Chapter 3: Capture of CO2 105 3 Capture of CO2 Coordinating Lead Authors Kelly (Kailai) Thambimuthu (Australia and Canada), Mohammad Soltanieh (Iran), Juan Carlos Abanades (Spain) Lead Authors Rodney Allam (United Kingdom), Olav Bolland (Norway), John Davison (United Kingdom), Paul Feron (The Netherlands), Fred Goede (South Africa), Alyce Herrera (Philippines), Masaki Iijima (Japan), Daniël Jansen (The Netherlands), Iosif Leites (Russian Federation), Philippe Mathieu (Belgium), Edward Rubin (United States), Dale Simbeck (United States), Krzysztof Warmuzinski (Poland), Michael Wilkinson (United Kingdom), Robert Williams (United States) Contributing Authors Manfred Jaschik (Poland), Anders Lyngfelt (Sweden), Roland Span (Germany), Marek Tanczyk (Poland) Review Editors Ziad Abu-Ghararah (Saudi Arabia), Tatsuaki Yashima (Japan) 106 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 107 3.6 Environmental, monitoring, risk and legal aspects of capture systems 141 3.1 Introduction 108 3.6.1 Emissions and resource use impacts of CO2 capture 3.1.1 The basis for CO2 capture 108 systems 141 3.1.2 CO2 capture systems 108 3.6.2 Issues related to the classification of carbon 3.1.3 Types of CO2 capture technologies 109 dioxide as a product 145 3.1.4 Application of CO2 capture 110 3.6.3 Health and safety risks associated with carbon dioxide processing 145 3.2 Industrial process capture systems 111 3.6.4 Plant design principles and guidelines used by 3.2.1 Introduction 111 governments, industries and financiers 145 3.2.2 Natural gas sweetening 111 3.6.5 Commissioning, good practice during operations 3.2.3 Steel production 112 and sound management of chemicals 146 3.2.4 Cement production 113 3.6.6 Site closure and remediation 146 3.2.5 Ammonia production 113 3.2.6 Status and outlook 113 3.7 Cost of CO2 capture 146 3.7.1 Factors affecting CO2 capture cost 146 3.3 Post-combustion capture systems 113 3.7.2 Measures of CO2 capture cost 147 3.3.1 Introduction 113 3.7.3 The context for current cost estimates 149 3.3.2 Existing technologies 114 3.7.4 Overview of technologies and systems evaluated 150 3.3.3 Emerging technologies 118 3.7.5 Post-combustion CO2 capture cost for electric 3.3.4 Status and outlook 121 power plants (current technology) 150 3.7.6 Pre-combustion CO2 capture cost for electric 3.4 Oxy-fuel combustion capture systems 122 power plants (current technology) 155 3.4.1 Introduction 122 3.7.7 CO2 capture cost for hydrogen production and 3.4.2 Oxy-fuel indirect heating - steam cycle 122 multi-product plants (current technology) 158 3.4.3 Oxy-fuel direct heating - gas turbine cycle 125 3.7.8 Capture costs for other industrial processes 3.4.4 Oxy-fuel direct heating - steam turbine cycle 126 (current technology) 161 3.4.5 Techniques and improvements in oxygen 3.7.9 Outlook for future CO2 capture costs 163 production 127 3.7.10 CO2 capture costs for electric power plants 3.4.6 Chemical looping combustion 129 (advanced technology) 163 3.4.7 Status and outlook 130 3.7.11 CO2 capture costs for hydrogen production and multi-product plants (advanced technology) 166 3.5 Pre-combustion capture systems 130 3.7.12 CO2 capture costs for other industrial processes 3.5.1 Introduction 130 (advanced technology) 168 3.5.2 Existing technologies 130 3.7.13 Summary of CO2 capture cost estimates 168 3.5.3 Emerging technologies 136 3.5.4 Enabling technologies 138 3.8 Gaps in knowledge 170 3.5.5 Status and outlook 140 References 171 Chapter 3: Capture of CO2 107 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY combined cycle (IGCC) plant using bituminous coal. Overall the COE for fossil fuel plants with capture, ranges from 43-86 -1 The purpose of CO2 capture is to produce a concentrated stream US$ MWh , with the cost per tonne of CO2 ranging from 11- that can be readily transported to a CO2 storage site. CO2 capture 57 US$/tCO2 captured or 13-74 US$/tCO2 avoided (depending and storage is most applicable to large, centralized sources on plant type, size, fuel type and a host of other factors). These like power plants and large industries. Capture technologies costs include CO2 compression but not additional transport also open the way for large-scale production of low-carbon or and storage costs. NGCC systems typically have a lower COE carbon-free electricity and fuels for transportation, as well as than new PC and IGCC plants (with or without capture) for for small-scale or distributed applications. The energy required gas prices below about 4 US$ GJ-1. Most studies indicate that to operate CO2 capture systems reduces the overall efficiency of IGCC plants are slightly more costly without capture and power generation or other processes, leading to increased fuel slightly less costly with capture than similarly sized PC plants, requirements, solid wastes and environmental impacts relative but the differences in cost for plants with CO2 capture can vary to the same type of base plant without capture. However, as with coal type and other local factors. The lowest CO2 capture more efficient plants with capture become available and replace costs (averaging about 12 US$/t CO2 captured or 15 US$/tCO2 many of the older less efficient plants now in service, the avoided) were found for industrial processes such as hydrogen net impacts will be compatible with clean air emission goals production plants that produce concentrated CO2 streams as part for fossil fuel use. Minimization of energy requirements for of the current production process; such industrial processes may capture, together with improvements in the efficiency of energy represent some of the earliest opportunities for CO2 Capture conversion processes will continue to be high priorities for and Storage (CCS). In all cases, CO2 capture costs are highly future technology development in order to minimize overall dependent upon technical, economic and financial factors environmental impacts and cost. related to the design and operation of the production process At present, CO2 is routinely separated at some large or power system of interest, as well as the design and operation industrial plants such as natural gas processing and ammonia of the CO2 capture technology employed. Thus, comparisons production facilities, although these plants remove CO2 to of alternative technologies, or the use of CCS cost estimates, meet process demands and not for storage. CO2 capture also require a specific context to be meaningful. has been applied to several small power plants. However, New or improved methods of CO2 capture, combined with there have been no applications at large-scale power plants of advanced power systems and industrial process designs, can several hundred megawatts, the major source of current and significantly reduce CO2 capture costs and associated energy projected CO2 emissions. There are three main approaches to requirements. While there is considerable uncertainty about the CO2 capture, for industrial and power plant applications. Post- magnitude and timing of future cost reductions, this assessment combustion systems separate CO2 from the flue gases produced suggests that improvements to commercial technologies can by combustion of a primary fuel (coal, natural gas, oil or reduce CO2 capture costs by at least 20-30% over approximately biomass) in air. Oxy-fuel combustion uses oxygen instead of the next decade, while new technologies under development air for combustion, producing a flue gas that is mainly H2O and promise more substantial cost reductions. Realization of future CO2 and which is readily captured. This is an option still under cost reductions, however, will require deployment and adoption development. Pre-combustion systems process the primary fuel of commercial technologies in the marketplace as well as in a reactor to produce separate streams of CO2 for storage and sustained R&D. H2 which is used as a fuel. Other industrial processes, including processes for the production of low-carbon or carbon-free fuels, employ one or more of these same basic capture methods. The monitoring, risk and legal aspects associated with CO2 capture systems appear to present no new challenges, as they are all elements of long-standing health, safety and environmental control practice in industry. For all of the aforementioned applications, we reviewed recent studies of the performance and cost of commercial or near-commercial technologies, as well as that of newer CO2 capture concepts that are the subject of intense R&D efforts worldwide. For power plants, current commercial CO2 capture -1 systems can reduce CO2 emissions by 80-90% kWh (85- 95% capture efficiency). Across all plant types the cost of electricity production (COE) increases by 12-36 US$ MWh-1 (US$ 0.012-0.036 kWh-1) over a similar type of plant without capture, corresponding to a 40-85% increase for a supercritical pulverized coal (PC) plant, 35-70% for a natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) plant and 20-55% for an integrated gasification 108 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage Figure 3.1 CO2 capture systems (adapted from BP). 3.1 Introduction only with application of existing technology for CO2 capture, but describes many new processes under development which 3.1.1 The basis for CO2 capture may result in lower CO2 capture costs in future. The main application of CO2 capture is likely to be at large 3.1.2 CO2 capture systems point sources: fossil fuel power plants, fuel processing plants and other industrial plants, particularly for the manufacture of There are four basic systems for capturing CO2 from use of iron, steel, cement and bulk chemicals, as discussed in Chapter fossil fuels and/or biomass: 2.