http://waikato.researchgateway.ac.nz/ Research Commons at the University of Waikato Copyright Statement: The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). The thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: Any use you make of these documents or images must be for research or private study purposes only, and you may not make them available to any other person. Authors control the copyright of their thesis. You will recognise the author’s right to be identified as the author of the thesis, and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate. You will obtain the author’s permission before publishing any material from the thesis. COMMUNICATING STRATEGICALLY: PUBLIC RELATIONS AND ORGANISATIONAL LEGITIMACY A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Waikato by Michèle A. Schoenberger-Orgad __________________ University of Waikato 2007 Abstract This thesis aims to facilitate an understanding of some of the critical debates in public relations theory and practice. It joins others in contributing to a shift from a functional systems-based public relations paradigm to one where public relations is transparently seen as playing a role in shaping democracy in a global society. The research analyses NATO’s communication operations in the Kosovo Campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, examining the case from a number of different perspectives. The thesis contributes to the body of knowledge of public relations practices and how, in this case, they were used to inform and persuade publics of the moral cause of a bombing mission to achieve specific strategic organisational and communication goals. Further, it contextualises the case of NATO as an organisation facing a crisis in legitimacy following the end of the Cold War. It demonstrates how the Kosovo Campaign provided a vehicle to transform NATO’s identity while retaining military capabilities, to make the organisation relevant to the global demands of the 21st century. In this way, NATO could claim a “unique self” and maintain its credibility and relevance. The thesis argues that NATO’s public relations campaign was successful in maintaining both credibility and popular support for a 78-day bombing campaign within the 19 nations of the Alliance. The campaign allowed NATO to claim that it was the only organisation that could provide i security and stability, as well as be the main bulwark of the defence of Western values in a rapidly globalising and changing world. Moreover, by framing the Kosovo air campaign as a humanitarian intervention, NATO was not only able to legitimise its actions but transform its military might with an acceptable human face in order to achieve its broader ideological goals in Europe. This thesis demonstrates how military interventions on behalf of powerful interests can be legitimised if the appropriate public relations framework is used and acceptable communication strategies employed. It suggests how citizens of democratic countries can be led to support decision-makers who present themselves as acting altruistically even when their actions may be self-interested. ii Acknowledgements It is with deep gratitude, I acknowledge the help and support of my supervisors and colleagues, Professor Juliet Roper and Professor David McKie. Both Juliet and David mentored me to this stage in my academic life and I have drawn on their friendship and encouragement throughout the research and writing of this thesis. Juliet encouraged my interest in international political communication and was especially supportive in developing my abilities in critical discourse analysis. She always made time to review and extend my understanding of specific issues arising in the research. David was my sounding board. Our conversations ranged over so many subjects, always coming back to different ways of approaching understandings of a wide variety of issues. His joy in the process helped sustain my passion for the subject. Thank you both for your valuable time and considerable input into this thesis. I would also like to thank my friends and colleagues in the Department of Management Communication. They all showed an interest in my progress and constantly encouraged me to the next stage. The University of Waikato provided a doctoral scholarship for two years during the preparation of the thesis, as well as providing financial support iii in the form of a fees scholarship. Finally, I can only express my deep love and gratitude to my best friend, partner and husband, Mutzi, whose passion for the subject encouraged me to carry on in the dark hours and at some of the more difficult stages in this process. To my children, Dor, Sehai and Milan, your love and affection have been my inspiration. This thesis is dedicated to my late parents, Egon and Eileen Schoenberger, who always believed in me and would have been so proud. iv Table of Contents Table of Contents..................................................................... vi List of Abbreviations ................................................................ x CHAPTER 1: Locating the study .................................................1 A case in point ....................................................................................2 Context and content ...........................................................................5 Openly personal and political: Playing the bricoleur, producing the bricolage ..................................................................... 7 Kosovo: A “hinge” in history ..............................................................9 Public relations as practice................................................................11 Thesis structure ................................................................................ 15 CHAPTER 2: Establishing contexts: NATO and the idea of Europe after Yugoslavia ......................................................... 20 NATO’s raison d’être ........................................................................ 21 The break-up of Yugoslavia and foreign intervention in the Balkans ...................................................................................24 NATO carves out a role in the Balkans ............................................27 Representing the Balkans.................................................................29 Slobodan Milošević and the road to NATO intervention in Kosovo ..........................................................................................33 Kosovo after Bosnia..........................................................................36 CHAPTER 3: Emerging choices and opportunities .................. 40 The rise of the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) .............................. 40 Violence and the international response .........................................44 International diplomacy and personality clashes............................47 Count-down to bombing ..................................................................50 Difficulties in decision-making ........................................................52 The plot thickens … ..........................................................................55 Rambouillet: Sign or be bombed......................................................59 Summing up .....................................................................................63 v CHAPTER 4: Mapping the field (1): Organisational legitimacy through multiple discourses................................................... 68 Legitimation .....................................................................................69 Organisational legitimacy ................................................................ 71 The search for legitimacy .................................................................73 Moral legitimacy...............................................................................74 Issues management.......................................................................... 75 Organisational identity and image as an issue ................................78 The legitimacy gap........................................................................... 80 Values, human rights and humanitarian intervention....................82 Culture and the construction of public relations discourses...........86 Constructing the “other” ................................................................. 88 Public relations, framing and discourse ..........................................92 CHAPTER 5: Mapping the field (2): Public relations and discourse................................................................................ 98 Public relations, propaganda and discourse....................................98 True colours? War, propaganda and public relations ................... 101 Public relations as diplomacy and international relations............ 107 Crisis communication and legitimacy............................................. 111 Crisis communication strategies.....................................................115 CHAPTER 6: Implementing the project: Methods and materials .......................................................... 121 Case study methodology..................................................................121 Discourse analysis .......................................................................... 123 Social constructionism ..................................................................