To Be, Or Not to Be…German, Russian, or Ethnic German: Ethnic Self-Labeling Among Adolescent Ethnic German Immigrants Dissertation Zur Erlangung des akademischen Grads Doctor philosophiae (Dr. Phil.) Vorgelegt dem Rat der Fakultät für Sozial- und Verhaltenswissenschaften der Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena von Dipl.-Psych. Muriel Kim Helbig geboren am 06.01.1975 in Washington, D.C. Gutachter 1. 2. 3. Tag des Koll oquiums: Acknowledgements 3 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my advisors: Rainer K. Silbereisen for closely guiding my progress (my utmost respect for those quick replies to my reports) and for providing me with wonderful possibilities to travel, teach, present, meet people, and experience academia. Eva Schmitt- Rodermund for her pragmatic, spirited comments and for fun classes taught together. Peter Noack for his support of my work. I would like to thank our participants, especially those adolescents that allowed me to come to their homes and bombard them with questions. I appreciate the support we received from schools, teachers, and parents. I would like to thank the IGC and everyone at the Wildstraße. My primary office mates Susan and trendy Mauro, the sporting team, the entire ground-floor. Jörg, for creating such a friendly and supportive environment. Ilga and Maya for becoming friends. Everyone for your amazing support, much laughter, and making this office building a very special place. And finally, thank you for mostly being unimpressed by Kirya’s (and my own) barking… I would like to thank the faculty and the DFG for providing a wonderful setting. I would like to thank the department of developmental psychology, my other academic home. Peter, for being such a fair and supportive tandem and travel partner. Annett, because without a darling secretary like you, life is hell. Claudia, for cake and advice and laughter. Elke, for your practical way of commenting on life’s questions (not only concerning discriminant analysis). Deepali, for having breakfast in the evening, if necessary. Lastly (but only because of the recency-effect), I would like to thank my family, who deserves highest marks in social (and any other kind of) support. My Mom, for being much cooler than during the Abitur and my studies. For always showing interest in my work and for down-to-earth comments (“so what?”). Gerdus, for steadily and continuously believing in me - whether at age three or 30 - and for being a true fan. Stephan, for enduring panic, hysterical laughter, mood-swings, last-minute changes in life plans, unconventional work-hours, and teeth- grinding nights. For remaining calm and good-natured and… for taking the dog out! Table of Content 4 INDEX OF TABLES............................................................................................................8 INDEX OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... 10 1. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................11 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ............................................................................... 15 2.1 ADOLESCENT ETHNIC GERMAN IMMIGRANTS: HISTORY AND PRESENT SITUATION..... 16 2.1.1 ETHNIC GERMANS IN GERMANY TODAY......................................................................................19 2.2 ETHNIC CATEGORIES AND ETHNIC SELF-LABELING.....................................................23 2.2.1 COMPONENTS OF IDENTITY............................................................................................................23 2.2.2.1 Excursus: “Labels” in Psychological Research..........................................................................24 2.2.2 SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY AND SELF-CATEGORIZATION THEORY.........................................26 2.2.3 DETERMINATION OF GROUP MEMBERSHIP ACCORDING TO SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY ....28 2.2.4 ETHNIC, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL IDENTITY ................................................................................29 2.2.5 DETERMINATION OF GROUP MEMBERSHIP ACCORDING TO ETHNIC IDENTITY MODELS...32 2.2.6 MULTIPLE CATEGORIZATIONS........................................................................................................33 2.2.7 ETHNIC SELF-LABELS IN ACCULTURATION RESEARCH ..............................................................35 2.2.8 DETERMINATION OF GROUP MEMBERSHIP IN RELATION TO ACCULTURATION ORIENTATIONS ...........................................................................................................................................39 2.3 FORMATION OF ETHNIC SELF-LABELS ..........................................................................40 2.3.1 LANGUAGE.........................................................................................................................................43 2.3.2 PEER RELATIONS...............................................................................................................................47 2.3.3 SCHOOL COMMITMENT ....................................................................................................................50 2.3.4 LENGTH OF RESIDENCY...................................................................................................................55 2.3.5 PARENTAL KNOWLEDGE .................................................................................................................57 2.3.6 PERCEIVED DISCRIMINATION .........................................................................................................64 2.3.7 SUCCESSFUL AND LESS SUCCESSFUL IMMIGRATION.....................................................................67 2.4 CONSEQUENCES OF ETHNIC SELF-LABELS....................................................................70 2.4.1 PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOCULTURAL ADAPTATION...............................................................70 2.4.1.1 Adaptation of Immigrant Children and Adolescents ...............................................................72 2.4.2 ETHNIC SELF-LABELS AND ADAPTATION .....................................................................................77 2.4.2.1 Multiple Ethnic Self-Labels and Adaptation..............................................................................79 2.4.3 ETHNIC SELF-LABELS AND DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS...................................................................81 Table of Content 5 2.4.3.1 Excursus: Development of Depressive Symptoms in Adolescence ......................................81 2.4.4 ETHNIC SELF-LABELS AND DELINQUENCY ..................................................................................84 2.4.4.1 Excursus: Development of Delinquent Behavior in Adolescence.........................................85 2.5 SUMMARY........................................................................................................................88 3. HYPOTHESES...............................................................................................................90 3.1 FORMATION OF ETHNIC SELF-LABELS...........................................................................90 3.1.1 SUCCESSFUL IMMIGRATION .............................................................................................................91 3.1.2 LESS SUCCESSFUL IMMIGRATION ....................................................................................................93 3.2 ETHNIC SELF-LABELS AND ADAPTATION ......................................................................94 4. METHODS..................................................................................................................... 95 4.1 PARTICIPANTS.................................................................................................................95 4.2 PROCEDURE ...................................................................................................................97 4.3 MEASURES .................................................................................................................... 100 4.3.1 ETHNIC SELF-LABELS.....................................................................................................................102 4.3.1.1 Single and Multiple Ethnic Self-Labels.....................................................................................105 4.3.1.2 Alternative Construction of Ethnic Self-Labels......................................................................107 4.3.1.3 Construct Validation of Ethnic Self-Labels against Acculturation Dimensions ................108 4.3.2 OTHER MEASURES ..........................................................................................................................112 5. RESULTS.......................................................................................................................116 5.1 FORMATION OF ETHNIC SELF-LABELS..........................................................................116 5.1.1 SUCCESSFUL IMMIGRATION ...........................................................................................................118 5.1.2 LESS SUCCESSFUL IMMIGRATION ..................................................................................................122 5.1.3 (LESS) SUCCESSFUL IMMIGRATION VARIABLES AND GROUP MEMBERSHIP ...........................124 5.2 ETHNIC SELF-LABELS AND ADAPTATION .................................................................... 127 5.2.1 DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS .................................................................................................................128