Eur. Phys. J. C (2018) 78:378 https://doi.org/10.1140/epjc/s10052-018-5869-y Regular Article - Theoretical Physics Polarizations of gravitational waves in Horndeski theory Shaoqi Houa , Yungui Gongb , Yunqi Liuc School of Physics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China Received: 27 January 2018 / Accepted: 6 May 2018 / Published online: 12 May 2018 © The Author(s) 2018 Abstract We analyze the polarization content of gravi- VIRGO, the future space-borne Laser Interferometer Space tational waves in Horndeski theory. Besides the familiar Antenna (LISA) [7] and TianQin [8], and pulsar timing arrays plus and cross polarizations in Einstein’s General Relativ- (e.g., the International Pulsar Timing Array and the European ity, there is one more polarization state which is the mix- Pulsar Timing Array [9,10]). In fact, in the recent GW170814 ture of the transverse breathing and longitudinal polariza- [4], the Advanced VIRGO detector joined the two aLIGO tions. The additional mode is excited by the massive scalar detectors, so they were able to test the polarization content field. In the massless limit, the longitudinal polarization dis- of gravitational waves for the first time. The result showed appears, while the breathing one persists. The upper bound that the pure tensor polarizations were favored against pure on the graviton mass severely constrains the amplitude of the vector and pure scalar polarizations [4,11]. Additionally, longitudinal polarization, which makes its detection highly GW170817 is the first observation of a binary neutron star unlikely by the ground-based or space-borne interferometers inspiral, and its electromagnetic counterpart, GRB 170817A, in the near future. However, pulsar timing arrays might be was later observed by the Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Moni- able to detect the polarization excited by the massive scalar tor and the International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Labora- field. Since additional polarization states appear in alterna- tory [5,12,13]. The new era of multi-messenger astrophysics tive theories of gravity, the measurement of the polarizations comes. of gravitational waves can be used to probe the nature of In GR, the gravitational wave propagates at the speed of gravity. In addition to the plus and cross states, the detection light and it has two polarization states, the plus and cross of the breathing polarization means that gravitation is medi- modes. In alternative metric theories of gravity, there may ated by massless spin 2 and spin 0 fields, and the detection of exist up to six polarizations, so the detection of the polar- both the breathing and longitudinal states means that gravi- izations of gravitational waves can be used to distinguish tation is propagated by the massless spin 2 and massive spin different theories of gravity and probe the nature of gravity 0 fields. [14,15]. For null plane gravitational waves, the six polariza- tions are classified by the little group E(2) of the Lorentz group with the help of the six independent Newman-Penrose 1 Introduction (NP) variables Ψ2, Ψ3, Ψ4 and Φ22 [16–18]. In particular, the complex variable Ψ4 denotes the familiar plus and cross The detection of gravitational waves by the Laser Interferom- modes in GR, the variable Φ22 denotes the transverse breath- eter Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) Scientific Col- ing polarization, the complex variable Ψ3 corresponds to the laboration and VIRGO Collaboration further supports Ein- vector-x and vector-y modes, and the variable Ψ2 corresponds stein’s General Relativity (GR) and provides a new tool to to the longitudinal mode. Under the E(2) transformation, all study gravitational physics [1–6]. In order to confirm gravi- other modes can be generated from Ψ2,soifΨ2 = 0, then we tational waves predicted by GR, it is necessary to determine may see all six modes in some coordinates. The E(2) clas- the polarizations of gravitational waves. This can be done by sification tells us the general polarization states, but it fails the network of ground-based Advanced LIGO (aLIGO) and to tell us the correspondence between the polarizations and gravitational theories. In Brans-Dicke theory [19], in addi- a e-mail: [email protected] tion to the plus and cross modes Ψ4 of the massless gravitons, b e-mail: [email protected] there exists another breathing mode Φ22 due to the massless c e-mail: [email protected] Brans-Dicke scalar field [17]. 123 378 Page 2 of 15 Eur. Phys. J. C (2018) 78 :378 Brans-Dicke theory is a simple extension to GR. In Brans- effect of the longitudinal polarization on the geodesic devi- Dicke theory, gravitational interaction is mediated by both ation depends on the mass and it is much smaller than that the metric tensor and the Brans-Dicke scalar field, and the of the transverse polarization in the aLIGO and LISA fre- Brans-Dicke field plays the role of Newton’s gravitational quency bands. In the massless limit, the longitudinal mode constant. In more general scalar-tensor theories of gravity, the disappears, while the breathing mode persists. scalar field φ has self-interaction and it is usually massive. In The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 briefly 1974, Horndeski found the most general scalar-tensor theory reviews ELLWW framework for classifying the polarizations of gravity whose action has higher derivatives of gμν and of null gravitational waves. In Sect. 3, the linearized equa- φ, but the equations of motion are at most the second order tions of motion and the plane gravitational wave solution [20]. Even though there are higher derivative terms, there is are obtained. In Sect. 3.1, the polarization states of gravita- no Ostrogradsky instability [21], so there are three physical tional waves in Horndeski theory are discussed by examining degrees of freedom in Horndeski theory, and we expect that the geodesic deviation equations, and Sect. 3.2 discusses the there is an extra polarization state in addition to the plus and failure of ELLWW framework for the massive Horndeski cross modes. If the scalar field is massless, then the additional theory. Section 4 discusses the possible experimental tests of polarization state should be the breathing mode Φ22. the extra polarizations. In particular, Sect. 4.1 mainly calcu- When the interaction between the quantized matter fields lates the interferometer response functions for aLIGO, and and the classical gravitational field is considered, the quadratic Section 4.2 determines the cross-correlation functions for the μναβ terms Rμναβ R and R2 are needed as counterterms to longitudinal and transverse breathing polarizations. Finally, remove the singularities in the energy-momentum tensor this work is briefly summarized in Sect. 5. In this work, we [22]. Although the quadratic gravitational theory is renor- use the natural units and the speed of light in vacuum c = 1. malizable [23], the theory has ghost due to the presence of higher derivatives [23,24]. However, the general nonlinear f (R) gravity [25] is free of ghost and it is equivalent to 2 Review of ELLWW Framework a scalar-tensor theory of gravity [26,27]. The effective mass squared of the equivalent scalar field is f (0)/3 f (0), and the Eardley et. al. devised a model-independent framework [17, massive scalar field excites both the longitudinal and trans- 18] to classify the null gravitational waves in a generic metric verse breathing modes [28–30]. The polarizations of gravi- theory of gravity based on the Newman-Penrose formalism ( ) μ μ μ tational waves in f R gravity were previously discussed in [16]. The quasiorthonormal, null tetrad basis Ea = (k , l , [31–37]. The authors in [33,34] calculated the NP variables mμ, m¯ μ) is chosen to be and found that Ψ2, Ψ4 and Φ22 are nonvanishing. They then μ 1 claimed that there are at least four polarization states in f (R) k = √ (1, 0, 0, 1), (1) gravity. Recently, it was pointed out that the direct applica- 2 μ 1 tion of the framework of Eardley et. al. (ELLWW frame- l = √ (1, 0, 0, −1), (2) work) [17,18] derived for the null plane gravitational waves 2 μ 1 to the massive field is not correct, and the polarization state m = √ (0, 1, i, 0), (3) of the equivalent massive field in f (R) gravity is the mixture 2 of the longitudinal and the transverse breathing modes [37]. μ 1 m¯ = √ (0, 1, −i, 0), (4) Furthermore, the longitudinal polarization is independent of 2 the effective mass of the equivalent scalar field, so it cannot where bar means the complex conjugation. They satisfy the be used to understand how the polarization reduces to the μ μ relation −k lμ = m m¯ μ = 1 and all other inner prod- transverse breathing mode in the massless limit. ucts vanish. Since the null gravitational wave propagates in Since the polarizations of gravitational waves in alterna- the +z direction, the Riemann tensor is a function of the tive theories of gravity are not known in general, so we need retarded time u = t − z, which implies that Rabcd,p = 0, to study it [38–40]. In this paper, the focus is on the polariza- where (a, b, c, d) range over (k, l, m, m¯ ) and (p, q, r, ···) tions of gravitational waves in the most general scalar-tensor range over (k, m, m¯ ). The linearized Bianchi identity and the theory, Horndeski theory. It is assumed that matter minimally symmetry properties of Rabcd imply that couples to the metric, so that test particles follow geodesics. The gravitational wave solutions are obtained from the lin- 1 R [ ; ] = Rab[pq,l] = Rabpq,l = 0. (5) earized equations of motion around the flat spacetime back- ab pq l 3 ground, and the geodesic deviation equations are used to reveal the polarizations of the massive scalar field.