Notes Introduction 1. Carlos Newland defines the “Teaching State” as the set of institutions that Latin American governments created in the late-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to provide education and define curricular contents. Carlos Newland, “The Estado Docente and Its Expansion: Spanish American Elementary Education, 1900–1950,” Journal of Latin American Studies 26: 2 (1994): 449. 2. Katz defines “educational system” as a form of public school- ing organization comprising a network of free, compulsory, age- graded schools, arranged in hierarchical fashion, administered by full-time experts, and staffed by trained teachers. Michael B. Katz, Reconstructing American Education (Cambridge, MA; London: Harvard University Press, 1987); Andy Green, Education and State Formation. The Rise of Educational Systems in England, France and the USA (London: Macmillan Press, 1990), 308. 3. Víctor Andrés Belaunde, “La Historia” (1908), in Meditaciones Peruanas, Obras Completas, vol. 2 (Lima: Comisión Nacional del Centenario de Víctor Andrés Belaunde, 1987), 29; José de la Riva- Agüero, La Historia en el Perú (1910), Obras Completas, vol. 4 (Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 1965), 504–505. Belaunde and Riva-Agüero took the definition of nation set by French philosopher writer Ernest Renan. See Ernest Renan, “What is a Nation?” (1882) in The Poetry of the Celtic Races, and Other Studies by Ernest Renan (Port Washington, NY; London: Kennikat Press, 1970), 61–83. 4. See José Agustín de la Puente, La Independencia del Perú (Madrid: MAPFRE, 1992), especially 11–19 and 27–34; and José Antonio del Busto, Tres Ensayos Peruanistas (Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 1998). 5. Manuel Vicente Villarán, “La instrucción primaria de 1821 a 1850,” Revista Universitaria (April 1913): 313–323; “La instrucción prima- ria en el Perú de 1850 a 1873,” RU (May 1913): 547–561; and “La instrucción primaria en el Perú de 1873 a 1901,” RU (September 1914): 201–223. 6. On the influence of Positivism on educational thought see Charles Hale, “Political and Social Ideas in Latin America, 1870–1930,” 204 NOTES in Leslie Bethell, ed., The Cambridge History of Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 4, 385. 7. Villarán, “La instrucción primaria en el Perú (de 1873 a 1901), 223. 8. Víctor Andrés Belaunde, La Realidad Nacional, 2ª ed. (Lima: Ediciones Mercurio Peruano, 1945), xiii–xiv, 41–42. 9. José Carlos Mariátegui, “The Problem of the Land,” in Seven Interpretive Essays on Peruvian Reality (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1971), 32–34. 10. Mariátegui, “Literature on Trial,” in Seven Interpretive Essays, 187– 191, 270–280. 11. Mariátegui, “The Problem of the Indian,” in Seven Interpretive Essays, 27–28. 12. Mariátegui, “Public Educacion,” in Seven Interpretive Essays, 77–90. 13. Alberto Regal, Castilla Educador; la instrucción pública durante los gobiernos de Castilla (Lima: Instituto Libertador Ramón Castilla, 1968); Carlos Daniel Valcárcel, Breve historia de la educación peru- ana (Lima: Editorial Educación, 1975); Hilda Elías de Zevallos, La misión belga de 1903: una reforma de la educación peruana de permanente vigencia (Lima: Universidad de Lima, 1993); Margarita Guerra and Lourdes Leiva Viacava, Historia de la educación peruana en la República, 1821–1876 (Lima: Biblioteca Nacional del Perú— Universidad Femenina del Sagrado Corazón, 2001). 14. Heraclio Bonilla and Karen Spalding, eds, La Independencia en el Perú (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1972), 10–13, 18–19. 15. Julio Cotler, Clases, estado y nación en el Perú. Perú Problema 17 (Lima: IEP, 1978), 179. Cotler took the concepts of “hegemony” and “directing class” from Italian political theorist Antonio Gramsci. 16. Cotler, Clases, 365–370. 17. Adelman calls this kind of approach an “etiological narrative of state formation.” See Jeremy Adelman, “Spanish-American Leviathan? State Formation in Nineteenth-Century Spanish America. A Review Article,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 40: 2 (April 1993): 392. 18. Noted by Ulrich Mücke, “¿Utopía republicana o partido político? Comentario sobre una nueva interpretación del Primer Civilismo,” Histórica XXII: 2 (December 1998): 273. 19. Enrique González-Carré and Virgilio Galdo, “Historia de la Educación en el Perú,” in Historia del Perú, 4th edn., ed. Juan Mejía Baca (Lima: Mejía Baca, 1982). Emilio Barrantes, Historia de la Educación en el Perú (Lima: Mosca Azul, 1989). 20. Antonio Gramsci, “State and Civil Society,” in Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith, eds., Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (New York: International Publishers, 1971), 244; Maxine Molyneaux, “Twentieth-Century State Formations in Latin America,” in Elizabeth Dore and Maxine Molyneaux, eds., Hidden NOTES 205 Histories of Gender and the State in Latin America (Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press), 37. 21. Pierre Bourdieu, “The Forms of Capital,” in John G. Richardson, ed., Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986), 243; Pierre Bourdieu, “Rethinking the State: Genesis and Structure of the Bureaucratic Field,” in George Steinmetz, ed., State/Culture. State Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 1999), 61–62. 22. Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, 242, 246. 23. Philip Corrigan and Derek Sayer, The Great Arch. English State Formation as Cultural Revolution (Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985). 24. On Mexico see Gilbert M. Joseph and Daniel Nugent, eds., Everyday Forms of State Formation. Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1994). For Ecuador see A. Kim Clark and Marc Becker, eds., Highland Indians and the State in Modern Ecuador (Pittsburg, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2007), especially Chapters 2 and 4. On Bolivia, see Laura Gotkowitz, A Revolution for Our Rights. Indigenous Struggles for Land and Justice in Bolivia, 1880–1952 (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2007). 25. Carmen Mc Evoy, La Utopía Republicana. Ideales y Realidades en la Formación de la Cultural Política Peruana (1871–1919) (Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 1997). 26. Sarah Chambers, From Subjects to Citizens. Honor, Gender, and Politics in Arequipa, Peru 1780–1854 (University Park, PA: Penn State Press, 1999); Cristóbal Aljovín de Losada, Caudillos y Constituciones: Perú 1821–1845 (Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú— Instituto Riva-Agüero—Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2000); Carlos Forment, Democracy in Latin America 1760–1900. Vol. I, Civic Selfhood and Public Life in Mexico and Peru (Chicago, IL, and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2003); Iñigo L. García- Bryce, Crafting the Republic. Lima’s Artisans and Nation Building in Peru, 1821–1879 (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2004); Cecilia Méndez, The Plebeian Republic. The Huanta Rebellion and the Making of the Peruvian State, 1820–1850 (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2005). 27. Florencia E. Mallon, Peasant and Nation. The Making of Postcolonial Mexico and Peru (Berkeley, CA, and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995); Mark Thurner, From Two Republics to One Divided. Contradictions of Postcolonial Nationmaking in Andean Peru (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1997). 28. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, revised edn. (London, New York: Verso, 1991). 206 NOTES 29. For a discussion of “hegemonic process,” see William Roseberry, “Hegemony and the Language of Contention,” in Gilbert M. Joseph and Daniel Nugent, eds., Everyday Forms of State Formation, 355–366. 30. Eve-Marie Fell, “La Construcción de la Sociedad Peruana: Estado y Educación en el siglo XX,” in Antonio Annino et al., eds., America Latina Dallo Stato Coloniale allo Stato Nazione (Milan: Franco Angeli Libri, 1987), 808–821; Carlos Contreras, Maestros, Mistis y Campesinos en el Perú Rural del siglo XX (Lima: IEP, 1996), 5. An important exception is García-Bryce, Crafting the Republic, chapter 3, which examines the response of Lima’s artisans to officially pro- moted vocational education between 1860 and 1879. 31. Elsie Rockwell, “Schools of the Revolution. Enacting and Contesting State Forms in Tlaxcala, 1910–1930,” in Joseph and Nugent, eds., Everyday Forms of State Formation, 171, 199–203; Mary Kay Vaughan, Cultural Politics in Revolution. Teachers, Peasants, and Schools in Mexico, 1930–1940 (Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press, 1997), 3, 20–22, 195–199; also Andrae M. Marak, From Many, One: Indians, Peasants, Borders, and Education in Callista Mexico, 1924–1935 (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2009), 161–163. 32. Rockwell, “Schools of the Revolution,” 197–198; Marak, From Many, One, 161. 33. For Latin America see Carlos Newland, “The Crowding Out Effect in Education: The Case of Buenos Aires in the Nineteenth Century,” in Education Economics 2: 3 (1994): 277–286; Martin Brienen, “The Clamor for Schools. Rural Education and the Development of State Community Contact in Highland Bolivia, 1930–52,” in Revista de Indias LXII: 226 (2002): 615–650; Patience A. Schell, Church and State Education in Revolutionary Mexico (Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press, 2003), 17. For educational demand in Europe see François Furet and Jacques Ozouf, Reading and Writing. Literacy in France from Calvin to Jules Ferry (Cambridge, Paris: Cambridge University Press—Editions de