PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE AND BIBLICAL ISRAEL by James Swanson A Dissertation Pesented to the faculty of Towson University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Jewish Studies Towson University Towson, Maryland 21252 May, 2013 ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank my wife, Joan, and the rest of my family for allowing me the time and energy to complete this dissertation. I know that this dissertation took time away from them physically and emotionally for several months. Thank you for your graciousness and love for me. I would like to thank those who led the development of the Baltimore Hebrew Institute at Towson University, formerly Baltimore Hebrew University, Baltimore, MD. I began attending Baltimore Hebrew in the early 1990s and was in the midst of PH. D. work when Baltimore Hebrew was subsumed by Towson University. The transition from Baltimore Hebrew University to Baltimore Hebrew Institute was sad and exhilarating for me. Sad because I missed the little building on Park Heights Ave. and the cloistered feeling it provided; exhilarating because there were now more resources and opportunities available to us as students. I would also like to thank the readers who offered their suggestions for the betterment of this dissertation – Drs. Barry Freundel, Rose Ann Christian, Allaire Stallsmith and William Lahneman. Lastly, I thank Dr. Barry Gittlen for over 20 years of instruction and guidance. I especially thank him for the countless hours he pored over this dissertation, correcting passive language, challenging my assumptions and advancing me as a student and a scholar. iii Abstract PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE AND BIBLICAL ISRAEL James Swanson This dissertation establishes the typology, prevalence and importance of psychological warfare according to the Hebrew Bible. It answers these questions – ‘Does the Hebrew Bible portray ancient Israel employing psychological warfare?’ And if so, ‘How is ancient Israel portrayed implementing psychological warfare?’ In answering these questions I provide a clear and comprehensive definition and typology of psychological warfare, based on Hebrew Bible usage. Then I demonstrate its importance to the military and political success of Biblical Israel as portrayed in the Hebrew Bible. The types of psychological warfare portrayed were propaganda – including diplomacy, threats and taunts and advance word; physical intimidation – including terrorism, humiliation of political or military leaders, shaming, and displays or arrays; rallying the troops through words or actions; and divine intervention in each of these types of psychological warfare. Each of these types of psychological warfare are clearly defined; then explored in ancient Near Eastern literature outside of the Hebrew Bible; and then finally examined in the Hebrew Bible. iv Table of Contents Abbreviations viii-ix Chapter I INTRODUCTION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE DEFINED 1 1. An introduction to the problem History of previous scholarship related to this issue 2. Methodology to be used 3. Psychological warfare defined 4. Direction and definitions 5. Statistical analysis of psychological warfare in the Hebrew Bible Chapter II PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE PRACTICED IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST OUTSIDE OF ISRAEL 16 1. Introduction 2. Propaganda Diplomacy Threats and taunts Advance word 3. Physical intimidation Terrorism Humiliation of political or military leaders Shaming – exposure of weakness Displays and arrays – presentation of troops and armaments, reliefs and reminder monuments 4. Rallying the troops Rallying commanders and troops through the use of words Rallying commanders and troops through the use of actions 5. Divine intervention The gods rally commanders and troops The gods fight psychologically for their troops The gods fight physically for their troops The gods win the battle for their troops 6. Conclusion Chapter III PROPAGANDA IN THE HEBREW BIBLE 58 1. Introduction 2. Diplomacy – bloodless battle through treaties and covenants v Relational diplomacy Trickery Political treaties 3. Threats and taunts – a war of words Threats related to requests for assistance Political threats and taunts Military threats and taunts 4. Advance word – espionage, counterintelligence, subterfuge and subversion Moses Joshua Monarchial 5. Conclusion Chapter IV PHYSICAL INTIMIDATION IN THE HEBREW BIBLE 89 1. Introduction 2. Terrorism – mass killings, horrific displays 3. Humiliation of political or military leaders Maiming the leader(s) Assassinating the leader(s) 4. Shaming – exposure of weaknesses Shaming others Shaming oneself 5. Troop array – presentation of troops and armaments 6. Conclusion Chapter V RALLYING THE TROOPS IN THE HEBREW BIBLE 119 1. Introduction Troops Commanders Deuteronomy 20: “The War Chapter” 2. Rallying commanders and troops through the use of words Moses Joshua Gideon Pre-Monarchial Monarchial 3. Rallying commanders and troops through the use of actions Moses Joshua Judges Saul David 4. Conclusion vi Chapter VI DIVINE INTERVENTION IN THE HEBREW BIBLE 156 1. Introduction Holy War 2. YHWH rallies the Israelite commanders and troops Moses Joshua Judges Monarchial 3. YHWH fights psychologically for the Israelites Moses Joshua Judges Monarchial 4. YHWH fights physically for the Israelites 5. YHWH wins the battle for the Israelites 6. Conclusion Chapter VII CONCLUSIONS 182 Appendices APPENDIX A – HEBREW BIBLE PASSAGES CONTAINING INSTANCES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE ARRANGED BY TYPE 189 1. Propaganda passages 2. Physical intimidation passages 3. Rallying the troops passages 4. Divine intervention passages APPENDIX B: HEBREW BIBLE PASSAGES WHICH ARE RELATED TO PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE 196 BIBLIOGRAPHY 201 CURRICULUM VITA 213 vii Abbreviations Society of Biblical Literature abbreviations for Hebrew Bible book names (Patrick 73). Gen - Genesis Exod - Exodus Lev - Leviticus Num - Numbers Deut - Deuteronomy Josh - Joshua Judg - Judges Ruth - Ruth 1–2 Sam -1–2 Samuel 1–2 Kgs - 1–2 Kings 1–2 Chr - 1–2 Chronicles Jonah -Jonah Mic - Micah Ezra - Ezra Neh - Nehemiah Esth - Esther Job - Job Ps/Pss - Psalms Prov - Proverbs Eccl (or Qoh) - Ecclesiastes (or Qoheleth) Song - Song of Songs (Song of Solomon) Isa - Isaiah Jer - Jeremiah Lam - Lamentations Ezek - Ezekiel Dan - Daniel Hos - Hosea Joel - Joel Amos - Amos Obad - Obadiah Nah - Nahum Hab - Habakkuk Zeph - Zephaniah Hag - Haggai Zech - Zechariah Mal - Malachi viii Other abbreviations used in this dissertation AEL Ancient Egyptian Literature I-II, Miriam Lichtheim. ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts, J. B. Pritchard ARM Archives Royales de Mari COS Context of Scripture, William Hallo JAOS Journal of American Oriental Society, KRI Ramesside Inscriptions I-VIII, K. A. Kitchen, KUB Keilschrifturkunden aus Boghaz-koi, I-LX JBL Journal of Biblical Literature SBL Society for Biblical Literature ix 1 I. INTRODUCTION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE DEFINED 1. An introduction to the problem Warfare was a normal part of the ancient world, and nations expended a tremendous amount of energy toward the defense of their homeland. The homeland was protected by building fortresses and walls, developing an army (standing and/or reserve), and supplying that army with weapons, food, housing and wages. The leaders of these nations also obtained safety by establishing parity treaties or vassal relationships with the nations around them. Most nations also went through periods of expansion where they attacked the nations around them in an attempt to gain territory. This also required resources and resolve because the nation had to extend beyond its normal limits economically and militarily. The Hebrew Bible depicts many examples of ancient Israel’s involvement in warfare. Because major land trade routes between Egypt and countries in northern regions (Syria, Mesopotamia and Anatolia) ran through or near Israel the Israelites had to be prepared to fight defensive battles against nations trying to encroach upon their land, and, at times, they waged wars of expansion as well. The idea of war was so pervasive that Numbers 1 and 2 describe numbering the Israelites by tribe in preparation for entering Canaan, counting all the males who were twenty years or older - "whoever was able to go out to war" (Numbers 1:20 ff.). The author indicates that fitness for battle was what made someone count. 2 This dissertation contends that warfare, defensive warfare in particular, was one of the most significant responsibilities of any nation in the ancient Near East and that psychological warfare was one of the most important, if not the most important, military tactic used. Nearly every confrontation involved some psychological aspect that typically brought about a turning point, or the avoidance of physical conflict altogether. This dissertation establishes the typology, prevalence and importance of psychological warfare according to the Hebrew Bible. I expect to find psychological warfare so deeply ingrained into the military mindset of Biblical Israel and the ancient Near East that it affected nearly every aspect of military affairs - weaponry; troop arrangement; clothing and armor; communications (propaganda) to enemy towns, enemy troops and national troops; battle strategies; and military tactics. I also expect to find that a nation’s god was given credit for acts of psychological warfare. This dissertation answers the questions – ‘Does the Hebrew Bible portray ancient Israel employing psychological warfare?’ And if so, ‘How is ancient Israel portrayed