A Study of Popular Hong Kong Cinema from 2001 to 2004 as Resource for a Contextual Approach to Expressions of Christian Faith in the Public Realm after the Reversion to Chinese Sovereignty in 1997 YAM Chi-Keung Doctor of Philosophy The University of Edinburgh July 2008 ABSTRACT In this thesis I study popular Hong Kong cinema through analysing specific films produced between 2001 and 2004. They are Shaolin Soccer (2001), The Infernal Affairs Trilogy (2002-2003), and Kung Fu Hustle (2004). My aim is to identify insights from these films in order both to interrogate and to inform the public expressions of faith by local Christians in the period after the reversion to Chinese sovereignty in 1997. In this thesis, these expressions of faith are represented by local Christian productions released in cinemas also between 2001 and 2004. Being the first detailed study of Chinese language film in the developing field of theology- religion and film, this thesis serves to extend the geo-cultural scope of this area of research. Throughout this study I adopt a tripolar approach to theology which is simultaneously practical, contextual, and cultural. It starts with practical concerns and aims at informing Christian praxis; it is concerned with local issues and reflects on local practices; it regards the cinema as a cultural text and as resource for local theology. My film analysis draws upon a cultural studies approach which combines textual and contextual studies, and is enriched by extensive references to writings by local critics and audience members. Using this multi-layered approach, I scrutinise the top grossing local film of each year from 2001 to 2004 within its original sociocultural context of production and reception. The same approach is also applied to examine the Christian films. At the heart of this thesis is my analysis of both Christian films and popular films. I demonstrate that the local Christian films exhibit a number of characteristics, which include: other-worldly spirituality; individualistic worldviews that focus on personal fulfilment; exclusive emphasis on marriage and the family; as well as disinterest from the social context and indifference towards the present. My contextual study on the development of Christianity in Hong Kong reveals that these characteristics mirror the popular theologies prevalent in many local Christian communities. i In contrast, the popular films are often perceived locally to be implicit representations of circumstances after the reversion of sovereignty, and are thus regarded as stories of Hong Kong people and society. I discuss how these films address important issues which confront the people, take the local cultural-religious traditions seriously, assume the point of view of the marginal, and embrace rather than condemn human weaknesses. As cultural texts, they suggest that the people of Hong Kong are struggling with unresolved identities and anxiety over being marginalised, grappling with the tension of retention versus abandonment of collective memories, and longing for transformation from their perceived perpetual despair. These characteristics, I contend, are manifestations of a collective state of liminality experienced by many people in Hong Kong after 1997. In the conclusion, I propose a contextual approach to public expressions of Christian faith for Hong Kong under Chinese sovereignty. My proposed approach involves attentiveness and humility toward local cultural-religious traditions; relocation to the periphery for the assumption of a marginal perspective; identification with and embrace of the liminal condition of the people. Finally, I suggest that the challenge for public expressions of Christian faith in this context is two-fold. First, it is to be able to tell the stories of post-1997 Hong Kong; second, these stories need to be grounded on a sound theology of liminality which embodies and addresses the post-1997 experience in the city. This specific study on Hong Kong cinema also has wider implications for those seeking to express their Christian faith in the public realm, particularly through various popular audiovisual media. ii DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis in its entirety is the result of my own original work, and has never been presented to any institution for any degree or other qualifications. I assert the right to be identified as the sole author and bear full responsibility for the content. Yam Chi-Keung NOTES ON THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF PRIMARY SOURCES IN CHINESE Citations from books, articles and lines from films: Whether in the form of paraphrase or direct quote, they are my own translation. In the case of lines from films, I have referred to the English subtitles on the DVDs, but often have to make substantial adjustments to make them as literal as possible (that is, as close to the original Cantonese meanings as I understand them). Names of people: I try to follow their commonly used English names to the best of my knowledge. In the event that I need to translate their names, I mostly follow the Hong Kong convention of translating Chinese names from Cantonese pronunciation. Where the person in question is from outside of Hong Kong, the globally adopted hanyu pinyin (漢語拼音) scheme is adopted. Titles of books and articles: Whenever available, I follow the English titles of Chinese books and articles provided by the publishers or authors / editors. In other cases, the English titles are my translations. In both cases, the original title in Chinese characters is shown immediately after the translated title in the bibliography. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS While this thesis is solely the product of my own research and writing, I owe a lot to many people who have made its completion possible. The acknowledgements here can only express a tiny part of my heartfelt gratitude. Dr Jolyon Mitchell, my supervisor, coached me through every stage of the process with his detailed criticisms, warm encouragements, and not the least his encyclopaedic grasp of the field of theology-religion and film study. In the early stage of this project, he pulled me back to a well defined territory on Earth from (in his words) 'talking about the Universe'. At one point when I lost confidence and became disoriented, he patiently, gently, but forcefully pushed me through the hurdles. Dr Elizabeth Koepping, my second supervisor, reminded and challenged me to be more alert to the often overlooked Chinese cultural-religious undertone in the films and their context that I study. As it turns out, this aspect proves to be an important dimension in my thesis. The affirmative comments from my examiners, Dr Christopher Deacy and Dr Hannah Holtschneider, are the best prize that I can ever imagine at the end of this journey. Their impressive attention to details, their probing questions, their constructive and generous critiques, and the continued discussions even after the viva indicate their genuine interest in this research – a fact which I find most encouraging. Being my first major professor in theological study, Dr Stephen Charles Mott was probably the first person who seriously encouraged me to consider doctoral study. Although in many ways I am walking a totally different path from his, this thesis still betrays the marks he has made in terms of its interdisciplinary nature and its theological engagement with significant sociocultural issues. The generous arrangement of Prof. Lo Lung Kwong enabled me to maintain association with the Divinity School of Chung Chi College at the Chinese University of Hong Kong during my study in Edinburgh. I could thereby take advantage of the research resources at the Chinese University, especially its outstanding Hong Kong Study Collection, during my several occasions of short stays in the city. My journey in pursuing this doctorate, though utterly lonely, has been iv blessed in different ways by the friendship and generous help of many, whether in Edinburgh, Hong Kong, or elsewhere. It is not quite possible to individually name all those who have enriched my life with good food, drinks, books, DVDs, posters, red packets, blog comments, chats, care, and love. Having said that, I must thank in particular Wenyi, Enlin, Jialing, Guo-an – the original formation of our 'North Sea Communitas'. They have lit up the final third of my journey to an extent probably greater than they were aware of, and certainly in ways that I never expected. Additionally, Angelo, my computer, has also been a loyal companion and assistant. On top of everybody else, of course, the support from all in my family must be mentioned emphatically. During these years of my absence, they took up extra burden in taking care of our senile mother, in addition to a lot of other things. Apart from that, whenever I was home, the energetic little fellows – Siu Hung, Dabsuet, and Baksek, both cheered up my spirit and challenged my patience. While Dugjai the solemn thinker, Dor Dor the naughty poet, and Ngor Yao the persevering hero were not able to share my joy at the finishing line, they had always been and will always be in my fond memory. Above all, Sun, who had to confront crisis after crisis of all kinds and solved one problem after another all on her own, deserves my deepest gratefulness and indebtedness that are beyond what human language can express. While my mother may not fully understand what I study, I nonetheless owe my earliest exposure to film, media, and theology to her. My earliest memory of cinema-going was watching a foreign film with her, and I can still remember its translated Chinese title was 《霸海奪金鐘》; she bought our first television set at home, on which I watched numerous old Cantonese films; and when I asked how the world came into existence, 'created by God' was her answer even though she was not a practising believer of any religion at that time.