WOMEN EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN ONDO, SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA, 1875-2008. BY TITILAYO TILEWOLA NWAOKORO B.A (HONS), M.A (HISTORY), P.G.D.E MATRIC NO: 129473 A THESIS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY, SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF ARTS IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN APRIL, 2013 i CERTIFICATION I certify that this work was carried out by Mrs. Titilayo Tilewola Nwaokoro in the Department of History, University of Ibadan. ………………………………………………………… Supervisor: S. Ademola Ajayi. B.A (Hons), M.A, P.G.D.E, Ph. D (History) Department of History, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. ii DEDICATION To God Almighty To My darling husband Ikechukwu Nwaokoro who is the hub of my pursuit of post-graduate studies To My dear children iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, my eternal gratitude goes to God Almighty, the maker of Heaven and Earth, the giver and preserver of life, for the enablement to embark on this study. I am very grateful to my Supervisor, Dr. S. Ademola Ajayi, for seeing me through every stage of the study, with prompt attention, guidance and encouragement. My deep appreciation also goes to Dr. Victor Osaro Edo, for the keen interest he has in the progress of my work, from start to finish. I also appreciate all the encouragement from Dr. Rasheed Olaniyi, Prof. Bayo Lawal, Prof. Yinka Otuyemi, Dr. Paul Ugboajah, Dr. Biola Salami, Dr. Ebika Ovia, Mrs. Grace Ngubo, Mrs. Olabisi Igi-Ododo, Mr. W.F. Griffin, Mr Sola Adesote, Mrs. R.O. Onayinka, Mrs. M.O. Ogunniyi, Mrs. M.O. Odusi, Mrs. Christie Odimgbe, Mrs. G.B. Agbede, Mr. Kola Arigbede, Mr. Kayode Ogunyemi, Mr. McNezer Mabayoje Fasehun. Mrs. Theresa Ezuka, Mrs. Ikeaba, my sisters, Kitan and Oseyemi, and other friends too numerous to mention here. I am also eternally grateful to my brother, Chief Festus Otuyemi, and his wife for always ensuring that I am comfortable every time I had to visit Ibadan for my academic work. I also express deep gratitude to the American Council of Learned Society. The grant received from the society helped in the completion of the work. I can never thank my husband enough; his encouragement is the sole reason that I have been able to complete this work. He endured the periods of my absence from home without complaining and, on several occasions, had to read through the chapters of the work. Our children Onyinye, Obiageli, Ifeoma, Ekene and Nzube have been so wonderful, their support has been tremendous, they made very useful contributions and turned the roughly written scripts into neatly typed pages. I am eternally grateful to them. Titilayo T. Nwaokoro APRIL 2013 iv ABSTRACT Patriarchal system dominated traditional Ondo society as reflected in the preference for the education of boys. Despite the influence of modernity which leveraged the women with equal opportunity of education with men, existing literature on Ondo have not adequately addressed the issue of women education in the town. This study, therefore, examines the historical dynamics of women education and its impact on the society at the micro and macro levels between 1875 and 2008. George Peter Murdock and Ann Oakley’s Sex and Gender analysis, complemented with Anthony Gidden’s Theory of Social Change was adopted as the theoretical framework for this study. Primary data used for this study include archival materials (Intelligence Reports and Ondo Provincial Files at the National Archives, Ibadan), school records and oral interviews. The purposive and snowball interview approaches were adopted. Informants include professionals, education officers, traditional title holders, school girls and parents. Secondary data consist of books and other print materials, including theses and dissertations. Photographs and almanacs related to women education in Ondo were also utilized. Data were subjected to historical analysis to reflect changing trends. From inception of Western education in 1875 to 1906 when Ondo formally came under British colonial rule, girls’ enrollment in primary schools was less than 20%. From 1906 to 1953, secondary education for girls was non-existent, though boys had been enjoying this since 1919. The implication is that women were excluded from all levels of colonial administration because of the apparent educational disparity. From 1954 to 2008, there had been a tremendous change in women education, especially with government policy on free and compulsory Universal Primary Education in 1955 and the founding of three girls’ colleges in 1954, 1955 and 1985 respectively. Expanded female education led to women’s increasing participation in politics and professions formerly considered reserved for men. Over the years, women came to dominate nursing and teaching but fewer in medicine, engineering and other science-based professions. Before independence, female percentage in nursing was about 35% and medicine less than 3%. By 2008, it had risen to about 80% and 40% respectively. In teaching, the percentage in 1960 was about 30% in Primary schools and 13% in Secondary schools. By 2008, it had increased to about 90% and 65% respectively. Despite women’s educational advancement, Ondo society remains essentially male-dominated and the society continues to perceive women in relation to their domestic roles as indicated in interviews conducted. This reinforces the argument that rather than being the inventors of gender binary, colonialism only exacerbated an already contrary condition. Expanded female education and consequent participation in the labour market has led to financial emancipation and improved status for women, but the full social identity of the woman is hampered by the patriarchal nature of the Ondo Society. There is therefore a need for cultural re- orientation in the reality of persisting male dominance in Ondo. Keywords: Women education, Gender, Patriarchy, Social change, Ondo. Word Count: 477 v TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Pages Certification ii Dedication iii Acknowledgements iv Abstract v Table of Content vi List of Abbreviations ix List of Photographs xi List of Tables xii List of Maps xiii CHAPTER ONE – GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1– 23 1.1 Background to the Study 1.2 Research Objectives 1.3 Significance of Study 1.4 Limitation of Study 1.5 Methodology 1.6 Defining Education 1.7 Conceptual Framework 1.8 Literature Review CHAPTER TWO – WOMEN IN TRADITIONAL ONDO 24–54 vi 2.1 Historical Background of Ondo 2.2 Women and Traditional Politics 2.3 Social Status of Women in Traditional Ondo 2.4 Economic Life of Women in Traditional Ondo 2.5 Traditional Education in Ondo 2.6 Family Unit and its Educational Role 2.7 Vocational Training 2.8 The Age Grade(Otu) 2.9 Obiton: Puberty Rites as Agents of Traditional Education. CHAPTER THREE – COLONIAL RULE AND WESTERN EDUCATION IN ONDO 55-95 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Missionary Activities And The Birth Of Western Education In Ondo 3.3 Establishment Of Colonial Rule In Ondo 3.4 Colonial Rule And Economic Change 3.5 Female Education – A General Overview 3.6 Girls And Secondary Education In Ondo CHAPTER FOUR – WOMEN’S PROFESSIONAL AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT 96-121 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Women and Domestic Science Training 4.3 Women in Education 4.4 Women in Health Services 4.5 Women in Law Enforcement Agencies 4.6 Women in Law 4.7 Women in Engineering vii CHAPTER FIVE – DOMESTIC TRANSFORMATION 122-153 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Marriage and Family – Enhanced by Good Health Facilities 5.3 Widowhood and Inheritance 5.4 Women Education and Domestic/Family Violence 5.5 Fashion and Entertainment CHAPTER SIX – WOMEN IN ONDO RELIGIOUS CHANGE 154 – 169 6.1 Christianity and Traditional Religion 6.2 The Odun Moko 6.3 Some Traditional Institutions and Western Education 6.4 Western Education and Muslim Women in Ondo CHAPTER SEVEN- WOMEN IN PUBLIC SPHERES 170 – 189 7.1 Women’s Civic Associations and Sororities 7.2 Women and Modern Politics CHAPTER EIGHT– CONCLUSION 190 – 199 APPENDICES 200 – 208 BIBLIOGRAPHY 209 – 231 viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACE Adeyemi College of Education AG Action Group ALC Abeokuta Ladies Club AOPSON Association of Primary Schools’ Head Teachers of Nigeria AUD Ansar-Ud-Deen AWU Abeokuta Women’s Union C&S Cherubim & Seraphim CAC Christ Apostolic Church CFR Commander of the Federal Republic CMS Church Missionary Society COPSON Conference of Primary Schools’ Head Teachers of Nigeria COWAN Country Women Association of Nigeria DIG Deputy Inspector General of Police D.O. Divisional Officer DPO Divisional Police Officer Dr Doctor ECC Egba Central Council ENA Egba Native Administration FAGMOS FGM Female Genital Mutilation FOMWAN Federation of Muslim Women Organization of Nigeria Fr(s) Father(s) FUTA Federal University of Technology, Akure GOMAN Gospel Musician Association of Nigeria HND Higher National Diploma HOD Head of Department HON Honourable HRM His Royal Majesty IRK Islamic Religious Studies JP Jerusalem Peace NAI National Archives, Ibadan NGO Non-Governmental Organization NIEPA Nigeria Institute of Educational Planning and Administration NSCDC Nigerian Security and Civil Defence Corps NUT Nigerian Union of Teachers OAU Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife ODC Ondo Development Committee OND Ordinary National Diploma PMAN Performing Musicians Association of Nigeria ix Rev Reverend SLOOGA Saint Louis Ondo Old Girls’ Association SNA Sole Native Administration SSCE Senior Secondary Certificate Examination TESCOM Teaching Service Commission U.I University of Ibadan UPE Universal Primary Education WASC West Africa School Certificate WASSCE West African Senior Secondary Certificate Examination WIN Women in Nigeria WORDOC Women’s Research and Documentation Centre WUSTO Wesley University of Science and Technology, Ondo YWCA Young Women Christian Association x LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS S/N TITLE OF PICTURES PAGES 1. The Opoji (The highest female titles) 31 2. Mrs. Oyinkansola Akinmurele (The Administrator, TESCOM Zonal Office, Ondo) 72 3. Late Canon M.C.A. Adeyemi 75 4. Mrs.