Reward and Loss Task
Supplementary Information
Reward and Loss Task
Before scanning, participants had a short training session on the task using different pairs of visual stimuli to those used in the scanner. Participants were told they would be presented with three pairs of pictures and on each trial would select one of the two stimuli. Depending on their choices they were presented messages that indicated change or no change in points:"win" or "nothing" on reward trials, "lose" or "nothing" on loss trials, "no change" (in points) or "nothing" on neutral trials. Participants were instructed to try and accumulate as many points as possible and were told that at the end of the scanning session, wins and losses would be summed, and that they would receive a gift voucher for an amount based on their accumulated points. This was calculated as (net- points)/2 + 10. On average volunteers received a gift voucher for £16.Volunteers played four sessions of the task whilst being scanned, each session lasting 13 minutes. Each session contained 20 trials of each condition (reward, neutral, loss). The sequence of trial types and inter-trial timing variation (“jitter”) was determined using the Optseq( algorithm, designed to optimize detection of the neural signals of interest.
Reinforcement Learning Model
A reinforcement learning algorithm(Sutton and Barto, 1998) was used to estimate prediction errors signals for modelling neural function in the ventral striatum. Each participant’s sequence of choices and outcomes was used as input for the model. Given a pair of stimuli A and B, the model estimates the expected value of choosing A (Qa) and choosing B (Qb). On reward trials, these Q values can be interpreted as the expected reward if the corresponding action is selected. Analogous Q values for loss-avoidance were also calculated.
On every trial i, a prediction error δwas calculated
wherea is the chosen action on trial i and R is the reinforcement corresponding to the outcome of trial i. The prediction error was then used to update the Q value of the chosen stimulus according to the rule:
whereαis the learning rate. The reinforcement magnitude Rwas coded as 1/0 for win/no-win outcomes on the reward trials and 1/0 for loss-avoidance/loss outcomes onthe loss trials. The Q value estimates were initially set to zero.Based on the Q values, for each trial, the probability of choosing each action is calculated. The probability of choosingaction a, was calculated using the softmax rule as:
whereβ is the ‘inverse temperature’. The probability of choosing b was calculated in an analogous manner.
A lowβimplies all actions become equally probablewhereasa highβimplies behavioral choices are more dependent on actions with different valueestimates. For the model based image analysis, values for the constantsα and βhad to be chosen. We selectedα andβ to maximize the log likelihood of the subjects actual choices according to the model. As in previous studies(Pessiglione et al. , 2006), a single set of parameters was fitted across groups and subjects since it has been noted that multi-subject fMRI results are more robust if a single set of parameters is used to generate regressors for all subjects(Daw, 2009). For the reward/loss conditions we usedα = 0.23/0.25 andβ = 3.5/2.1 as these values were found to be optimal.
fMRI Data Acquisition, Preprocessing and Analysis
For blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) response imaging, T2* weighted gradient echo planar images were obtained using a 3T Siemens Magnetom Trio Tim MRI scanner with a 12-channel head coil. A total of 37 sequential slices of 3.5 mm thickness and 0.5 mm slice gap were obtained for each volume. In order to minimize the susceptibility artifact, slice orientation was initially orientated parallel to the AC-PC line, then rotated 30 degrees towards the coronal plane for scanning (Kim et al., 2006). Three hundred and ten volumes were obtained with a TR of 2.5 s, TE 30 ms, flip 90º, FOV 224 mm and matrix 64x64. The first four volumes were discarded to allow for scanner transient effects.
SPM8 ( was used for analysis. The first image from each session was aligned to the first scan of the first session. Then the images from each session were aligned to the first image of the session. The average realigned image was used to derive parameters for spatial normalization to the SPM8 Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI) template with the parameters applied to each image in each time-series. The resultant time-series realigned and spatially normalized images were then smoothed with an 8 mm FWHM Gaussian kernel.
During reward learning tasks, activity in the ventral striatum is thought to be better described by reward prediction errors (mismatch between the predicted and actual outcome) rather than by a simple reward vs. no-reward contrast (Niv et al., 2012). To further examine activity in the ventral striatum we used a standard reinforcement learning algorithm (Supplementary material) that estimated prediction errors for the reward and loss trials at the outcome time of the task. A general linear model was defined with prediction errors generated from the reinforcement learning model used as parametric modulations at the outcome time points, separately for reward and loss conditions. Regressors were also included for each trial type onset, for the neutral condition outcomes and realignment parameters. Beta images comprising linear regression coefficients at each voxel for the modeled activity vs. observed BOLD signal were taken to second level analyses and within and between groups activations examined using one-sample and two-sample t-test.
Behavioral Analysis of Reinforcement Learning Parameters
In addition, behavioral analyses of reinforcement learning parametersα and β were implemented. Between groups random effectsanalysesof α and βparameters were done. First, α and β parameters were estimated for each subject individually by maximizing the likelihood of each subject’s choices under the model. Second, each subject’s parameters were re-estimated applying prior information about the likely range of parameters (the prior being derived from the previous stage) to regularize estimates and avoid extreme (implausible) αorβ values due to the inherent noisiness of the maximum likelihood estimation(Daw, 2009).Parameter estimates were taken to a second level and t-tests used to test null hypotheses of no difference between groups. No random effects between groupdifferences were identified for either reward or loss trials.
Controlling for Potential Confounds
Patients and controls differed in average IQ, symptoms of low mood and anxiety, and nicotine use. We therefore tested whether between group differences in neural activity remained significant after controlling for these differences. This was done by repeating the image analyses having the WASI IQ score, HADS depression and anxiety scores and the Fagerstrom score, as covariates. Between group differences (patients vs. controls) in the bilateral ventral striatum and midbrain/para-hippocampal gyrus for the aversive trials at the outcome time remained significant at the same significance threshold. The between group difference in the insula found on the aversive trials at the anticipation/decision time and the difference in the caudate found on the reward trials remained significant at a reduced threshold of significance (p < 0.005 uncorrected).
Supplementary Table S1 Participant details
Controls / All Patients / ADM / BDMn / 23 / 30 / 15 / 15
Age / 31.30±7.17 / 34.07±4.31 / 33.47±4.78 / 34.67±3.84
NART / 118.96±6.37 / 114.40±5.99 / 113.53±6.23 / 115.27±5.82
IQ-WASI / 101.64±9.11 / 91.73±11.60 / 88.60±13.51 / 94.87±8.67
HADS-D / 1.61±2.48 / 4.17±3.38 / 4.67±3.70 / 3.67±3.09
HADS-a / 3.87±3.90 / 6.10±4.40 / 6.67±5.18 / 5.53±3.56
Methadone dose (mg/day) / -- / 74.87±19.01 / 79.20±20.36 / 70.53±17.15
Values are mean ± SD; NART, National Adult Reading Test; WASI, Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence; HADS-D/a, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale – depression/anxiety scores; ADM/BDM, patients scanned after/before the daily methadone intake
Supplementary Table S2Behavioral results
Condition / Controls / All Patients / ADM / BDMReaction time(s) / Reward / 0.99±0.25 / 1.09±0.29 / 1.03±0.26 / 1.16±0.32
Neutral / 0.91±0.18 / 1.14±0.31 / 1.09±0.32 / 1.18±0.31
Loss / 1.19±0.23 / 1.34±0.31 / 1.27±0.31 / 1.41±0.29
Number of high probability choices / Reward / 57.26±16.23 / 62.90±14.17 / 64.13±11.44 / 61.67±16.80
Neutral / 47.83±19.92 / 54.00±19.25 / 51.73±21.85 / 56.27±16.71
Loss / 51.04±12.39 / 52.57±13.09 / 53.27±13.49 / 51.87±13.11
Reaction times were taken between the trial onset and button press. The Number of high probability choice indicates the number of times that participants selected the high rewarding stimulus on reward trials, the high loss-avoidance stimulus on the loss trials and the stimulus more associated with the ‘No-Change’ image on the neutral trials. Data are expressed as mean ± SD.ADM/BDM, patients scanned after/before the daily methadone intake
Supplementary Table S3 Within and between group activations during reward trials for the contrast win vs. no-win at the outcome time of the task.
BA / x / y / z / TReward trials –outcome time
Contrast: win > no-win
Controls
L ventral striatum / -16 / 10 / -10 / 7.02
R ventral striatum / 16 / 10 / -12 / 6.94
L dorsal caudate / -18 / 20 / 12 / 5.10
Midbrain / 0 / -20 / -12 / 3.69
Thalamus / 6 / -6 / 0 / 4.52
Medial prefrontal cortex / 10-11-32 / 0 / 46 / 2 / 6.64
L amygdala-hippocampalcomplex/PHG / -30 / -10 / -22 / 6.90
R amygdala-hippocampal complex/PHG / 20 / -10 / -22 / 6.93
L insula / -40 / 0 / -4 / 3.40
R insula / 38 / 2 / -2 / 4.17
Posterior cingulate cortex / 23-24 / 4 / -28 / 32 / 6.45
L occipital lobe, cuneus / 18 / -16 / -102 / 16 / 13.69
R occipital lobe, middle occipital lobe / 18 / 26 / -94 / 10 / 14.39
L cerebellum / -40 / -62 / -40 / 5.47
R cerebellum / 42 / -60 / -40 / 5.31
Patients
L ventral striatum / -10 / 10 / -8 / 7.29
R ventral striatum / 10 / 6 / -8 / 6.25
Thalamus / 2 / -8 / 0 / 3.33
Medial prefrontal cortex / 10-11 / -2 / 36 / -16 / 6.67
L amygdala-hippocampalcomplex/PHG / -22 / -12 / -18 / 5.46
R amygdala-hippocampus complex/PHG / 32 / -10 / -22 / 3.77
L occipital lobe, middle occipital gyrus / 18 / -6 / -102 / 12 / 9.97
R occipital lobe, middle occipital gyrus / 18 / 16 / -100 / 12 / 9.60
Controls > Patients
L dorsal caudate / -20 / 22 / 12 / 4.06
R dorsal caudate / 16 / 26 / 4 / 3.22
R parietal lobe, inferior parietal lobe / 40 / 58 / -38 / 42 / 4.59
Parietal lobe, precuneus / 7 / -10 / -70 / 50 / 3.53
L occipital lobe, cuneus / 18 / -8 / -102 / 14 / 5.14
R occipital lobe, cuneus / 18 / 8 / -102 / 2 / 4.71
R cerebellum / 40 / -76 / -26 / 3.76
Patients>Controls
Non significantactivations
Coordinates (x, y, z) reported in MNI space; R/L=right/left. All results significant at p<0.05 cluster extent corrected across the whole-brain. (PHG, para-hippocampal gyrus)
Supplementary Table S4Between group activations (ADM vs. BDM) during reward trials for the contrast win vs. no-win at the outcome time of the task.
Reward trials –outcome time
Contrast: win > no-win
ADMBDM
No significant activations
BDMADM
L frontal lobe, superior frontal gyrus / 10 / -22 / 56 / 10 / 4.35
R frontal lobe, middle frontal gyrus / 10 / 34 / 54 / 0 / 4.59
L temporal lobe, middle temporal gyrus / 39 / -56 / -58 / 12 / 4.22
R temporal lobe, superior temporal gyrus / 22 / 62 / -56 / 12 / 5.13
L para-hippocampal gyrus / -44 / -32 / -10 / 4.50
L parietal lobe, precuneus / 31 / -6 / -62 / 20 / 3.65
Coordinates (x, y, z) reported in MNI space; R/L=right/left. All results significant at p<0.05 cluster extent corrected across the whole-brain.
Supplementary Table S5Within and between group activations for the contrast reward vs. neutral at the decision time of the task.
BA / x / y / z / TDecision time
Contrast: reward > neutral
Controls
L ventral striatum / -8 / 6 / 0 / 4.05
R ventral striatum / 10 / 6 / -4 / 4.94
L insula / -34 / 20 / -12 / 4.67
R insula / 34 / 24 / -10 / 4.23
Anterior cingulate cortex / 32 / 4 / 40 / 16 / 3.8
Frontal lobe, medial frontal gyrus / 9 / -2 / 36 / 36 / 3.73
L frontal lobe, middle frontal gyrus / 10 / -32 / 46 / 6 / 3.98
L frontal lobe, middle frontal gyrus / 8 / -48 / 10 / 46 / 4.21
L parietal lobe, inferior parietal lobule / 40 / -34 / -52 / 38 / 3.99
R parietal lobe, superior parietal lobule / 7 / 30 / -60 / 54 / 3.15
L occipital lobe, middle occipital gyrus / 19 / -30 / -94 / 10 / 4.31
R occipital lobe, middle occipital gyrus / 18 / 26 / -96 / 16 / 4.51
Cerebellum / 12 / -82 / -30 / 4.88
Patients
L ventral striatum / -12 / 4 / -6 / 4.51
R ventral striatum / 8 / 10 / -2 / 4.79
L insula / -34 / 22 / -8 / 4.20
R insula / 38 / 18 / -14 / 4.01
Frontal lobe, medial frontal gyrus and anterior cingulate cortex / 32-9 / -4 / 42 / 38 / 4.91
L frontal lobe, middle frontal gyrus / 8 / -44 / 22 / 48 / 3.35
Left posterior midbrain / -10 / -28 / -7 / 4.57
Right posterior midbrain / 8 / -32 / -12 / 3.90
Thalamus / 9 / -26 / 6 / 3.39
L occipital lobe, cuneus / 19 / -28 / -92 / 22 / 3.73
R occipital lobe, fusiform gyrus / 37 / 30 / -50 / -12 / 3.52
Cerebellum / 16 / -76 / -32 / 4.63
Controls > Patients
Non significant activations
Patients>Controls
R temporal lobe, middle temporal gyrus / 21 / 58 / -22 / -12 / 3.71
Coordinates (x, y, z) reported in MNI space; R/L=right/left. All results significant at p<0.05 cluster extent corrected across the whole-brain.
Supplementary Table S6Between group (ADM vs. BDM) activations for the contrast reward vs. neutral at the decision time of the task.
Decision time
Contrast: reward > neutral
ADMBDM
R frontal lobe, inferior frontal gyrus / 13 / 40 / 30 / 8 / 4.38
R parietal lobe, precuneus / 31 / 18 / -54 / 26 / 3.59
BDMADM
No significant activations
Coordinates (x, y, z) reported in MNI space; R/L=right/left. All results significant at p<0.05 cluster extent corrected across the whole-brain.
Supplementary Table S7Within group activations during loss trials for the contrast
loss-avoidance>loss at the outcome time.
BA / x / y / z / TLoss trials – outcome time
Contrast: loss- avoidance > loss
Controls
L ventral striatum / -14 / 10 / -10 / 5.37
R ventral striatum / 14 / 8 / -10 / 5.41
L dorsal caudate / -20 / 20 / 12 / 4.74
R dorsal caudate / 20 / 12 / 16 / 4.99
L temporal lobe, middle temporal gyrus / 39 / -50 / -76 / 24 / 4.72
R temporal lobe, superior temporal gyrus / 41 / 36 / -42 / 10 / 5.16
Cerebellum / 28 / -62 / -44 / 4.82
Patients
L dorsal caudate / -12 / 20 / 14 / 3.58
R dorsal caudate / 14 / 20 / 12 / 3.46
Coordinates (x, y, z) reported in MNI space; R/L=right/left. All results significant at p<0.05 cluster extent corrected across the whole-brain.
Supplementary Table S8Within group activations during loss trials for the contrast loss loss-avoidance at the outcome time.
Loss trials – outcome time
Contrast: loss > loss-avoidance
Controls
L posterior midbrain / -8 / -22 / -6 / 4.17
Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex / 24 / 2 / 28 / 24 / 5.65
Frontal lobe, medial frontal gyrus / 10 / 2 / 52 / 18 / 3.95
L frontal lobe, inferior frontal gyrus / 47 / -34 / 30 / -22 / 4.73
L temporal lobe, superior temporal gyrus / 38 / -42 / 20 / -32 / 4.35
R frontal lobe, inferior frontal gyrus / 47 / 40 / 24 / -22 / 5.35
R temporal lobe, superior temporal gyrus / 38 / 34 / 22 / -36 / 5.71
Frontal lobe, superior frontal gyrus / 6 / -8 / 16 / 68 / 5.04
L frontal lobe, precentralgyrus / 6 / -50 / -2 / 52 / 4.03
L occipital lobe, middle occipital gyrus / 18 / -12 / -96 / 12 / 7.97
R occipital lobe, cuneus / 18 / 12 / -100 / 6 / 7.85
Cerebellum / 36 / -40 / -28 / 3.67
Cerebellum / -22 / -64 / -12 / 3.59
Patients
Midbrain / 0 / -22 / -20 / 4.98
L midbrain and para-hippocampal gyrus / -18 / -22 / -16 / 4.76
R midbrain and para-hippocampal gyrus / 10 / -20 / -22 / 5.49
L thalamus and globuspallidus / -16 / -6 / 4 / 4.41
R thalamus and globuspallidus / 14 / -2 / 8 / 4.40
Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex / 32 / 2 / 32 / 26 / 5.62
Dorsal posterior cingulate cortex / 24 / 0 / -12 / 32 / 4.39
Frontal lobe, superior frontal gyrus / 6 / 0 / 16 / 64 / 7.78
L frontal lobe, middle frontal gyrus / 6 / -46 / 2 / 52 / 4.61
R frontal lobe, middle frontal gyrus / 6 / 50 / 6 / 50 / 5.13
L frontal lobe, inferior frontal gyrus / 47 / -52 / 26 / -4 / 6.55
R frontal lobe, inferior frontal gyrus / 47 / 36 / 24 / -10 / 7.57
R temporal lobe, superior temporal gyrus / 38 / 56 / 18 / -8 / 7.54
L temporal lobe, middle temporal gyrus / 21 / -46 / 4 / -40 / 4.37
R temporal lobe, middle temporal gyrus / 21 / 48 / 4 / -42 / 3.18
L parietal lobe, superior parietal lobule / 7 / -26 / -68 / 60 / 3.63
R parietal lobe, superior parietal lobule / 7 / 28 / -60 / 46 / 5.05
L temporal lobe, inferior temporal gyrus / 20 / -52 / -26 / -16 / 6.28
R temporal lobe, middle temporal gyrus / 21 / 60 / -24 / -14 / 5.76
L occipital lobe, cuneus / 18 / -10 / -100 / 18 / 10.48
R occipital lobe, middle occipital gyrus / 18 / 14 / -102 / 10 / 9.18
Cerebellum / -36 / -60 / -28 / 7.62
Cerebellum / 36 / -60 / -28 / 7.45
Coordinates (x, y, z) reported in MNI space; R/L=right/left. All results significant at p<0.05 cluster extent corrected across the whole-brain.
Supplementary Table S9Between group (controls vs. patients) activations during loss trials for the contrast loss-avoidance>loss at the outcome time.
Loss trials – outcome time
Contrast: loss- avoidance > loss
Controls > Patients
L ventral striatum / -14 / 6 / -10 / 4.64
R ventral striatum / 16 / 6 / -10 / 3.79
L dorsal caudate / -20 / -10 / 22 / 4.16
R dorsal caudate / 16 / -14 / 26 / 3.73
L midbrain and para-hippocampal gyrus / -18 / -18 / -20 / 3.73
R midbrain and para-hippocampal gyrus / 16 / -18 / -20 / 3.93
Frontal lobe, superior frontal gyrus / 8 / -8 / 38 / 50 / 3.60
L frontal lobe, middle frontal gyrus / 9 / -32 / 30 / 42 / 4.18
L temporal lobe, inferior temporal gyrus / 20 / -48 / -22 / -16 / 3.40
R temporal lobe, inferior temporal gyrus / 20 / 50 / -24 / -24 / 5.01
Cerebellum / -16 / -78 / -32 / 4.37
Cerebellum / 28 / -62 / -44 / 5.18
Patients > Controls
No significant activations
Note that the comparison controls > patients for the contrast loss-avoidance > loss is analogous to the comparison patients > controls for the contrast loss > loss-avoidance.Coordinates (x, y, z) reported in MNI space; R/L=right/left. All results significant at p<0.05 cluster extent corrected across the whole-brain.
Supplementary Table S10Between group (ADM vs. BDM) activations for the contrast loss>loss-avoidance at the outcome time.
Loss trials - outcome time
Contrast: loss>loss-avoidance
ADMBDM
L midbrain and para-hippocampal gyrus* / -18 / -26 / -16 / 3.15
R midbrain and para-hippocampal gyrus* / 12 / -20 / -16 / 3.10
Thalamus / -2 / -4 / 8 / 3.88
R frontal lobe, superior frontal gyrus / 10 / 34 / 54 / 18 / 4.01
L temporal lobe, middle temporal gyrus / 20 / -50 / -40 / -14 / 5.21
R temporal lobe, fusiform gyrus / 37 / 48 / -42 / -14 / 3.46
Cerebellum / -20 / -54 / -44 / 3.48
Cerebellum / 18 / -70 / -28 / 3.31
BDMADM
No significant activations
Note that the comparison ADMBDM for the contrast loss>loss-avoidance is analogous to the comparison BDMADM for the contrast loss-avoidance>loss.Coordinates (x, y, z) reported in MNI space; R/L=right/left. * Regions significant at p<0.005 uncorrected. All other results significant at p<0.05 cluster extent corrected across the whole-brain.
Supplementary TableS11Within and between (controls vs. patients) group activations for the contrast loss vs. neutral at the decision time of the task.
BA / x / y / z / TLoss trials – decision time
Contrast: loss > neutral
Controls
L medial caudate and globuspallidus / -10 / 4 / 2 / 4.47
R medial caudate and globuspallidus / 10 / 4 / 2 / 4.75
L insula and inferior frontal gyrus / -48 / 20 / 0 / 5.11
R insula and inferior frontal gyrus / 32 / 24 / 0 / 5.25
Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex / 32 / -8 / 22 / 44 / 4.97
R frontal lobe, inferior frontal gyrus / 9 / 58 / 10 / 34 / 4.39
L frontal lobe, superior frontal gyrus / 10 / -22 / 58 / -8 / 4.14
L parietal lobe, precuneus / 7 / -16 / -70 / 34 / 4.60
R occipital lobe, middle occipital gyrus / 18 / 24 / -92 / 4 / 4.81
Cerebellum / 38 / -56 / 28 / 4.99
Cerebellum / 8 / -80 / -28 / 4.59
Cerebellum / -38 / -48 / -20 / 3.49
Patients
L Thalamus / -10 / -12 / 6 / 3.59
R Thalamus / 10 / -16 / 8 / 3.39
L insula and inferior frontal gyrus / -32 / 24 / -4 / 5.12
R insula and inferior frontal gyrus / 34 / 24 / -12 / 4.43
Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex / 32 / -8 / 32 / 34 / 5.04
L frontal lobe, superior frontal gyrus / 10 / -28 / 60 / -2 / 4.24
L frontal lobe, precentralgyrus / 9 / -40 / 18 / 44 / 3.96
R frontal lobe, inferior frontal gyrus / 9 / 46 / 4 / 34 / 3.68
L parietal lobe, precuneus / 7 / -4 / -80 / 48 / 3.84
R parietal lobe, inferior parietal lobule / 40 / 34 / -48 / 40 / 5.06
L occipital lobe, middle occipital gyrus / 19 / -34 / -94 / 2 / 4.80
R occipital lobe, middle occipital gyrus / 19 / 40 / -92 / 4 / 5.63
Cerebellum / 24 / -68 / -8 / 4.05
Controls > Patients
L insula and inferior frontal gyrus / -50 / 20 / -6 / 3.46
Patients>Controls
No significantactivations
Coordinates (x, y, z) reported in MNI space; R/L=right/left. All results significant at p<0.05 cluster extent corrected across the whole-brain.
Supplementary Table S12Between group (ADM vs. BDM) activations for the contrast loss vs. neutral at the decision time of the task.
Decision time
Contrast: loss > neutral
ADMBDM
Thalamus / 2 / -22 / 6 / 3.63
R frontal lobe, middle frontal gyrus / 11 / 30 / 46 / -6 / 5.08
R parietal lobe, inferior parietal lobule / 40 / 44 / -56 / 50 / 3.43
BDMADM
No significant activations
Coordinates (x, y, z) reported in MNI space; R/L=right/left. All results significant at p<0.05 cluster extent corrected across the whole-brain.
Supplementary Figure S1Neural responses correlating with reward prediction errors in the ventral striatum.
A) Controls exhibited neural responses correlating with predictions errors in the bilateral ventral striatum((-10,16,-12), t=7.25; (-12,10,-12), t=6.39,p<0.05 cluster extent whole brain corrected). (B) Patients also showed reward prediction error signals in the ventral striatum ((-10,10,-8), t=6.36; (10,12,-8), t=5.91, p<0.05 cluster extent whole brain corrected). (C) There were no significant differences between patients and controls in neural encoding of reward prediction errors in the ventral striatum.
Supplementary Figure S2Brain regions active for reward vs. neutral at the decision time.
Brain regions active in (A) controls and in (B) patients for the contrast reward vs. neutral at the decision time of the task. Except for a minor cluster there were not significant differences between patients and controls in brain activity. Regions significant at p < 0.05 whole brain cluster extent corrected as described in the methods.dAC/mPFC, dorsal anterior cingulated / medial prefrontal cortex; VS=ventral striatum; I, insula