Colonialism, Peace and Sustainable Social Cohesion in the Barents Region - Creating Theoretical and Conceptual Platforms for Peace Building and Restorative Action by Are Johan Rasmussen Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION in the subject PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA Supervisor: Professor Catherine Odora Hoppers January 2018 Student number: 49131605 I declare that “Colonialism, peace and sustainable social cohesion in the Barents Region: Creating theoretical and conceptual platforms for peace building and restorative action” is my own work and that all sources used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. Are Johan Rasmussen 31 January 2018 1 Table of Contents Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..5 Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………6 Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................... 8 1.1 The Barents Region and the Sami people ................................................................. 8 1.2 Rivers of conflict and transformation ..................................................................... 13 1.2.1 The Alta River .......................................................................................................... 13 1.2.2 The Tornedal River .................................................................................................. 17 1.2.3 The Pasvik River ...................................................................................................... 17 1.3 The problem statement ......................................................................................... 19 1.3.1 Research questions ................................................................................................. 20 1.4 Aims of the study .................................................................................................. 20 1.5 Objectives of the study .......................................................................................... 21 1.6 Limitations of the study ......................................................................................... 22 1.7 Summary of chapters ............................................................................................ 23 Chapter 2: Methodology ................................................................................................ 24 2.1 The problem of occlusion ...................................................................................... 24 2.1.1 Exclusion ................................................................................................................. 25 2.1.2 Representation ........................................................................................................ 28 2.1.3 Development and the "irrelevance of the marginalised" ....................................... 30 2.1.4 The centre-periphery gradient ................................................................................ 31 2.2 The methodological response ................................................................................ 32 2.2.1 Transformation by enlargement ............................................................................. 33 2.2.2 Cognitive justice ...................................................................................................... 34 2.2.3 Second-level indigenisation..................................................................................... 36 2.2.4 Transdisciplinarity ................................................................................................... 36 2.3 The philosophy of the response: hermeneutics ...................................................... 37 2.3.1 Truth and method ................................................................................................... 38 2.3.2 The hermeneutic circle ............................................................................................ 39 2.3.3 The history of effect ................................................................................................ 43 2.4 Research methods ................................................................................................. 50 Chapter 3: Conceptual framework .................................................................................. 52 3.1 The concept of violence ......................................................................................... 52 3.1.1 Violence according to Galtung ................................................................................ 52 3.1.2 Bourdieu and Passeron on symbolic violence ......................................................... 59 3.1.3 Lindner's theory of humiliation ............................................................................... 61 3.1.4 Violence and deep culture ....................................................................................... 63 3.2 The concepts of peace and human development .................................................... 64 3.2.1 Galtung's theory of peace ....................................................................................... 65 3.2.2 Freire's concept of conscientisation ........................................................................ 71 3.2.3 Bourdieu’s concept of dispositions .......................................................................... 73 2 3.2.4 The conflict triangle and the Sami people .............................................................. 74 3.3 SARCHI Chair on peace and human development ................................................... 76 3.3.1 Modernity’s Other – according to Hoppers and Richards ....................................... 78 3.3.2 Bringing in the excluded but aspiring voice ............................................................ 80 3.3.3 Restorative action ................................................................................................... 81 3.4 Methodological and conceptual confrontations: a SortingMat perspective ............. 85 3.4.1 The wounds ............................................................................................................. 86 3.4.2 The good in the bad ................................................................................................ 88 3.4.3 The bad in the good ................................................................................................ 89 3.4.4 The dreams ............................................................................................................. 89 Chapter 4: The wounds: colonialism and the Sami people ............................................... 93 4.1 Imposing empire mythologies................................................................................ 93 4.1.1 Christianity .............................................................................................................. 96 4.1.2 Racism and social Darwinism ................................................................................ 100 4.1.3 Roman law ............................................................................................................ 105 4.1.4 The Kautokeino uprising ....................................................................................... 108 4.2 Nation building ................................................................................................... 109 4.2.1 The imaginary indigenous figure .......................................................................... 113 4.2.2 The boarding schools ............................................................................................ 115 4.2.3 Standing in the way of healing and reconciliation ................................................ 121 4.3 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 125 Chapter 5: Ethics and the demise of the Other .............................................................. 128 5.1 Ethics and the challenge of getting it out of the box ............................................. 128 5.2 The constitutive rules .......................................................................................... 129 5.2.1 Two competing myths of origin – according to Bauman ...................................... 130 5.3 Ethics and its historical relations with Europe ...................................................... 133 5.3.1 A split Christianity ................................................................................................. 133 5.3.2 The Hobbesian Other ............................................................................................ 138 5.3.3 The utilitarian Other ............................................................................................. 141 5.3.4 The case of Eichmann ........................................................................................... 143 5.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 145 Chapter 6: Social cohesion and regional capacities for peace building ............................ 149 6.1 The Barents Region cooperation .......................................................................... 149 6.2 Two types of political approach ........................................................................... 152 6.2.1 Hobbes’ frontierology ..........................................................................................