Durham E-Theses A geographical study of the eastern Jebel Akhdar, Cyrenaica Buru, M. M. How to cite: Buru, M. M. (1960) A geographical study of the eastern Jebel Akhdar, Cyrenaica, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/9679/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk A Geographical Study of the Eastern Jehel Akhdar, Cyrenaica. M.M. Buru, B.A. Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Letters in the University of Durham. Octoher 1960. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. CONTENTS Page PREFACE III LIST OP PLATES VII LIST OP MAPS AND DIAGRAMS X LIST OP TABLES XII LIST OP APPENDICES XVII INTRODUCTION 1 PART ONE Chapter I Relief 10 Chapter II Geology 28 Chapter III climate 50 Chapter IV vegetation 75 Chapter V Soils 84 Chapter VI Water Resources 92 PART TWO Chapter VII Historical Background and the tri"bal structure 121 Chapter VIII Settlement, Communications and Administration 140 Chapter IX population 171 Chapter X Italian Colonisation 198 Page Chapter XI Agriculture 213 Chapter XII commerce and Industry 289 Chapter XIII Fisheries 296 Chapter XIV Resettlement 305 CONCLUSIONS 313 APPENDICES 316 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY: 350 PLATES 384 Ill PREFACE I arrived in Durham in October 1957, with a view to study the problems of the economic development of the Jebel Akhdar of Cyrenaica. The jebel Akhdar was chosen for three main reasons:- first, the development of the jebel Akhdar achieved lay the Italians had never "been recovered; secondly, the tribal organisation is very strong, and most of the former E.N.T.E. farms are now occupied "by the Bedouin; and, finally, the Jebel Akhdar represents, the scope for agricultural expansion. There are many difficulties to overcome. Most of the Italian literature and reports were destroyed during the second World War, and it is difficult to trace any in Gyrenaica. Agricultural statistics were not available until 1959. Recognised administrative boundaries do not exist and make the analysis of the statistics hazardous. Transport and accommodation were incidental difficulties, but they were solved by the co-operation of the Kazaret Agriculture and Forestry in the former case and Nazaret of Education in the latter. At first the topic of the study was: broad; but later was; fixed on the eastern jebel Alchdar for four main reasons: - first, the eastern jebel is occupied by one tribe;: secondly the boundaries of Mutasarrifiya of Derna coincide with IV eastern je"bel; thirdly, the eastern jebel has a consi• derable number of springs which could "be utilized for irrigation; and finally, Derna gardens are an interesting local study. The field work was achieved in eight months, from June 1958 to January 1959. Derna Town was taken as: a centre for field work, while residence at Benghazi was necessary for collecting reports and consulting some of the many experts; at work. I also spent two-months in Tripoli, working on the Italian literature. I wish to thank the many people in Gyrenaica who have shown an active interest in my work, and I am particu• larly indebted to the following who gave me much valuable assistance:- Nazaret of Agriculture and Forestry:; Dr. E. Kroeller - Statistics Expert.. Nazaret of Finance: Mr. Ahmed Swedi - Director. Nazret of Public works: Mr. H. Adams - Director of Water Resources* Ministry of National Economy: Mr. H. Jawhari, - Assistant Director. Mutasarrifiya of Derna: Mr. H. Abaidi - Director of State property. Mr. A. Ghabiril - Director of Trade* V Derna Harbour H.Q., Mr. Ramadan El-Muaddah - Harbour Master. Municipality of Derna. Mr., S. Jawadi - The Mayor. Mr. H.T.- El-Kurdi - Statistics Department. United Nations Mission. Mr. M. Corroy, Documents Officer. F.AiO. Mission - Benghazi. Mr. N. Abudahheh - Horticultu• rist . U.S.O.M., Experts. Mr. W. Johnson - Geologist. Mr. A. Basiuni - Assistant. El-Gubha. Nursery. Mr. A. El-Rfadi - inspector. Derna Agrario. Mr. M. Ben Agyad - Inspector. Libraries. Mr. Ismail Sueiah - Director of Government Library Mr. Mansur Amer - Librarian. Dr. T. Provasi - Director Natural History Museum1. Farmers:. Mr. Ali Shelwi, Mr. Ahmed Ben Talih and Mr. Hamid Sheunile. I gratefully acknowledge the assistance iii the form of transport of Ess. Nazir of Agriculture and Forestry, and Nazir of Education who made accommodation available in the "boarding schools in the Jehel. In Durham, I must record my appreciation of the work of Dr. J.I. Clarke has offered me in.his role as supervisor, VI and my gratitude to professor W.B. Fisher, who accepted me as a research student in his Department, LIST OP PLATES plate 1 [a) Wadi En-Naga emerging from the lower escarp• ment towards the sea. Plate 1 (t) - The escarpment plunging into the sea, 5 km. east of Lathrun. Plate 2 [a) - Gorge of wadi Derna at shallal. plate 21["b ) - Wadi Derna at its lower reaches at Derna Town looking towards the south. plate 31[a ) - The deposits of the higher terrace at the town wall of Derna. plate 31[b ) - Deri as plant in El-Gubba area. Plate 41[a ) - The Roman cistern at saf-saf. Plate M - Ain Derna (El-Blad) at the "base of the western "bank of Wadi Derna. Plate 51[a ) - Damage caused "by the flooding of Wadi Derna to Ain Derna. December 1958. plate 5<;t> ) - The stream of Lathrun spring running into the sea. Plate 3<'a ) - Ain wadi El-Glaa. Plate 6( - Waterfall of Ain Bu Mansur at shallal, used for » irrigation. plate 7( a) - Picturesque waterfall of Ain Mara forming marshes. Plate 7( - The unfinished pipeline "between Ain Mara and » . El-Marj. Plate 8( a) - El-Gubha spring. plate 8( - Wadi El-Purtas entering Bu Mansur quarter Derna. VIII plate 9(a) - Type of settlement, Hoosh in Mughar with climbing vines on the roof. Plate 9(b) - jebela quarter, the Q-rammar School can be seen in the foreground. plate 10 (a - Type of settlement, Bedouin tent. Plate 10(b - Type of settlement, Roman tomb inhabited by a family in El-Gubba. plate 11(a - Type of settlement, former Ente farm house occupied by a Bedouin family. Plate ll(b - Type of settlement, houses in El-Gubba village occupied by officials and teachers. Plate 12(a - The main shopping street in El-Gheighab. Plate 12(13 - The village of Ain Mara, Mudiriya offices Mudir residence and the police station. Plate 13(a - Cultivation in Wadi Derna occurs on the terraces, of both sides. Plate 13 ("b - Ploughing the land for cereal cultivation in El-Patayah plain. plate 14(a - vegetable cultivation in the Swani of jebela quarter - climbing beans. Plate 14(b - The jedula; rectangular in shape, used to facillitate irrigation. Plate 15(a - Cultivation in Wadi Ain Mara, cereals and tree crops. Plate 15 (b - Intercultivation of vines with olive and almond trees. Plate 16(a - Bananas, Lebanese variety - Derna. Plate 16(b - Organic fertiliser manure brought from the Jebel. IX Plate 17(a) - A method which was used by the farmers in Derna to prepare organic manures; this method has been forbidden by the Health Department. plate 17(b - The flooded jedula irrigation systems in Derna. Plate 18(a - A secondary channel from Ain Derna, for irrigation in jebela quarter. Plate 18(b - Suqia - irrigation trench to distribute water for irrigation to the jedawel. plate 19(a - A well with an electric pump, the water flows into a storage tank (jabia). plate 19(b - El-Gubba nursery. Plate 20(a - Derna Agrario, climbing vines and lemon rhizomes are planted for improving tree and vegetable crops. plate 20(b) - Derna harbour, Greek fishing vessels come to Derna in October and November with sponges they have caught, for weight and taxation. K LIST OF MAPS AND DIAGRAMS Figure 1. Location. Figure 2. Topography and Known Geological Structure of Northern Cyrenaica. Figure 3. Section represents the Levels of the Tops and Bottoms of the Two Escarpments. Figure 4. Contour Map of the Eastern jehel Akhdar. Figure 5. Wadi systems in the Eastern jehel Akhdar. Figure 6. Delta Wadi Derna* Figure 7.. Geology of the Eastern jehel Akhdar, Figure 8. Geology of Northern Cyrenaica* Figure 9,. Geological Section from El-Fatayah plain to the Sea. Figure 10* Main Tracks of Depressions Affecting the Eastern Mediterranean in Winter. Figure 11. Climatic Zones of Northern Cyrenaica. Figure 12. Rainfall Zones in Northern cyrenaica. Figure 13* Distribution of Vegetation in the Eastern jehel Akhdar. Figure 14. Distribution of Wells and Cisterns in the Eastern jehel Akhdar. Figure 15. Distribution of Springs in the Eastern Je"bel Akhdar. Figure 16(a) Profile of the Typical surface Levels of the Eocene and oligocene Water-fable. Figure 16 (h) Underground Contour Map of the Oligocene Water- Table and Eocene Lower springs* XI Figure 17. General Trend of the Langhian water^Table of E£L- Gubba.