An Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Alain Nouailhat This page intentionally left blank An Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology This page intentionally left blank An Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Alain Nouailhat Part of this book adapted from “Introduction aux nanosciences et aux nanotechnologies” published in France by Hermes Science/Lavoisier in 2006 First published in Great Britain and the United States in 2008 by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address: ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6 Fitzroy Square 111 River Street London W1T 5DX Hoboken, NJ 07030 UK USA www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com © ISTE Ltd, 2008 © LAVOISIER, 2006 The rights of Alain Nouailhat to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Nouailhat, Alain. An introduction to nanoscience and nanotechnology / Alain Nouailhat. p. cm. "Part of this book adapted from "Introduction aux nanosciences et aux nanotechnologies" published in France by Hermes Science/Lavoisier in 2006." Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-84821-007-3 1. Nanoscience. 2. Nanotechnology. I. Title. QC176.8.N35N68 2007 620'.5--dc22 2007021734 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-84821-007-3 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire. The Physicists “Leaning over the screens of powerful machines They watch the rise of a world previously unknown From within their instruments new phenomena appear.” (José Maria de Heredia, Les Conquérants, adapted by the author) This page intentionally left blank Table of Contents Foreword ...................................... xiii Acknowledgements ............................... xv Preface........................................ xvii Chapter 1. What are Nanos?......................... 1 1.1. What are we talking about?.................... 3 1.2. References............................... 7 1.2.1. Two basic facts ........................ 7 1.2.2. Two approaches ........................ 9 1.2.3. Two key points ........................ 11 1.3. Some bonus material for economists.............. 13 Chapter 2. Some Science to Get You Started.............. 15 2.1. Quantum physics .......................... 17 2.1.1. From the traditional world to the quantum world . 17 2.1.2. Two fundamental concepts................. 19 2.1.2.1. Wave-corpuscle duality ................ 19 2.1.2.2. Probability in the quantum world .......... 21 viii An Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 2.2. The key players ........................... 22 2.2.1. The electron .......................... 22 2.2.1.1. The cornerstone of matter ............... 22 2.2.1.2. Electronic states ..................... 23 2.2.1.3. The quantification of energy ............. 24 2.2.1.4. Bonds ............................ 25 2.2.2. The photon ........................... 27 2.2.2.1. The wave.......................... 27 2.2.2.2. The energy grain ..................... 30 2.3. Molecules ............................... 34 2.3.1. From the smallest molecule to the largest and their spectacular properties.................. 34 2.3.2. Functionality .......................... 35 2.4. Solid matter .............................. 36 2.4.1. Insulators or conductors................... 36 2.4.2. Semi-conductors ....................... 37 2.4.2.1. Silicon crystal....................... 37 2.4.2.2 Electrons and holes.................... 40 2.4.2.3 Junctions .......................... 40 2.4.3. Nanomaterials ......................... 41 2.5. Quantum boxes: between the atom and the crystal..... 41 2.6. Some bonus material for physicists............... 42 2.6.1 Luminescence ......................... 42 2.6.2. The laser device ........................ 44 Chapter 3. The Revolution in Techniques Used in Observation and Imagery........................... 51 3.1. Observing with photons ...................... 53 3.1.1. The optical microscope in visible light ......... 53 3.1.2. X-ray machines ........................ 54 3.2. Observing with electrons ..................... 55 3.2.1. The transmission electron microscope (TEM) .... 55 3.2.2. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) ....... 56 Table of Contents ix 3.3. Touching the atoms ......................... 58 3.4. Observing how our brain functions............... 60 3.4.1. Nuclear magnetic resonance ................ 60 3.4.2. Functional magnetic resonance imaging ........ 61 3.5. Some bonus material for researchers.............. 62 Chapter 4. The Marriage of Software and Hardware........ 69 4.1. Small is beautiful .......................... 71 4.2. Miniaturization............................ 71 4.3. Integration............................... 72 4.3.1. The silicon planet ....................... 72 4.3.2. An expanding universe ................... 78 4.4. Programs................................ 82 4.5. Some bonus material for mathematicians........... 83 Chapter 5. Mechanics of the Living World ............... 89 5.1. Proteins – molecules with exceptional properties...... 93 5.1.1. The program of cellular production ........... 94 5.1.2. Reading instructions and the production of proteins................................ 95 5.1.3. How does it work? ...................... 99 5.1.4. Molecular disfunctioning .................. 100 5.1.4.1. External causes ...................... 100 5.1.4.2. Internal causes ...................... 100 5.2. Intervention of human beings .................. 101 5.2.1. Medication........................... 102 5.2.2. The creation of those famous GMOs (Genetically Modified Organisms)................ 102 5.2.3. Manipulation of embryos.................. 103 5.3. Some bonus material for biologists............... 103 x An Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Chapter 6. The Uses of Nanotechnologies ................ 107 6.1. New objects.............................. 109 6.1.1. Carbon in all its states .................... 109 6.1.1.1. Nanodiamonds ...................... 110 6.1.1.2. Carbon nanotubes .................... 110 6.1.2. A handful of gold atoms .................. 116 6.2. Ground-breaking products .................... 116 6.2.1. Surface treatment ....................... 117 6.2.2. Incorporation in a composite environment....... 119 6.3. From micro to nanosystems ................... 120 6.3.1. Miniature components – MEMS ............. 120 6.3.1.1. A print head for inkjet printers ............ 120 6.3.1.2. Airbags ........................... 122 6.3.1.3. A microlens for miniaturized optics ........ 123 6.3.1.4. Magnetic disk readheads: quantum nanostructures...................... 124 6.3.2. Microsources of energy: key points for embedded systems........................ 124 6.3.3. Micromotors .......................... 125 6.4. A global integration......................... 132 6.5. Some bonus material for engineers ............... 139 Chapter 7. Nanos are Changing the World ............... 143 7.1. A simulation or a virtual world ................. 145 7.2. Understanding nature........................ 151 7.2.1. Understanding energy .................... 151 7.2.2. Understanding materials .................. 152 7.2.3. Understanding information................. 154 7.2.4. Understanding life ...................... 156 7.3. Watch out for nanomedicine ................... 159 7.4. Nanosciences and our future ................... 161 7.5. Essential ethics............................ 165 7.6. Conclusion .............................. 169 Table of Contents xi Appendices ..................................... 173 Appendix A. European Parliament Resolution on Nanosciences and Nanotechnologies .............. 175 Appendix B. Eight Guidelines on Nanotechnologies Issued by the CNRS Ethics Committee ............... 185 Abbreviations ................................... 191 Bibliography.................................... 195 Figures........................................ 197 Index ......................................... 205 This page intentionally left blank Foreword Alain Nouailhat’s book takes us on a journey to a newly discovered magical realm. This is the world of the small and the smallest parts, of micro and nanotechnologies. The discovery of this world is, of course, not a recent one, but one which began a long time ago. The ancient Greeks imagined the atom as the smallest unit which could not be split. There then followed a long evolution comprising several different stages before the eventual development of the quantum mechanics model. Recently, a very important step was taken to improve the technology of microscopes. At last we are able to see atoms (in some ways this was already possible with the invention of transmission electron microscopy). However, now we can also manipulate them individually, change their position one by one and use them to create a new code; this is a difficult task but nevertheless it is possible. In fact, we can only