USAID Evidence Summit Development to Analysis for Development Counter Insurgency Evidence Packet Dampening Processes of Radicalization at the Individual and Societal Level This paper describes theories that such as contextual emotive instance, more educated individuals explain why individuals participate response and economic are, in some cases, more likely to in politically violent groups. Some opportunities can explain the support and possibly participate in theories suggest that individuals decision to participate in extreme terrorism. For development turn to radical means, such as forms of behavior, such as violence. practitioners, these non-findings violence, because they possess and nuanced findings are important One commonality of this certain characteristics and/or have because they can inform the design literature is that it tends to rely undergone particular experiences, of effective programs. most heavily on surveys and which make them more prone to interviews of active or former employ political violence. Other Characteristics and members of violence-producing theories suggest that an individual’s Experiences as Drivers of groups, as well as biographical data ideological beliefs, level of on these individuals. Studies based Political Violence education and income affect on these theories are useful in participation in groups that employ Theories from psychology suggest formulating profiles of individuals political violence. It is important to that individuals who undertake and groups that employ political note that most of the theories political violence have identifiable violence. However, it is difficult to described below are about why psychological characteristics that draw testable conclusions from individuals participate in extremist predispose them to violence and to their findings. Furthermore, as organizations. In several instances joining groups that carry out Helmus (2009) notes, studies that we highlight findings about why violence. Theories from sociology explore the characteristics of civilians might support but not propose that individuals employing violence-producing individuals and necessary participate in a political political violence are shaped by the groups generally do not reveal how violence-producing group. environments and social they differ from their non-violent circumstances in which they live. The literature on individual counterparts, because Theories of group process, which processes of radicalization derives counterfactuals are not introduced draw from social psychology, insights from a wide array of in most studies. emphasize the role of group academic disciplines. Theories from While rigorous empirical testing is dynamics in inducing an individual sociology, economics and political still required, a large portion of this to employ violence; the concepts of science explore factors such as an literature has uncovered that radicalization and deradicalization individual’s relative position vis-à-vis common assumptions about what emanate from these theories. others in the society, the makes an individual likely to There also are theories suggesting opportunity cost of soldiering, participate in extremist that an individual’s ideological material and non-material benefits organizations are largely beliefs, level of education, and provided by groups, and the unsubstantiated. That is to say, income affect participation in presence of resources able to be factors like education and religion groups that employ political captured or “rents,” including do not seem to have a violence. This section provides an political power. The literature on straightforward relationship with overview of these theories before criminology suggests that factors participation or support. For commenting on their advantages 1 and deficiencies from a Psychoanalytic Psychological adults with weak self identities are practitioner’s point of view. Theories drawn to groups that adhere to absolutist or apocalyptic beliefs. Identity Theory: Participating in Theories from Psychology These groups allow their members political violence is an attractive to project violence against the “out In 2005 psychiatrist Jeff Victoroff option for young individuals who group,” which the groups typically published an extensive review of lack self-esteem and are seeking to believe are trying to destroy them. theories from psychology and “consolidate their identities” and These groups are generally sociology that have been used to find self worth. This theory draws characterized by a messianic figure explain why individuals employ from extensive psychological that the group reveres and/or a terrorism. In his study, Victoroff literature on identity formation.4 strongly held belief by group identifies eight theories from the Although some interviews of members that out-groups are bent field of psychology and five from terrorists appear to support this on annihilating the in-group. the field of sociology, as well as theory,5 Victoroff notes that no Victoroff’s primary criticism is that theories of group process which empirical study on this subject had this theory is not falsifiable. draw from social psychology. been published as of 2005. Although Victoroff reviews these theories in the context of Narcissism Theory: From the self- Non-psychoanalytic explaining terrorism, many apply to psychology theory put forth by Psychological Theories individuals that employ political Kohut (1972), individuals who are Cognitive Theories: Violent behavior violence in general, not terrorism denied maternal empathy when is determined by cognitive capacity solely. The following section they are young fail to develop and/or cognitive style. Victoroff provides an overview of the identity and morality as adults. defines cognitive capacity as theories that Victoroff highlights, as These individuals develop a desire “mental functions such as memory, well as his primary critiques of to destroy the source of this failing, 1 attention, concentration, language, each. which materializes into a narcissistic and the so-called ‘executive’ rage that is sometimes projected in Psychopathological Theory: functions, including the capacity to the form of terrorism (Crayton Terrorists exhibit behavioral learn and follow rules, to anticipate 1983; Akhtar 1999). Like identity disorders that modern Western outcomes, to make sensible theory, a narcissism theory of psychiatry classifies as either Axis I, inferences, and to perform accurate terrorism is based largely on which refers to major clinical risk-benefit calculations” and impressions of terrorists rather illnesses such as schizophrenia or cognitive style as “biases, than on a methodical empirical major depression, or Axis II, which prejudices, or tendencies to over- study. refers to personality disorders such or underemphasize factors in as antisocial personality disorder. decision making.”7 Individuals who Paranoia Theory: Individuals who Victoroff finds in regards to Axis I possess certain cognitive capacities suffer psychological damage when classifications that “very little and styles, for example believing they are young grow up with research has been done involving that certain individuals or groups “intolerable internal feelings,” which comprehensive psychiatric have evil intentions, may be more they project outwardly onto examination, and no properly prone to use violence than others. external actors.6 These individuals controlled research is found in the 2 cognitively develop a good self and open literature.” In regards to Axis Novelty-Seeking Theory: Some bad self and attempt to destroy II classifications, Victoroff similarly individuals genetically posses needs their bad self through violent acts. finds that there is no evidence from for “high-level stimulation, risk, and This theory, developed in Post empirical study to support the catharsis,” and seek out political (1997), is closely related to Kohut’s claim that terrorists are violence to fulfill those needs.8 3 self psychology theory. Victoroff sociopaths. Proponents of this theory point to notes that this theory is intriguing interviews with current and former yet requires further research. terrorists during which they highlighted the thrill that Absolutist/Apocalyptic Theory: As accompanied their terrorist proposed by Lifton (2000), young activities. In his comprehensive 1 Unless otherwise noted, all references to works from other authors in this section are provided in Victoroff (2005). 4 See Erikson (1959) for example. 2 Ibid, 12. 5 See Bollinger (1981) and Crenshaw (1986). 7 Ibid, 26. 3 See also Merari (2006). 6 Victoroff, 24. 8 Ibid, 28. 2 study of al-Qaeda-affiliated foreign Lebanon—become terrorists as Victoroff notes, “particularly in the fighters, Venhaus (2010) finds the adults.10 This theory is commonly case of nationalist-separatist or desire to seek out excitement and criticized as being too broad in its ethnic-sectarian terrorism (e.g., thrills to be a driver of scope; many individuals grow up ETA, PIRA, Hamas), actors often participation. Victoroff suggests that exposed to terrorists, but relatively cite the injustice of their treatment it is plausible that individuals who few actually become terrorists. by governments that rob them of are novelty-seeking are identity, dignity, security, and disproportionately represented in Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: freedom as the motive for their terrorist groups, however he notes Political violence, like all violence, joining a terrorist group.”14 This that there is no empirical evidence directly