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Published by Rowman & Littlefield An imprint of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com 6 Tinworth Street, London SE11 5AL, United Kingdom Copyright © 2020 by The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Available ISBN 9781538121542 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN 9781538121559 (paperback : alk. paper) ISBN 9781538121566 (ebook) The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. 19_0411_00b_CR.indd 2 6/25/19 12:22 PM Contents Introduction: Media Imperialism: Continuity and Change 1 Oliver Boyd-Barrett and Tanner Mirrlees PART I: CONTEXTUALIZING AND CONCEPTUALIZING EMPIRE AND MEDIA IMPERIALISM 1 Media and Cultural Imperialism: Genealogy of an Idea 11 Oliver Boyd-Barrett 2 Historicizing and Theorizing Media and Cultural Imperialism 31 Marko Ampuja, Juha Koivisto, and Kaarle Nordenstreng 3 US Empire and Cultural Imperialism: A Reconceptualization and Twentieth-Century Retrospective 45 Tanner Mirrlees PART II: NEWS, WAR, AND PROPAGANDA 4 Western News Media, Propaganda, and Pretexts for Neoliberal War 63 Oliver Boyd-Barrett 5 “RussiaGate”: The Construction of the Enemy 75 Gerald Sussman 6 The Great Game for EurAsia and the Skripal Affair 89 Oliver Boyd-Barrett 7 Propaganda, Manipulation, and the Exercise of Imperial Power: From Media Imperialism to Information Imperialism 105 Piers Robinson iii 19_0411-Boyd_Barrett.indb 3 6/25/19 6:35 AM iv Contents PART III: HOLLYWOOD, WAR, AND MILITAINMENT 8 Socialism by Stealth? Governmental Subvention and Hollywood 121 Toby Miller 9 The US Embassy–Hollywood Complex: The Sony Pictures Hack and Twenty-First-Century Media Imperialism 137 Paul Moody 10 Dispatches from the Militainment Empire 147 Roger Stahl 11 Global Executioner: Legitimizing Drone Warfare through Hollywood Movies 159 Erin Steuter and Geoff Martin PART IV: THE INTERNET, SOCIAL MEDIA, AND PLATFORM IMPERIALISM 12 Guarding Public Values in a Connective World: Challenges for Europe 175 José van Dijck 13 Facebook’s Platform Imperialism: The Economics and Geopolitics of Social Media 187 Dal Yong Jin 14 New Global Music Distribution System, Same Old Linguistic Hegemony? Analyzing English on Spotify 199 Christof Demont-Heinrich 15 “Weaponizing” the Internet and World Wide Web for Empire: Platforming Capitalism, Data-Veillance, Public Diplomacy, and Cyberwarfare 213 Tanner Mirrlees PART V: DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION, GLOBAL DIVIDES, AND CULTURAL IMPERIALISM 16 Cultural Autonomy in the 1970s and Beyond: Toward Cultural Justice 233 Cees J. Hamelink 17 Cultural Imperialism and Development Communication for Social Change 245 Mohan J. Dutta 18 Mapping Power in Women’s Empowerment Projects in Global Development 259 Karin Gwinn Wilkins 19_0411-Boyd_Barrett.indb 4 6/25/19 6:35 AM Contents v PART VI: RISING MEDIA EMPIRES: THE CASE OF CHINA 19 China: An Emerging Cultural Imperialist 275 Colin Sparks 20 The Empire’s New Clothes: Political Priorities and Corporate Ambitions in China’s Drive for Global Ascendency 291 Graham Murdock 21 Not (Yet) the “Chinese Century”: The Endurance of the US Empire and Its Cultural Industries 305 Tanner Mirrlees Index 321 About the Contributors 335 19_0411-Boyd_Barrett.indb 5 6/25/19 6:35 AM 19_0411-Boyd_Barrett.indb 6 6/25/19 6:35 AM Introduction Media Imperialism: Continuity and Change Oliver Boyd-Barrett and Tanner Mirrlees The term “media imperialism” was mainly fashioned by communication and media scholars in the 1960s and 1970s—a period when the US and Soviet superpowers battled for supremacy while the postcolonial non-aligned movement struggled for the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) at the United Nations. Never was the concept of “imperial” in this context and research trajectory limited only to forms of imperialism that depended on the annexation of territory. Some early media-imperialism scholars were based in Latin American countries that were no lon- ger colonies of any empire and had never been formal colonies of the United States. Other scholars conducted their research from the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. During this time, “media imperialism” was principally applied to the media power and influence of the United States and was deployed in studies of the considerable influence of US-based media corporations in and on the media systems and cultures of other countries, especially those in the global South. Throughout the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, a prevalent focus within media-imperialism literature on the United States reflects an understandable preoccupation with the actual economic, military, and media power of the United States. But scholarship on media imperialism has also extended to the expansive media systems, industries, and prod- ucts of older empires (e.g., British, French, and Russian) and once subalternized or peripheral countries (e.g., China, India, Brazil, and South Korea). These little “media imperialisms” spread from countries that evince considerable media ownership, dis- tribution, and impact within a given geocultural zone but are themselves structurally weaker than and shaped by stronger global imperial powers such as the United States. Just as there is no reason why media-imperialism scholarship should be limited to only one empire, there is also no reason why such research should be limited to only one period or phase in the history of an empire. For more than four decades, some scholars have preferred the term “cultural im- perialism” to “media imperialism” (and these terms are often used interchangeably). Sometimes, these terms were invoked to simply acknowledge that the media corpora- tions (e.g., TV broadcasters) and media products (e.g., news stories and TV shows) of some countries were significant vehicles for economic and cultural influence in other countries. Other times, they flagged how the phenomena of imperialism extended well 1 19_0411-Boyd_Barrett.indb 1 6/25/19 6:35 AM 2 Oliver Boyd-Barrett and Tanner Mirrlees beyond media industries and products to encompass economic models, patterns of governance, education systems, languages, ideas, norms, and values—“whole ways of life.” Overall, research on media imperialism—whether focused on the media itself or the media within the broader compass of cultural imperialism—takes the “media” to be a diversity of complex social institutions. While most of these institutions are owned by corporations, some are also part of states and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). That is to say, a wide and growing array of private and public media institutions are the source of the “media” of “media imperialism.” Some of these include the corporations that own the news, telecommunications, film and TV, advertising and public relations, music, interactive games, and internet platforms and social media sites. Frequently, these different media segments are owned by the same vertically and horizontally inte- grated global media giants: as types of media diversify, ownership centralizes. In any case, the study of media imperialism in the twenty-first century should focus on the whole gamut of “the media” in the context of imperialism, old, new, and emerg- ing. Points of focus when studying media imperialism may include media financing, media ownership, and intellectual property control; media-corporate business models (including advertising, subscription, sponsorship, and, increasingly, data aggregation); the organization and management of particular internationalizing media products, including cross-border media production, distribution, and exhibition; the integration of new hardware and software technologies with older media models and forms; the characteristics of specific media products (the form), as well as the cultural stories and images they carry (the content); and, of course, the complexities of cross-border media reception, interpretation, and use. Significantly, studies of media imperialism ought to pay more