Dynamics of Political Development in Afghanistan Dynamics of Political Development in Afghanistan The British, Russian, and American Invasions Hafizullah Emadi dynamics of political development in afghanistan Copyright © Hafizullah Emadi, 2010. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2010 978-0-230-10389-4 All rights reserved. First published in 2010 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN® in the United States—a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe, and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-28833-5 ISBN 978-0-230-11200-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230112001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress. A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. Design by Scribe Inc. First edition: September 2010 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Dedicated to the memory of my brother Habibullah. Contents List of Tables viii Preface ix Acknowledgments xi Chronology xiii Introduction 1 1 Reform and Rebellion in Postindependence 11 2 Dawn of Political Liberalization 49 3 Military Putsch and Regime Change 87 4 State, Imperialism, and Dissident Movements 127 5 Mujahidin, Civil War, and the Taliban 167 6 Post-Taliban Politics of Reconstruction 205 Glossary 249 Notes 253 Bibliography 267 Index 277 Tables 2.1 U.S. and USSR loan and economic assistance, 1949–1972 (in millions of dollars) 84 3.1 U.S. and USSR economic assistance to Afghanistan, 1973–1977 (in millions of dollars) 96 4.1 Major Sunni political parties in the 1980s and 1990s 137 4.2 Major Shia Islamic parties in the 1980s and 1990s 145 4.3 Chronology of worker strikes, 1968 149 4.4 Chronology of student strikes, 1968 151 4.5 Major revolutionary organizations active in Afghanistan’s politics 153 6.1 Results of presidential election, October 9, 2004 217 6.2 Results of parliamentary election, September 18, 2005 219 Preface Since the formation of Afghanistan as a nation in the early eighteenth century, the state apparatus was touted as an institution that serves the interest of all people regardless of their social and class affiliations, however, it ignored the needs of tribal and ethnic communities in favor of serving the interests of the ruling class. The class character of the state and its dependence on alien powers for political, financial, and military support eroded the legitimacy of the state and its leader- ship. Since then, conflicts of interest among Pashtun rulers has led to the formation of political alliances with imperial powers for sup- port against their rivals; this factor paved the way for British interven- tion in Afghanistan. The British supported and installed rulers who defended their interests and deferred to them—a situation that lasted until Afghanistan gained its independence in 1919. Nonetheless, Brit- ish influence, both direct and indirect, continued in the country’s political affairs, manifested in support of authoritarian and despotic leaders supportive of its policies. In the post–World War II period, the emerging superpowers—the United States and the Soviet Union—set out to carve their own spheres of influence in Afghanistan by provid- ing economic and technical assistance as well as political support to individuals and groups within and outside the state bureaucracy that supported their politics and ideologies. The Soviet Union succeeded in establishing its domination over Afghanistan after its cliental party, Hizb-e-Demokratik-e-Khalq-e- Afghanistan (People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan [PDPA]), seized power in a military coup in April 1978 that facilitated the Soviet occupation of the country in December 1979 and spawned the anti-Soviet war of national liberation. The Soviets continued to support the Kabul client regime after their defeat and withdrawal of troops in 1989 and until the disintegration of the Soviet empire in 1991. A lack of Russian financial and military support led to the col- lapse of the PDPA’s rule and establishment of a theocratic state in x Preface 1992. Islamic fundamentalists fought each other for domination of the country’s political institutions—a war that claimed the lives of thousands of innocent men, women, and children, destroyed civil and political institutions and economic infrastructures, displaced thou- sands of people inside the country, and forced many others to seek refuge in the neighboring countries of Iran and Pakistan and else- where. This situation continued until U.S. and NATO forces toppled the Taliban in late 2001 and backed the establishment of a cliental political system of governance. This study is a modest attempt to examine how dependent devel- opment and struggles for power within the state apparatus led to the formation of alliances with imperial powers and how the latter used these alliances to manipulate political development in Afghani- stan to their own advantage. It also demonstrates how the failure of imperial powers to build a hegemonic project around a class faction within the state apparatus paved the way to their direct intervention in Afghanistan’s internal affairs—British engagement in Afghanistan prior to the country’s independence in 1919, Russian occupation in the 1980s, and U.S. and NATO military intervention in late 2001. Acknowledgments As an advocate of social justice and a member of the political move- ment for progressive social transformation in the 1970s and after, I became interested in the dynamics of political development in Afghanistan, with a view to affect positive change in the trend of development and produce relevant literature to serve as a guide to novice students of political science and the progressive movement in their struggle for justice. This study is a product of many years of intensive reading, research, and observation of developments in Afghanistan in the era of globalization of the capitalist system. With- out the assistance and support of friends it would not have been possible to complete this book. I would like to express my deep- est gratitude to Mohamed Alibhai for his thoughtful comments on the final version of this book. I would also like to render thanks to Farooq Babrakzai for his cogent suggestions and comments on vari- ous aspects of development in his home country. I am equally grate- ful to Abbas Noyan, representative at the Shura-e-Milli (National Assembly) for sharing information on political developments during the legislative process. Most especially I thank my sisters Nigar and Sanam and my late brother Habibullah, School Superintendent in the Shibar district, Bamiyan Province, and their families who pro- vided me with round-the-clock support during my stay in Afghani- stan, which helped me focus on my research and writing. This study was also enhanced by the special part played by Khodayar Faiyaz, a distinguished figure in the liberation movement in Shibar, Bamiyan Province, in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Appreciation is expressed for the role played by Shah Mohammad Rais and Iraj Mohammad Rais of Shah Mohammad Book Company for providing me access to their collections and research materials during my stay in Kabul. It is impossible to express sufficiently my thanks to Lorilei, who con- sistently provided moral and material support during my research, locating and accessing materials in library archives and preparing an xii Acknowledgments index for the book—she did everything she could and always more than I asked. Last, but not least, I am particularly grateful to Pal- grave Publishers for bringing this study of Afghanistan’s politics and society to a wider audience. Chronology 1747 Ahmad Shah Abdali of the Sadozai Pash- tun tribe is enthroned as king and rules Afghanistan for twenty-six years. 1773 Death of Ahmad Shah Abdali and succes- sion of his son Timur to the throne. Timur transfers the capital from Qandahar to Kabul and rules twenty years. 1798 Britain’s containment policy toward Afghanistan deters Afghanistan from invading India. 1809 British envoy Mountstuart Elphinstone and King Shuja conclude a defensive pact that heralds the beginning of direct con- tact between Afghanistan and Britain. 1818 Armed confrontation among the Pashtun ruling elites leads to the outbreak of civil unrest that lasts until 1835. 1826 Dost Mohammad, of the Mohammadzai Pashtun tribe and ruler of Ghazni, seizes Kabul. 1839 First Anglo-Afghan War. The British install ex-king Shuja to power. 1841, December 23 British envoy Sir William Hay Macnaghten is assassinated in Kabul. 1842 End of the First Anglo-Afghan War. 1843, December Dost Mohammad seizes power and rules the country for twenty years. xiv Chronology 1857 An Anglo-Afghan treaty is concluded in Peshawar and the British agree to provide subsidy to Dost Mohammad. 1863, June 9 Dost Mohammad dies and Shir Ali seizes power. 1866 Mohammad Afzal seizes power; Shir Ali flees to Qandahar. 1867 Mohammad Afzal dies and is succeeded by his brother Mohammad Azam. 1869 Shir Ali regains power. 1878 Second Anglo-Afghan War. 1879 King Shir Ali dies and is succeeded by his son Mohammad Yaqoob. Yaqoob abdi- cates the throne when the British invade Kabul. 1880 The British recognize Abd al-Rahman after he ascends to the throne. 1893 Britain and Afghanistan sign the Durand Line Treaty, demarcating the southern boundaries between Afghanistan and British-controlled India. 1901 Death of Abd al-Rahman and succession of his son Habibullah to the throne.