Lithium Batteries for Electric Road Vehicle Applications /VirTEK-'R-(35-4-5 Swedish National Board for Industrial and Technical Development 1995:45 DISTRIBUTION OF THt6 DOCU&EM" IS UNUMIT1 Lithium batteries forElectric Road Vehicle Applications R 1995:45 Narings- och teknikutvecklingsverket 117 86 Stockholm Besoksadress: Liljeholmsvagen 32 Telefon: 08-68191 00. Telefax: 08-19 68 26 Telex: 10840 nutek s Cover illustration: A Li+/diglyme complex: a common feature of modem lithium-battery electrolytes ©NUTEK Upplaga: 500 ex Produktion: NUTEK Stockholm 1995 ISSN 1102-2574 ISRN NUTEK - R - 95/45 - SE NUTEK R 1995:45 DISCLAIMER Portions of this document may be illegible in electronic image products. Images are produced from the best available original document Foreword The development of batteries suitable as energy storage systems for the propulsion of electric and hybrid electric road vehicles is of strategic importance. Only high energy, low cost batteries will allow for a wide-spread usage of such vehicles. lithium batteries are being presumed to be promising candidates for energy storage systems because of their potential for reaching veiy high energy density but also for other benificial characteristics, as e.g. the possibility of getting maintenance-free systems. Drawbacks are high costs and limited power capability. In combination with ultracapacitors the latter drawback could be eliminated, unfortunately at even higher costs. Within the framework of our research programme on Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles, NUTEK therefore has initiated and funded this state-of-the- art studyto clarify advantages and limitations for lithium batteries as energy storage systems for EVs and HEVs and future trends in the R&D. Additional funding has been made available from the Defence Materials Administration for a special coverage of high power lithium systems to be used in military applications. The study has been carried out by Bo Andersson, Barbro Hallgren, Arne Johansson and Per Selanger from Catella Generics. We will give them all a warm thank for a very thorough and well done job. The opinions and conclusions expressed in this report are those of the authors and not necessarily those of NUTEK. 4 Table of contents Summary........................................................................................................... 9 Aim of the study............................................................................................. 11 Directions of the lithium battery development ............................................13 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................13 2.2 The "3C market segment" is driving the R&D.................................. 13 2.3 Military battery market is declining ...................... 14 2.4 Electric vehicle research based on governmental funding ................16 2.5 Lithium batteries is a challenging research area in the academic world.................................................................................. 16 2.6 Development trends ...........................................................................17 2.6.1 Performance characteristics ................................................................18 2.6.2 Cost reduction .................................................................................... 18 2.6.3 Environmental issues......................................................................... 18 EV battery requirements ................................................................................ 19 3.1 Historic review................................................................................... 19 3.1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................19 3.1.2 Ambient temperature lithium batteries ..............................................19 3.1.3 High temperature lithium batteries ...................................................20 3.2 Mission directed goals for EV battery R&D.......................................21 3.3 USABC...............................................................................................22 3.4 A Swedish EV battery specification ..................................................24 3.5 Hybrid vehicle batteries ..................................................................... 25 Lithium batteries for electric vehicles ........................................................... 29 4.1 Why lithium batteries? ....................................................................... 29 4.1.1 Short historic review..........................................................................29 4.1.2 Fundamental properties ..................................................................... 30 4.1.3 Competitive systems..........................................................................30 4.1.4 The possible abundance of lithium ....................................................31 Major EV battery R&D programmes .............................................................33 5.1 Sweden ...............................................................................................33 5.1.1 NUTEK...............................................................................................33 5.1.2 Scientific Research Councils ................................................................ 33 5.1.3 MISTRA.............................................................................................. 34 5.2 Europe ................................................................................................. 34 5.2.1 EU research programmes .................................................................. 35 5.2.2 EUCAR programme ...........................................................................35 5.2.3 National programmes ........................................................................ 35 5.3 American programmes ...................................................................... 38 5 5.3.1 DOE.................................................................................................... 39 5.3.2 USABC................................................................................................38 5.3.3 The Armed Forces/DARPA.............................................................. 39 5.3.4 Canada ............................................................................................... 40 5.3.5 South and Central America............................................................... 41 5.4 The Japanese programme ...................................................................42 5.5 International Energy Agency............................................................ 43 5.6 Others ................................................................................................. 43 5.6.1 Australia.............................................................................................44 5.6.2 Indo-China ..........................................................................................44 Lithium battery technologies and EV battery assessments .........................45 6.1 Systems overview ...............................................................................45 6.2 Electrode materials............................................................................. 46 6.2.1 High temperature systems.................................................................48 6.2.2 Ambient temperature systems...........................................................48 6.3 Electrolytes......................................................................................... 50 6.3.1 High temperature battery electrolytes...............................................51 6.3.2 Ambient temperature battery electrolytes.........................................52 6.4 Electrode separation systems............................................................ 54 6.4.1 High temperature battery separators .................................................54 6.4.2 Ambient temperature separators .......................................................55 6.5 Cell and battery assembly..................................................................55 6.5.1 High temperature battery assembly.................................................. 56 6.5.2 Ambient temperature battery assembly............................................56 6.6 Battery management system.............................................................. 56 6.6.1 High temperature battery management systems.............................. 57 6.6.2 Ambient temperature battery management systems.........................57 Performance characteristics .......................................................................... 59 7.1 Lithium batteries in the Ragone diagram.......................................... 60 7.2 Battery life characteristics ............................................................. 61 7.2.1 Cycle life.............................................................................................62 7.2.2 Calendar life....................................................................................... 62 7.3 Cost characteristics ............................................................................. 62 7.4 Other battery characteristics .............................................................. 63 7.4.1 Energy efficiency................................................................................63 7.4.2 Operating temperature .......................................................................63