. lack of differential incentive mechanisms) makes the sub-sector incompetent (annex Table, 2).

Physical The spices research is characterized by limited capacity in terms of infrastructure (laboratory, greenhouses, stores, offices...) and other physical facilities (laboratory equipment‟s and consumables, vehicles, agricultural machinery...). In addition to these, testing sites and sub-centers under various research centers have also limitation in number, size and representativeness (annex table 3 and 4).

Financial The national attention given to spices research so far is inadequate there by resulting in limited institutional and resource capacity. In line with this among the major problems encountered are inadequate budget allocation and release system, and inefficient procurement process (annex table. 1)

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Inter and intra disciplinary integrations, complementarities and synergies The success of spices research depends on vertical integration and concerted efforts of various research disciplines. In addition to that of the mainstream disciplines (such as breeding, agronomy, crop protection, postharvest handling and processing, agricultural economics, extension and gender) there are clear possibilities of realizing complementarities and synergies by working together with experts of other fields. Important among these potentially potent areas of integration include: agricultural- biotechnology research, agricultural and nutritional research laboratory, land and water resources management research, agricultural mechanization research, technology multiplication and climate and geo-spatial and ICT.

Technologies/research achievement

Germ-plasm enhancement and Variety Development More than 600 spices germplasm were collected and are under good maintenance at Tepi and other collaborating centres. Improved varieties of major spices were also released. This includes black pepper (2), ginger (2), turmeric (1), (1) vanilla, (1) Cardamom, three black cumin, two coriander and three Fenugreek varieties. And the spices team were awarded 2016 Ethiopian science and technology award.

Crop management Suitable land preparation, planting material selection/preparation, seed storage, seed rate, suitable nursery activities and appropriate planting time for rhizomatous and perennial spices were recommended. Intercropping of major spices (ginger and turmeric) with coffee, and cardamom with coffee are recommended. Suitable shade levels (55 to 63 %) were identified for optimum production of shade loving plants (cardamom & Korarima). Live support trees (Korch & Gravellia) were identified and recommended for users.

Crop protection Important diseases, pests and weeds of major spices were identified. In addition critical competition time of weeds for ginger and turmeric were determined.

Postharvest and quality management Suitable harvesting time, drying practices of ginger, turmeric and black pepper were recommended to improve quality of the extraction. Major harvest and postharvest management and processing of highland seed spices are also recommended. Seed multiplication More than 20 tons of ginger and turmeric seed rhizomes and 250,000 rooted cuttings of black pepper and seedlings of cardamom variety were prepared and distributed for users. More than 13000 in vitro multiplied seedlings of vanilla were distributed to users and protocol optimizations for cardamom, korarima, vanilla was established.

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Socioeconomics and Extension  More than 10000 farmers (3000 women and 7000 men) in potential growing zones were trained on improved production, harvest and postharvest processing of spices.  Four spices (Turmeric, Ginger, Black pepper and Cardamom) were popularized and demonstrated with pre scaling up program for 120 farmers (20 female and 100 male), and more than 200 farmers participated on seed spices demonstration. Hence, public investment in varietal research and pre and post-harvest management; postharvest handling; establishment of grades and standards; quality grading and certification are still crucial for the development of fruit production.

Organization, implementation and geographic coverage Lack of strong systems and procedures (i.e., organizational capacity) at different levels is an area of capacity impediment effectiveness. Poor intra- and inter-institutional linkages are also sources of limitation for rapid progress. Organizational strengths and weaknesses that would correspondingly make the growth of spices research need to be analyzed

Strategic Issues Facing the Spices Commodity

The major strategic thematic areas identified include; Genetics and breeding; Agronomy and physiology; Soil and water management; Crop protection; Postharvest and quality management; Technology multiplication and seed research; Agricultural mechanization; Agricultural and Nutritional quality research; GIS and agro-meteorology; Agricultural economics, extension and gender and Capacity building. The strategic issues are presented below under each thematic area.

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Table 8.Major thematic areas and their corresponding strategic issues and intervention on spice commodity Research Strategic issues Output in time frame Discipline Short term Mid term Long term (2016-2020) (2021-2025) (2026-2030)  Narrow genetic base  Widening the gene pool  Continue widening the spices  Continue widening the spices gene pool  Through collection and introduction gene pool through incorporating through incorporating lines from of spices germplasm lines from unaddressed areas, unaddressed areas,  Create variability through crossing  Create variability through  Create variability through mutation and mutation breeding and crossing crossing  Improved variety  Application of conventional level  Application of molecular  -Application of molecular techniques for development breeding (crossing, hybridization, techniques for indigenous seed spices and selection) spices  Application of Haploid culture for cross pollinated spices  up-to-date conservation of  Establish field gene bank for  Conservation of spices germ  Cryopreservation of spices germplasm indigenous spices (ex-situ, Conservation of spices (ex-situ,) plasm through cryopreservation  Spices germ plasm conserved in national cryopreservation, etc.) and ex-situ gene bank and in field  Limited application of  Optimization of mass propagation  Molecular characterization of  Molecular characterization of indigenous modern biotechnology protocol for vegetative propagated indigenous spices spices spices  Application of marker assisted  Application of marker assisted selection for  Bacteria clean ginger plant let selection for important traits important traits mass propagation protocol optimized  Basic research knowledge  Developing basic breeding  Developing molecular  Standard spices breeding methodology, (for indigenous spices) research methodology for techniques for breeding of basic knowledge and use of important trait indigenous spices indigenous spices documented  Descriptors for indigenous spices developed  Narrow breeding objective  Breeding for yield & specific quality  Breeding for diseases  Appling molecular techniques for breeding (breeding for high yield & (fenugreek) resistance and tolerance of spices for specific trait quality)  Breeding for wider adaptability (ginger) (cinnamon, cacao, Annatto, etc)  Breeding for quality (for  Conduct research on emerging colouring unit capsicum, issue with widening breeding turmeric for high curcuma

objective (kororima for moisture content ) Genetics and breeding and Genetics

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stress)    Climate change  Breeding for weather and soil  Continue breeding for weather  Continue breeding for weather and soil variability, (drought, frost, soil and soil variability, (drought, variability, (drought, frost, soil reaction) on reaction) frost, soil reaction) on more more spices spices  Low productivities of the  Develop self-compatible lines (for  Apply molecular technique to  Self- compatible variety of coriander existing variety coriander) Develop self-compatible lines developed  Develop non-shattering lines (for (for coriander)  Non shattering variety of black cumin and black cumin and coriander  Apply molecular technique to coriander developed  Develop OPV (coriander) Develop non-shattering lines (for  Develop wide adapting & quality variety of  Develop high yielding & wide black cumin and coriander major spices adapting variety of korarima, long  Develop wide adapting & quality pepper, black pepper, cardamom, variety of major spices etc.  Lack of agronomic  Develop Basic agronomic package  Continue develop basic  Continue develop basic agronomic package recommendations for major spices (seed and agronomic package for major for major spices perennial) spices spices  Climate change and  Evaluate and select spice  Evaluate and select spice  Use molecular techniques for improving mitigation options germplasm for water and nutrient germplasm for water and spices physiological response for climate unaddressed use efficiency (3 spices), nutrient use efficiency (10 change  Study on spices crop water spices), requirement (2spices)  Study on spices water  Develop spices Crop management requirement (10 spices) options targeting climate change  Modelling of spices crops for

climate change (3 spices )  Develop spices Crop management options targeting climate change  Iinformation on Physiology  Study on physiological  Study on physiological  Study on physiological determinants of determinants of spices determinants of indigenous spices determinants of indigenous indigenous spices spices  Cropping system of spices  Study on cropping system of major  Study on cropping system of  Finalize research and document the Agronomy and physiology and Agronomy unaddressed perennial spices major seed spices cropping system of spices in Ethiopia

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 Limitation on survey &  Survey on insects, weeds &  Survey on insects, weeds &  Survey on insects, weeds & diseases of identification of major diseases of major spices diseases of major spices & major spices & develop control measures spices pests develop control measures  -IPM and IDM techniques  Develop IDM techniques for spices  Develop IDM techniques for  IPM and IDM techniques for major spices not well developed for major diseases major pests of spices pests developed and popularized major spices  -Dvelop IPM for leaf gall trips and  Develop IPM for aphid of seed shoot borer of black pepper spices  Integrated weed management  Develop integrated weed options management options for other spices  Loose or no strong  Studies on epidemiology of ginger  Capacity developed for  Continue studying and devise organized prediction of epidemiology, bacterial wilt and Phytophathora forecasting of epidemics for prediction for other major pests and biology and ecology of root rot of black pepper ginger bacterial wilt and documented major pests of spices Phytophathora root rot of black pepper

 Incidence of bacterial wilt  Develop ginger disease free seed  Establish Participatory diseases  Sustainable disease free ginger seed diseases such as on rhizome production scheme, free ginger seed rhizome production ginger  Develop IDM for seed and soil production scheme  Sustainable ginger production in potential treatment (physical, chemical etc)  Study on the value chain to agro ecologies Sustain supply of diseases free  Optimal bacterial wilt management Crop protection Crop ginger seed rhizome developed  Traditional harvest,  Identify modern harvest &  -Continue for more number of  -Continue for the rest of spices postharvest handling and postharvest techniques (boiler for spices processing practices turmeric), black pepper (handling),

vanilla (curing), and turmeric

storage  Knowledge gap on  Identification of GI based quality of  Identification of GI based quality  Branding (GI) based production and geographic indication of major spices (Korarima, turmeric, for major and indigenous spices marketing. origins (GI) on spices ginger, black cumin, fenugreek, quality coriander, etc.)

 Unstandardized quality  Quality Standard for indigenous  Quality standard of major spices  Optimization of quality and/or food safety of quality management quality parameters (food safety) spices developed with the established in the production major spices international standards system in Ethiopia  Food safety standards of major spices specified/standardize in Postharvest & & Postharvest relation to export quality [134]

 Knowledge gap on  Analyse composition of major  Develop medicinal and or  Popularize and documented Spices industrial and medicinal spices industrial product using spices medicinal and industrial values values of spices  Identify major contents/ingredients extracts used for medicinal and industrial  Invite and collaborate with purpose pharmaceutical universities & institutes  Value addition  Develop value added product for  Develop value added product  Develop value added product for more major spices for more spices spices  Technology adoption,  Investigate determinants of  Continue studying on  Continue studying on determinants of dissemination and impact technology adoption determinants of technology technology adoption study  Enhance technology promotion adoption  Continue technology promotion and and dissemination  Continue technology promotion dissemination & dissemination  Continue assessing the economic and  Assess the economic and social social impacts of spices impacts of spices  Competitive and innovative  Identify and validate efficient  Continue studying, develop &  Refine & continue developing and extension approach extension methods popularize innovative & efficient popularizing innovative extension approach extension approach  Transform the extension technique to  Transform the extension modern and up to date media methods technique to modern and up to supported by cell phone date media methods supported by cell phone  Farming system dynamics  Conduct GIS based farming  Continue study on farming  Continue study on determinants of

and commercialization system study system dynamics smallholder commercialization

 Conduct study on determinants of  Conduct study on determinants  Continue study on determinants of linkage smallholder commercialization of linkage between smallholders between smallholder and commercial farms and commercial farms  Production economics and  Conduct cost benefit analysis of  Continue conducting cost  Continue conducting cost benefit study efficiency major spices benefit study  Continue conducting efficiency study  Conduct efficiency study on major  Continue conducting efficiency spices production study  Value chain, market and  Conduct value chain analysis on  Assess the spatial integration of  Reassess the dynamics of value chain policy major spices both domestic and international  Reassess the vertical and horizontal  Assess both domestic and market integration of the chain actors Agricultural Economics & Extension & Economics Agricultural international market for spices and  Assess policy that affect spices

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spices product production  Assess the vertical and horizontal integration of chain actors  Gender disaggregate  Assess the role of gender on spice  Initiate gender mainstreaming  Popularize gender disaggregated information production, marketing and on spice production, marketing information for end users processing & processing  Linkage between  Establish stakeholders platforms  Strengthen stakeholder  Continue strengthening stakeholder plat research, extension & platforms form stakeholder  Absence of formal spices  Establish farmers participatory  Scale up and participate more  Established formal spices improved seed (propagating) improved spices propagation farmers in improved spice propagation material production scheme multiplication & material production scheme (black propagation material production  Improve the seed system of all the spices dissemination unit pepper RMT, and ginger, long (seed spices) pepper),  Improve the seed system of  Clustering of spices producing major spices regions and organize and establish formal improved spices propagation material production unit through union/cooperative  Standardize mass  Optimization of mass propagation  Establish tissue culture base  Mass multiplication techniques for spices propagation techniques protocol for (turmeric, black pepper mass propagation scheme for seed/seedling production established and

and protocols for and ginger) vegetative propagated major documented production of  Establish package of practices for spices seeds/seedlings production of quality, healthy  Establish package of practices spices seeds/seedlings for production of quality seeds for spice seeds (coriander) seed research research seed  Seed quality analysis  Sstudy on seed quality profile  Spices seed quality standard (seed certification/viability, purity, seed propagation establish and etc.) of major spices documented  Spices seed system  Analysing (ginger, turmeric, and  Strengthening/established seed  Strong spices crops seed system korarima) spice seed system value system value chain established chain  Establish platform for the development of formal seed

system

Technology multiplication and and multiplication Technology  Bacterial wilt free ginger  Optimize protocol for improved  Participatory farmers improved  Bacterial wilt free ginger seed production [136]

seed rhizome production ginger seed rhizome production ginger seed rhizome production scheme established scheme scheme in rain shelter scheme  Analyse and establish ginger seed rhizome value chain  Limited availability of  Improve conventional multiplication  Improve conventional breeder  Include mass propagation of major spices breeder and basic spices techniques of breeder seeds of seed and basic seed of major and optimize seed or planting material seeds/seedlings released spices (turmeric, vanilla, spices (perennial and annual supply black pepper, cardamom, korarima seed) spices etc)  Improve conventional multiplication of basic seed of perennial and seed spices of released varieties  Soil characterization,  Develop GIS supported soil  Determine crop nutrient  Determine crop nutrient requirement for nutrient requirement and characterization map requirement for major spices major spices mapping unaddressed  Determine crop nutrient requirement for perennial spices  Irrigation  Determine irrigation water  Determine irrigation water  Best irrigation method, spices irrigation recommendations requirement and scheduling for requirement and scheduling for water requirement and scheduling major perennial spices seed spices determined and documented  Improving water  Identify spice crop coefficient and  Design and practice of proper  Salinity control productivity for spices crop management allowable depletion drainage measures  Conjunctive use of different quality of water  Lack of irrigation and level of soil water  Utilization of all water resources resource drainage information for  Determine optimum irrigation  Expansion of suitable and  Ground water utilization and prevention spice crops production scheduling efficient irrigation systems from contamination  Identify deficit and supplemental throughout the users irrigation information for water

scarce areas  Demonstration of appropriate irrigation and water harvesting technologies for spice produce  Integrated nutrient  Develop and recommend of soil  -Soil test based nutrient  Integrated nutrient management for major management test based nutrient requirement for requirement for seed spices spices developed and documented water management water unaddressed perennial spices developed and recommended  Develop integrated soil fertility  Develop integrated soil fertility management for different soil type management for different soil Soil and Soiland type [137]

 Maintaining of Soil health  Develop management option for  Continue develop management  Continue develop management option for problematic soil (acidity, salinity option for problematic soil problematic soil (acidity, salinity and water and water logging) (acidity, salinity and water logging) logging)  Erosions and land  Determined location specific  Determined location specific  Determined location specific Integrated soil degradation Integrated soil and water Integrated soil and water and water conservation practices conservation practices conservation practices  Mapping of suitable agro-  Identify suitable agro-ecology for  Identify potential agro ecologies  Identify potential agro ecologies of different ecologies and spatial spices of different spices production spices production areas and hectares analysis for major Spices  Mapping of suitable agro-ecologies areas and hectares available available

crops and spatial analysis for major meteorology meteorology - Spices crops  Information on seasonal  Determine seasonal weather  Determine seasonal weather  Determine seasonal weather variability variability of climate and variability variability forecast for climate forecast for climate and weather elements

weather elements  Forecast for climate and weather and weather elements

GIS and agro and GIS elements  Mechanization  Develop and or adopt farm  Develop and/ or adapt  Develop and/ or adapt advanced spices

implements suitable for spices advanced spices processing processing machines/techniques for the ploughing, harvesting, and machines/techniques rest of spices processing  Develop and or adopt solar drier  Develop and or adopt suitable technologies

prototype, cooking of turmeric,

mechanization mechanization Agricultural black pepper harvester  Human power (quality and  Capacitate the human resource  Capacitate the human resource  Capacitate the human resource both by quantity) both by quality, quantity and both by quality, quantity and quality, quantity and competence competence competence  Optimize practical capacity of researchers  Long and short term training  Devise/establish foreign on spices research institutional linkage for periodical professional visit and/or experience share  Physical (poor  Provide vehicle, laboratory, office  Provide vehicle, laboratory,  Provide vehicle, laboratory, office and field infrastructure) resource and field equipment and office and field equipment equipment

greenhouse, lath house  Establish biotechnology unit in  Establish biotechnology unit in Tepi

Capacity building Capacity  Testing site and sub-canters Tepi

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 Financial (limited financial  Allocate enough capital budget  Allocate enough capital budget  Allocate enough capital budget resource)  Looking for external funds  Looking for external funds  Looking for external funds  Establish flexible and efficient  Establish flexible and efficient  Establish flexible and efficient budget budget utilization procedure budget utilization procedure utilization procedure  Linkage between research  Platform between research and  Establish a strong and effective  Create consistent linkage in capacity and other institutions and other institutions and development collaboration with federal and building, research agenda development and development organization organization regional research centres and conducting research  higher learning institutions  Active participation of the pharmaceutical interested studies of sectors in identifying the medicinal values of identification, production and spices utilization aspects of spices  Strengthen and capacitate human power and research facility participating in the sector  No strong national spices  Establish core team on spices  Strengthening core team on  Strengthening core team on spices research team comprising research with all the necessary spices research with all the research with all the necessary discipline necessary disciplines discipline necessary discipline  Weak inter-institutional  Strengthen linkages with different  Strengthen linkages with  Strengthen linkages with different national

linkage both at national national and/or international, different national and/or and/or international, governmental and/or and international level governmental and/or non- international, governmental non-governmental institutions working on

governmental institutions working and/or non-governmental spices

Linkage Linkage on spices. institutions working on spices.

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The Next Steps

In order for the strategy to be implemented in a coherent way, it is indispensable to develop a clear implementation plan. The strategic plan document should be viewed as a living constantly assessing the external and internal environment for changes regarding emerging opportunities or challenges, internal weaknesses and strengths as well as political, economic, socio-cultural, environmental, technological and legal challenges. The strategies and strategic plan should respond to the new external and internal environments. Therefore reviewing the strategic plan monitoring and evaluation, impact assessment and reassessment of the strategies and strategic plan should be done as required.

Annex

The human, physical and financial resources have a decisive power on program implementation, coordination and administration. Therefore, the level of human resources capacity, financial capacity and the physical resources available and lacking were assessed and tabulated as strengths or weaknesses. Human and physical capacity development is the key area for implementing effective horticultural research and development under the demanding global environment in context of production, postharvest management, and marketing and value addition research areas. The presence and lack of highly skilled human power and modernization of laboratories for different research fields, workshops, irrigation infrastructures, green houses, and lath houses for field testing are considered for situational analysis.

The organizational deficit in the research system can markedly diminish the functionally and efficiency research capabilities. Systematic erosion of role across cross cutting issues, and excessive wastage of human and capital resources through repetition of same research activities are considered for assessing the internal situation/environment.

Resource Requirement National spices research is coordinated by Tepi National Spices Research Center and the center has been under serious shortage of human resource, research facilities and infrastructure. The following tables show the financial requirement, human resource requirement, infrastructure and other research facilities. In this strategic document additional spices research sub-centers/testing sites have been proposed to be established for relevant agro ecologies in the strategic time period. For the time being, this includes sub-centers such as Masha, Biftu, Bachuma and Basketo. The financial resources include the main center (Tepi) and sub-centers.

Financial requirement The financial requirement of the research strategy based on the GTP II and with prediction of the coming strategy years is summarized in the table (Table 1).

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Annex Table.1. Financial requirement (000) and strategic time frame

Financial Requirement Component 5 years 10 years 15 years (2016-2020) (2021-2025) (2026-2030) Breeding & Genetics 10543.4 21086.7 40508.1 Agronomy& Physiology 7683.4 15366.9 29520.1 Crop protection 6829.7 13659.4 26240.1 Postharvest & quality management 7683.4 15366.9 29520.1 Agricultural economics and extension 6402.9 12805.7 24600.1 Technology multiplication and seed research 3628.3 7256.6 13940.0 Soil & water management 6829.7 13659.4 26240.1 GIS & Agro-meteorology 3628.3 7256.6 13940.0 Agricultural mechanization 2721.2 5442.4 10455.0 Capacity building 45000.0 55000.0 65000.0 Total 100950.3 166900.6 279963.5

Annex Table.2. Human resource requirement for the five year to undertake the spices strategy

Component Qualification Currently Additional required in strategic years Total Required Available 5 years 10 years 15 years (2030) (2016-2020) (2021-2025) (2026-2030) PhD 1 2 3 3 9 Breeding MSc 2* 10 4 5 21 BSc 8 8 6 4 26 Dipl. (TA, FA) 3 8 8 6 25 PhD - 4 4 3 11

MSc - 6 5 3 14 Agronomy/Crop BSc 2 3 3 3 11 management Dipl. 2 6 6 6 20 PhD - 3 2 2 7

MSc 1 2 3 3 9 Crop protection BSc 1 3 3 2 9 Dipl. - 5 5 5 15 PhD - 2 2 2 6 Postharvest MSc 1 2 3 2 8 & Quality management BSc 2 3 3 2 10 Dipl. - 2 2 2 6 PhD - 2 2 3 7 Agricultural economics MSc 1+1* 2 3 2 9 and extension BSc 1 3 4 3 11 Dipl. 1 2 1 1 5 PhD - 1 1 1 3 Technology multiplication MSc - 2 2 2 6 and dissemination BSc 1 2 2 2 7 Dipl. - 4 4 4 12 * on study leave

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Infrastructure Annex Table 3. Infrastructure available and required in the strategic period

Additional required in strategic years Infrastructure Available Total 5 years 10 years 15 years Required (2016-2020) (2021-2025) (2026-2030) I. Building, construction 1. Office (building) including sub centers 1 3* 2* 1* 7 Residence including sub-centers 4 15 35 20 74 3. Laboratory building (soil lab., Protection lab., Agronomy/physiology lab, quality 1 1 2 1 5 laboratory) 4. Basic laboratory (Masha, Bachuma & - 1 2 - 3 Biftu) 4. Green house - 2 1 1 4 5.Glasshouse - 1 1 - 2 6.Cold storage (high land and low land) - 1 1 - 2 7.Drying structures (2 solar drier) - 2 - - 2 8.Conference hall - 1 - - 1 9.Library (ICT-based) - 1 - - 1 10.Storage room - 1 2 - 3 11.Fuel depo - 1 - - 1 11.Growth chamber - 1 1 1 3 12.Propagator - 1 - - 1 13.Garage (workshop) - 1 - - 1 14.Meterology station (upgrade/improve) 1 1 (improve) 2 S/centers) - 4 15. Technology display room - 1 - - 1 16. Staff lounge 1 1 1 - 3 II. Irrigation System Irrigation System (Furrow, drip and - 1 1 1 3 reservoir)

* Building with 12 offices

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Annex Table.4. Research facilities available and required in the strategic period

Additional required in strategic years 5 years 10 years 15 years Total Facilities Available (2016-2020) (2021-2025) (2026-2030) Required I. Transport facility 1.Double cabin vehicle 2 6 4 4 16 2.Bus - 1 1 1 3 3.Coaster - 1 1 - 2 4.Minibus - 1 - 1 2 5.Stationwagon/Land - 1 - 1 2 cruiser 6.Bajaj - 6 - 1 7 7.Tractor with accessories 1 5 3 1 10 8.Generator (2) - 5 - 1 6 9. Motor Bicycle 1 6 1 2 9 II. Laboratory and field equipment facilities

Annex Table 5. List of the prioritized spices plants in Ethiopia

No Common name Scientific name Priority 1 Black Pepper Piper nigrum 1 2 Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum 1 3 Ginger Zingiber officinale 1 4 Korarima Aframomum corrorima 1 5 Long pepper Piper capense 1 6 Turmeric Curcuma longa 1 7 Vanilla Vanilla fragrance 1 8 Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum 1 9 Annatto Bixa acuminate 2 10 Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum 1 11 Black Cumin Nigella sativa L. 1 12 White cumin Trachyspermum anni 1 13 Coriander Coriandrum sativum 1 14 Cocoa Theobroma cacao 3 15 Chili pepper Capsicum spp 2 16 Mustard (Ethiopia) Brassica 2 17 Clove Syzygium aromaticum * 18 Cumin Cuminum cyminum 19 Nutmeg Myristica fragrans * 20 Long pepper Piper longum * 21 Saffron Crocus sativus * * To introduce in the future (currently not available in Ethiopia)

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