CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 1. PREVIOUS FINDINGS Researchers who have done research about Chinese Indonesians and their language varieties are as follows : Oka, (1987) in her study on Taraf Asimilasi Bahasa Cina Peranakan dan Taraf Asimilasi Bahasa Indonesia Pada Siswa Cina Peranakan di SMTA, found that the assimilation level of BCP and Bahasa Indonesia is found to correlate very significantly with social interaction. Social status, however, does not show significant correlation with language assimilation. It is suspected that this might have been due to the fact that the study had assigned the students parents' social status, which might not necessarily have the students' social status. The study also reveals that Bahasa Indonesia is the primary source of interference in the use of BCP. It implies that Chinese Peranakanas students are more likely to assimilate to a national society than to a regional one. The source of interference in the use of standard Bahasa Indonesia is BCP. This 8 interference occurs very rarely and has almost no linguistic significance, however, is considerable, since it is exactly BCP interference that functions as ethnic identity marker. Oetomo, (1984) in his study on The Chinese of Pasuruan : A Study of Language and Identity in a Minority Community in Transition, found that there are sociolinguistic differences among the Chinese that reflected the ethnic, subethnic and class identity, even though they are classified into two codes, that is Javanese and Malay/Indonesia. Only the Chinese Peranakans of the lower class and the Totoks who spoke Javanese as a code or prime language in the family and socialization. The Javanese which was spoken is Ngoko and its speech variety is a little different with that of the Javanese's. However, the Peranakans of higher class didn't speak the Javanese both with family members and friends. On the other hand, they spoke neutral informal East Javanese Malay. In reality, the variety mentioned above is ethnic identity marker of Chinese community, as Bahasa Indonesia was spoken by the Chinese, primarily the well educated ones, especially when communicating with the non Chinese. Mintowati, (1992) in her study on Struktur Kalimat Bahasa Cina Peranakans Siswa SMA di Kotamadya Mojokerto discovered that the structure of BCP sentences are not different from that of Bahasa Indonesia. One thing that differentiates them is the use of Javanese language elements in the Bahasa Cina Peranakans sentences. Based on the findings, the researcher stated, an 9 opinion that Bahasa Cina Peranakan is bad, disorderly, and even destructive to Bahasa Indonesia should not be proposed recklessly. 2. STANDARD AND NON-STANDARD LANGUAGE In general definition, standard language is the chosen variety of a language where codes have been set through a process of development in some of its language elements like grammar and dictionaries. For the reason of codes setting process, standard language use in print or written. In Indonesia, standard language refers to standard Bahasa Indonesia where codes have been set as they can be seen in some references like Tata Bahasa Baku Bahasa Indonesia, Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia and Kamus Umum Bahasa Indonesia which have been published by the department of education and culture. Those references are used to determine the differences between the standard and non-standard Bahasa Indonesia. Dictionaries are used to indicate both standard and non-standard words like "bikin (make) ", "pengen (want) ", "nggak (no) ", "kayak (like) ", "dikasih (given) ", "gimana (how)" are all non-standard. However, "buat (make)", "ingin (want)", "tidak (no)", "berkata (say)", "diberi (given)", "bagaimana (how) " are standard. Tata Bahasa Baku Bahasa Indonesia is used as the grammar reference of standard Bahasa Indonesia. Historically, standard languages are somehow codified for some reasons like political, economic and social. Standard Bahasa Indonesia, for 10 instance, is chosen to be the "mark" of independence and liberty from the invasion of Japanese or any other countries. Another example is the Finn (19 C)also had developed their spoken language to gain independence over the Swedes and Russians. Standard languages may also be chosen for economic reason. Meaning, the language which is preferred to speak is the one that is spoken by economically strong people. In England, standard English is chosen just because it was used by economically powerful merchants class. Apart of those reasons above, social status may also become the reason why a certain variety is preferred,. Again, standard English appeared "naturally" in fifteenth century from a variety of regional English dialects, mainly because it was the variety used in the court and undoubtedly is prestigious. In other words the development of a standard language either naturally or deliberately really depends on the situations (Holmes, 1992:83). As stated above, standard languages may occur naturally or deliberately but anyhow once set, it should serve some functions such as political, social and pedagogical. Standard Bahasa Indonesia likewise, politically is codified to eliminate diversity and variety among its people. It is meant to unify individuals and groups within a large community that results from other communities. It is "the one language" that is stated in the Constitution ( Mathoot and Garvin, 1975). Socially, standard languages reflect and symbolize some kind of identity to their speakers. They give prestige to those who employ it. In the 11 Philippines, for instance, those who have the proficiency in speaking standard English are those who go to universities or belong to well educated class. Those who do not have the proficiency are non-educated class. Even in United States, black people who use to speak Black English tend to speak standard American English if they belong to high class community as the language reflects their social status and prestige. Standard languages should also serve pedagogical function. Meaning, the languages are the means of communication at schools, universities and other higher education institutions. They should be the effective means of communication among the experts of any scientific fields in any scientific meetings or seminars (Kridalaksana, 1978). On the contrary about standard languages as stated above, non-standard languages or vernaculars refer to any uncodified or unstandardised varieties used in communities and which do not have any official status ( Tanner, 1967 and Holmes, 1992). In Indonesia, non-standard languages may refer to any ethnic languages like Javanese, Balinese and Madurese even the non-standard variety of Bahasa Indonesia. Non-standard languages which are also called vernaculars are the first languages learned by people. In multilingual country they refer to languages spoken in community. These varieties are usually lack of prestige as society consider these languages as low varieties . They are associated with speakers from under privileged, low status groups. Nevertheless, non-standard languages are not "bad" or "incorrect" languages. The differences between standard and 12 non-standard languages are merely due to their prestige and functions, as linguistically, non-standard languages are also adequate for the needs of the speakers since nobody speaks one variety all the time. Unlike the standard languages which serve some important functions, non-standard languages do not. They are often used for a relatively narrow range of informal functions. Non-standard languages are spoken among friends and acquaintances and usually are acquired in the home. Further, they are used in informal daily conversations. People tend to speak these varieties to show intimacy and use them when they write to their friends and intimates. The non­ standard languages are the solidarity languages between people of the same ethnic group. The Chinese Indonesian, for example, usually speak Bahasa Cina Peranakan which is their vernacular to show solidarity among them. The Javanese people speak low variety of Javanese language (Ngoko)as their vernacular to show intimate relationship among them. However, both Indonesian ethnic groups above, also use another variety as their vernacular like non-standard Bahasa Indonesia which practically both standard and non­ standard Bahasa Indonesia have the same meaning like "kenapa" and "mengapa" which means "why". The differences between the two varieties can be in the words or phrases which are shortened, lengthened or changed. 13 3. LANGUAGE VARIATIONS AND SOCIAL FACTORS The language we speak identify who we are. Through social relationships we establish by making conversations with the people we meet, we give information about ourselves. People will know whether we are well educated or not by listening to the language variety we speak. For instance, when we talk to a foreigner we will find out that he is a businessman because he might use the term like "marketing". He does not necessarily say his occupation as his language may speak for itself. The example above shows that social backgrounds may reflect in our language varieties .Social backgrounds are varied, however, they might be classified into two categories. The first one is the inner social backgrounds that is the backgrounds that come within ourselves and the other is outer social backgrounds that is the backgrounds that come beyond ourselves. The inner social backgrounds refer to sex, age, ethnicity, and social status like parental education. On the other hand, outer social backgrounds