AN EVALUATION OF THE APPLICATION OF SPECIFIC CONFLICT MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY, 1985 – 2004: A CONFLICT RESOLUTION PERSPECTIVE THESIS Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR PHILOSOPHIAE in the Faculty of Arts at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University by GAVIN JOHN BRADSHAW JANUARY 2007 SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR R.J. HAINES TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS i LIST OF FIGURES vi LIST OF TABLES vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viii ABBREVIATIONS ix ABSTRACT x CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Terminological clarification 4 1.2.1 Social conflict 4 1.2.2 Deep-rooted social conflict 5 1.2.3 Conflict resolution 5 1.2.4 Conflict Provention 6 1.2.5 The Analytical conflict resolution school 6 1.2.6 Second track diplomacy 7 CHAPTER 2 : METHODOLOGY 2.1 Introduction 8 2.2 Motivation for the research 8 2.3 Research questions 10 2.4 Theoretical perspective 10 24.1 Epistemological traditions 10 2.4.2 Analytical conflict resolution theory 11 2.5 Qualitative research 12 2.6 Triangulation 15 2.7 Research standpoint 15 2.8 Sources of data 17 2.9 The South African case 19 2.10 Limitations of the study 21 CHAPTER 3 : THEORETICAL OVERVIEW 3.1 Introduction 24 3.2 Conflict in society 25 3.3 The Bases of Social Conflict 28 3 3.1 Value-based conflict 28 3.3.2 Interest-based conflict 28 i 3.3.2 Interest-based conflict 28 3.3.3 Needs-based conflict 3.3.4 Data-based conflict 29 3.3.5 Structural Conflict 29 3.3.6 Relationships in Conflict 3.4 Towards a Definition of Social Conflict 31 3.5 The Study of Conflict in the Social Sciences 36 3.5.1 Conflict Typologies 38 3.5.2 Psychological Approaches 41 3.5.2.1 Social conflict is an Expression of the Innate Aggressiveness of Mankind 43 3.5.2.2 Frustration-Aggression Theory 47 3.5.2.3 The Social Learning Perspective 49 35.2.4 Conflict as the Result of Misperception and Miscalculation 52 3.5.2.5 Basic Human Needs Theory 53 3.5.3 Sociological Approaches 54 3.5.3.1 Social conflict is the Product of Social Structure 55 3.5.3.2 Conflict is a Dysfunctional Process in Social Systems 56 3.5.3.3 Conflict is Positively Functional for Social Systems 57 3.5.3.4 Conflict Theory, and the Sociology of Conflicts 61 3.5.3.5 Social Process Theorists 62 3.5.3.6 Social Identity and Conflict 63 3.5.3.7 Structuration Theory 64 3.5.4 International Relations 65 3.5.4.1 Conflict is the Natural Result of Competing Sovereignties 66 3.5.4.2 Structuralism or Globalism 67 3.5.4.3 The World -Society Approach 69 3.5.4.4 Peace Research 71 3.6 Summary and Conclusions 72 CHAPTER 4 : THEORY OF PROTRACTED SOCIAL CONFLICT 4.1 Introduction 74 4.2 John Burton's Life and Contribution to the Field 75 4.3 Deep-rooted or protracted Social Conflict 77 4.3.1 Basic Human Needs 80 4.3.1.1 The number and nature of basic human needs 82 4.3.1.2 Priorities of needs 83 4.4 Analytical Conflict Resolution 87 4.4.1. Dispute Settlement and Conflict Resolution 88 4.4.2 The Procedural Element of Conflict Resolution 91 4.4.3 Constitutional Safeguards 93 4.4.4 Restored Relationships 93 4.4.5 Conflict Provention 94 4.5 Analytical Conflict Resolution Intervention 96 4.5.1 An Historical Background to Analytical Problem-Solving Workshops 96 ii 4.5.2 An analytical conflict resolution critique of traditional Intervention 98 4.5.3 Analytical Problem-Solving Workshops 101 4.5.3.1 Workshop structure 101 4.5.3.2 Workshop facilitation 102 4.5.3.3 Workshop participants 104 4.6 Critiques of Conflict Resolution 108 4.6.1 A rejoinder to the "culture" critique of the conflict resolution School 114 4.7 Summary and Conclusions 116 CHAPTER 5 : HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN SETTLEMENT 5.1 Introduction 119 5.2 History 120 5.3 Mapping the South African Conflict 132 5.3.1 The Ruling Communal Group 133 5.3.1.1 The National Party 133 5.3.1.2 The Conservative Party 133 5.3.1.3 The Democratic Party 134 5.3.1.4 The Black "Systems" Parties 134 5.3.1.5 Business 135 5.3.1.6 Parties on the far Right 136 5.3.2 The Resistance 136 5.3.2.1 The African National Congress 137 5.3.2.2 The Pan-Africanist Congress 138 5.3.2.3 The Azanian People's Organisation 138 5.3.2.4 The South African National Civics Organisation 139 5.4 South Africa as an example of Protracted Social Conflict 140 5.4.1 The Communal Content of Social Conflict in South Africa 140 5.4.2 Human Needs in Social Conflict in South Africa 145 5.4.3 Authoritarian Government in Social Conflict in South Africa 147 5.4.4 Dependency in South Africa's Foreign Relations 153 5.4.5.1 Communal Actions and Strategies 153 5.4.5.2 State Actions and Strategies 154 5.4.5.3 Conflict Dynamics 155 5.4.5.4 Outcome Analysis 156 5.5 Conclusion and Summary 157 iii CHAPTER 6 : PRENEGOTIATION, BACK CHANNEL NEGOTIATIONS AND MEDIATION ATTEMPTS 6.1 Introduction 159 6.2 Pre-negotiations 159 6.3 Back-channel negotiations. The role of Nelson Mandela 160 6 4 Mediation in the South African Conflict The role of the Commonwealth EPG 162 6.4.1 Implications of the EPG 165 6.5 Interactive Conflict Resolution in the South African Settlement 166 6.5.1 Introduction 166 6.5.2 Early Efforts 169 6.5.3 South African Business Leaders in Lusaka 171 6.5.4 The Meeting in Dakar 172 6.5.5 The Melts Meetings 173 6.5.5.1 Meeting structure and substance 175 6.5.5.2 Transfer and Report-Backs 177 6.5.5.3 Impacts 181 6.6 Track Two Diplomacy in Theoretical Perspective 182 6.6.1 Workshop settings 183 6.6.2 Process facilitation 183 6.6.3 Workshop agendas 184 6.6.4 Publicity 185 6.7 Conclusion and Summary 186 CHAPTER 7 : THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL PEACE ACCORD 7.1 Introduction 189 7.2 The South African National Peace Accord as Conflict Management System 189 7.3 Background 193 7.4 Pre - Election Violence in South Africa 197 7.5 The Establishment of the National Peace Accord 199 7.6 Signing the National Peace Accord 203 7.7 The Structures of the National Peace Accord 205 7.7.1 The National Peace Secretariat (NPS) 209 7.7.2 The National Peace Committee (NPC) 209 7.7.3 Regional and Local Dispute Resolution Committees 210 7.7.4 The Commission on Public Violence and Intimidation 211 7.8 Financial Arrangements 211 7.9 Peace Accord Activities 212 7.9.1 Committee Activities 212 7.9.2 Monitoring Activities 213 7.9.3 Intervention activities 213 7.9.4 Training activities 213 iv 7.9.5 SERD Activities 214 7.9.6 Marketing Activities 215 7.9.7 The Goldstone Commission 215 7.10 Achievements of the Peace Accord 216 7.11 Shortcomings of the National Peace Accord 222 7.12 The National Peace Accord as a Missed opportunity for building Conflict Resolution 225 7.13 After the Peace Accord 226 CHAPTER 8 : THE TRUTH AND RECONCILIATION COMMISSION 8.1 Introduction 231 8.2 Origins of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission 235 8 3 The Organisational Structure of the TRC 238 8.3.1 The Committee on Human Rights Violations 238 8.3.2 The Committee on Amnesty 238 8.3.3 The Committee on Reparation and Rehabilitation 239 8.4 Motivation for the Establishment of the TRC 239 8.5 The need for healing 241 8.5.1 Individual, Versus National Healing 245 8.6 The value of truth 245 8 7 The amnesty question, and truth versus justice 247 8.8 The question of prosecution 252 8.9 The Truth and Reconciliation Commission and Reparations 256 8.9.1 The Nature of Reparation 256 8.9.2 The Importance of Reparation 256 8.10 A Critique of the TRC 258 8.10.1 Bias 258 8.10.2 The TRC Process 259 8.10.2.1 The TRC, Protracted Social Conflict. and Conflict Resolution 259 8.10.2.2 A lack of sufficient reparation 262 8.10.2.3 A lack of sufficient truth 265 8.11 Conclusion 266 CHAPTER 9 : CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 9.1 Introduction 271 9.2 The Nature of Conflict Resolution 273 9.3 Social Cohesion and Conflict in Contemporary South Africa 277 9.3.1 Lack of Service Delivery and Public Protest 280 9.3.2 Fault Lines of Race and Identity 282 9.3.3 Lack of Interracial Contact 284 v 9.3.4 Neo-liberal macro-economic policies 284 9.3.5 High Levels of Crime 287 9.3.6 Intolerance 289 9.3.7 Reconciliation and the TRC 295 9.3.8 Land Reform 297 9.3.9 Emigration 300 9.3.10 The Rise of ethnicity, primordialism, and re-racialization of South Africa 302 9.3.11 Meta Conflict 305 9.4 Conclusion 307 CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSION 10.1 Introduction 317 10.2 Conclusions drawn from the study 317 10.2.1 An evaluation of the pre-negotiation conflict resolution processes 318 10.2.2 A Post-Resolution South Africa 322 10.3 Policy recommendations 326 BIBLIOGRAPHY 330 ADDENDUM A 374 ADDENDUM B 406 ADDENDUM C 408 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1 The Conflict Cube 32 Figure 3.2: The ABC triangle 35 Figure 3.3 Typology based on conflict bases and conflict domains 40 Figure 3.4 The production of social conflict: an interdisciplinary Approach 73 Figure 4.1 The Sources of the Analytical Conflict Resolution School 79 Figure 4.2 Diagrammatic Depiction of Burton's facilitative Approach 115 Figure 6.1 Potential Transfer Processes.