AN INVESTIGATION OF ESOL TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS TEACHING ABOUT TABOO ENGLISH IN THE SECOND LANGUAGE CLASSROOM BY DIANNA HOLSTER A thesis submitted to Auckland University Of Technology in partial fulfilment of the degree of Master of Arts in Applied Language Studies, 2005 AUCKLAND UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY For my husband, Jefri and our baby son, Zakaria Kenneth. Also for Mum and Dad. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents iii Tables vii Figures viii Abbreviations ix Attestation of Authorship x Acknowledgements xi Abstract xii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Aims of the Study 4 1.3 Area of Investigation 5 1.4 Thesis Outline 5 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 7 2.1 Chapter Overview 7 2.1.1 The relationship between language and culture 7 2.1.2 Language is alive and constantly evolving 10 2.2 The Difference Between Written and Spoken Language 12 2.2.1 Standard and non-standard written English 14 2.2.2 Standard and non-standard spoken English 15 2.2.3 Where does Taboo English sit within the standard and non-standard 16 continuum? 2.3 The Relationship Between Taboo Words and Culture 18 2.4 Categories of Taboo Language 19 2.5 Taboo English in Society 23 2.6 Taboo English on Television 25 2.6.1 Taboo English in British broadcasting 25 2.6.2 Taboo English in New Zealand broadcasting 27 2.7 Taboo English in Newspapers 29 2.8 Why Do speakers Use Taboo English? 31 2.8.1 Psychological motives 32 2.8.2 Social motives 33 iii 2.8.3 Linguistic motives 34 2.9 The Gender Factor 35 2.9.1 Traditional patterns of taboo use 35 2.9.2 Taboo English and conversational power 37 2.9.3 The influence of the feminist movement and taboo use 39 2.10 Taboo English Vocabulary in the L2 Classroom 43 2.11 Taboo English Textbooks for the L2 Classroom 46 2.12 Studies Supporting a Need to Address Taboo English in the L2 Classroom 47 2.13 A Need for Lessons that Focus on the Use and Nature of Taboo English 49 2.13.1 Derogatory language 49 2.13.2 Slang and Taboo English 51 2.13.3 Bilingual taboos 53 2.14 Sociolinguistic Competence 55 2.15 ‘Fuck’ as a Solidarity Marker 57 2.16 The Grammar of Taboo English 60 2.17 Chapter Summary 65 2.18 Research Questions 66 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 67 3.1 Research Paradigm 67 3.2 Methodological approach 67 3.3 The Questionnaire 69 3.4 The Participants 70 3.5 Data Analysis 73 3.6 Chapter Summary 77 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF TEACHERS’ 78 ATTITUDES TOWARDS TABOO ENGLISH IN SOCIETY 4.1 Chapter Overview 78 4.2 Teachers’ Attitudes Towards the Offensiveness of Taboo Words Heard In 78 Everyday Conversation 4.3 Words that ESOL Teachers Perceived to be Often Heard in Society 88 4.3.1 Words that ESOL teachers perceived to be often heard by factory 89 employees at work 4.3.2 Words that ESOL teachers perceived to be often heard by tertiary 91 iv students on a university campus 4.3.3 Words that ESOL teachers perceived to be often heard by 93 pedestrians on the street 4.4 The Frequency of ESOL Teachers’ Taboo English Use in Everyday 97 Conversation 4.5 Reasons ESOL Teachers Use Taboo English Words in Everyday 102 Conversation 4.6 Taboo English Words Used by ESOL Teachers in Everyday Conversation 108 4.6.1 The use of ‘fuck’ by ESOL teachers in everyday conversation 116 4.6.2 The use of gender biased words by ESOL teachers in everyday 120 conversation 4.6.3 The use of Maori taboo words by ESOL teachers in everyday 125 conversation 4.7 Summary of Teachers’ Attitudes to Taboo English in Society 127 CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF TEACHERS’ 128 ATTITUDES TOWARDS TEACHING ABOUT TABOO ENGLISH IN THE L2 CLASSROOM 5.1 Chapter Overview 128 5.2 The Number of Teachers Who Teach about Taboo English in the L2 128 Classroom 5.3 When ESOL Teachers Address Taboo English in the L2 Classroom 134 5.4 Taboo Words Considered Important To Teach About and Words Not Taught 140 in Any Context 5.5 Strategies Employed by ESOL Teachers to Teach About Taboo English 147 5.5.1 Teaching the appropriate and inappropriate use of Taboo English 149 5.5.2 Teaching the functions and giving further examples of Taboo 150 English 5.5.3 Teaching the pronunciation, grammar and collocation of Taboo 152 English 5.5.4 Worksheet to teach about Taboo English 155 5.6 Summary of Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Taboo English in the L2 158 Classroom v CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION 6.1 Chapter Overview 159 6.2 Key Findings 159 6.3 Significance of the Study 162 6.4 Pedagogical and Theoretical Implications 163 6.4.1 Implications for classroom practice 163 6.4.2 Implications for ESOL textbook publishers 164 6.4.3 Implications for teacher training courses 165 6.5.Limitations of the Study 165 6.6 Recommendations for Further Research 166 REFERENCES 168 APPENDICES Appendix A: Participant Information Sheet 180 Appendix B: Consent Form 181 Appendix C: Questionnaire 182 vi TABLES Table 1: The Most Common Grading of Taboo Words in Order of Offensiveness 85 Table 2: The Top 8 Taboo Words Most Commonly Used By ESOL Teachers In 111 Everyday Conversation Table 3: Phrases Listed by ESOL Teachers Using ‘Fuck’ 116 Table 4: Reasons ESOL Teachers Use ‘Fuck’ by Age and Gender 116 Table 5: Discriminatory Words Used by ESOL Teachers by Age, Gender and 121 Ranking Table 6: The Frequency of Discriminatory Words Used by ESOL Teachers by 122 Age and Gender Table 7: When ESOL Teachers Teach about Taboo English in the Second 136 Language Classroom Table 8: Strategies Used by ESOL Teachers to Teach about Taboo English 154 vii FIGURES Figure 1: Jay’s Definition of Terms 22 Figure 2: The Grammar of Taboo English Use 61 Figure 3: The Linguistic Features of Taboo English Use 62 Figure 4: The Grammar of ‘Fuck’ 63 Figure 5: The Functions of ‘Fuck’ 64 Figure 6: Nationality of Participants 71 Figure 7: Courses Presently Taught by Participants 72 Figure 8: The Top 8 Taboo Words Rated Least Offensive by ESOL Teachers 79 Figure 9: The top 8 Taboo English Words Rated Most Offensive by ESOL 82 Teachers Figure 10: Words that ESOL Teachers Perceived to be Often Heard by Factory 89 Employees at Work, Tertiary Students On a University Campus and Pedestrians on the Street Figure 11: The Frequency of Taboo English Use by ESOL Teachers in Everyday 98 Conversation Figure 12: The Frequency of Taboo English Use in Everyday Conversation by 99 Each Demographic Group Figure 13: Reasons ESOL Teachers Use Taboo English Words 103 Figure 14: Reasons ESOL Teachers Use Taboo English Words by Demographic 104 Group Figure 15: The Percentage of ESOL Teachers Who Teach about Taboo English in 129 the L2 Classroom Figure 16: The Number of ESOL Teachers Who Teach about Taboo English in 130 the L2 Classroom by Gender Figure 17: When ESOL Teachers Teach about Taboo English in the L2 135 Classroom Figure 18: Taboo Words Considered Important to Teach and Taboo Words not 141 Taught in Any Context Figure 19: Strategies Employed by ESOL Teachers to Teach about Taboo 148 English viii ABBREVIATIONS CoP Community of Practice ESL English as a Second Language ESOL English to Speakers of Other Languages L1 First Language L2 Second Language SLA Second Language Acquisition ix ATTESTATION OF AUTHORSHIP “I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge, it contains no material written by another person, nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the qualification of any other degree or diploma of a university or other institution of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement is made in the acknowledgements.” x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Associate Professor John Bitchener, my supervisor, for his advice, guidance and unfailing support throughout this project. I also wish to thank the 80 ESOL teachers in Auckland, New Zealand who completed my questionnaire. Without them, this study would not have been possible. I would also like to thank Michelle Strauss for her assistance. Thanks also to the lecturers in the School of Languages at Auckland University of Technology (AUT) for providing information about taboo words in the following languages: Dutch (Ineke Crezee), Vietnamese (Sao Trinh), Alice U (Burmese) and Spanish (Gloria Vazquez). Finally, my thanks go to my husband and my family for their encouragement and support. This study was granted ethics approval by the Auckland University of Technology Ethics Committee on 18 February 2003; AUTEC reference number 03/07. xi ABSTRACT Taboo English is an area of inquiry that has been overlooked in the research literature. Little appears to be published on the phenomenon of taboo language and its teaching implications for adult ESL/EFL students learning conversational English. This study aimed to investigate the attitudes and opinions of 80 ESOL teachers from 10 language schools in Auckland, New Zealand, towards the use of Taboo English in society and their attitudes towards teaching about taboo language to adult learners of conversational English. The project used a questionnaire designed to elicit a combination of both qualitative and quantitative data. Results showed that Taboo English was a valuable aspect of ESOL teachers’ linguistic repertoire and that both males and females used taboo words in complex and diverse ways to communicate ideas quickly and efficiently.