“Run Like a Girl? That’s So Gay!” Exploring Homophobic and Sexist Language among Grade 7 and 8 Students in the Toronto District School Board By Steven D. Solomon A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Factor Inwentash Faculty of Social Work University of Toronto © Copyright by Steven D. Solomon 2015 Run Like a Girl? That’s So Gay! Exploring Homophobic and Sexist Language among Grade 7 and 8 Students in the Toronto District School Board Steven D. Solomon Doctor of Philosophy Factor Inwentash Faculty of Social Work University of Toronto 2015 Abstract Homophobic name-calling abounds in schools, especially at the high school level. Driving much of this research is the negative impact of anti-gay language and epithets on lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans (LGBT) identified students, students with LGBT parents and guardians, and students overall. Studies in the US, UK, and Canada report regular use of phrases such as „that‟s so gay‟, „faggot‟, and the word “gay” itself to denote something or someone with little to no value. However, a dearth of research looking at the prevalence of homophobic language at the middle school level exists. Furthermore, there is even less research looking at the relationship between homophobic and sexist language use. Using a mixed methods explanatory sequential design, this three-paper dissertation explored homophobic and sexist language use in middle school, specifically investigating, among other things, how often and under what conditions grade seven and eight students use these types of language. A stratified random sample of middle school students (n=488) completed a survey that included the Homophobic Content Agent Target Scale (HCAT). The ii newly developed Sexist Content Agent Target Scale (S-CAT) explored sexist language. Students reported their frequency of homophobic and sexist language use in five relationship domains including friends, strangers, and antagonists. As well, five focus groups explored more deeply students‟ perceptions and understandings of homophobic and sexist language use at school. A number of important findings were produced including the prevalence of homophobic name-calling prior to high schools as well as the strong association between homophobic and sexist language use. These empirical findings join the literature that has long conceptually linked sexism and homophobia, whereby their interlocking nature manifests in name-calling experiences of middle school students. Students (boys in particular) as either agents or targets of sexist language had increased likelihood of being agents or targets of homophobic language. Given the often contentious nature of anti-homophobia education, the hesitancy of school staff to intervene regularly (even in the presence of this language), the findings presented here suggest anti-sexist education as another means to address homophobic language, thereby contributing to creating and maintaining more positive learning environment for all students. iii Acknowledgments I would like to thank my supervisory committee for their guidance, support, and patience throughout the dissertation process. I am incredibly grateful to Dean and Professor Dr. Faye Mishna, Chair of my committee, whose support, encouragement and guidance underscore this work and journey. I would also like to thank my committee members Drs. Tahany Gadalla (FIFSW), Peter Newman (FIFSW), and John Portelli (OISE/UT) for their support and for generously sharing their time and expertise. I would also like to thank Dr. Shelley Craig (Internal/External Examiner, FIFSW) and Dr. Lori Messinger (External Examiner, University of North Caroline, Wilmington) for an amazing oral defence experience. I would also like to thank the middle school students in the Toronto District School Board who participated in the study, without whom, this research would not have been possible. I would also like to acknowledge Joanne Daciuk (FIFSW Research Manager) and thank her sincerely for all her help and support. I am also thankful for the friendship and counsel of Dr. Billie Allan whose unfaltering wisdom helped keep me focused on what was important throughout this process. Finally, I would like to recognize my partner of 28 years, Chris for his special contribution to this dissertation process for loving me, keeping me grounded, and always telling me what I need to hear – all that stuff. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................................ iv List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. viii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. viii List of Appendices ........................................................................................................................................ ix Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1 The Problem: Homophobic and Sexist Language in Schools ............................................................... 1 Homophobia ........................................................................................................................................ 1 Sexism .................................................................................................................................................. 2 Homophobia, Bullying, and Harassment ........................................................................................... 4 Homophobia and Sexism: A Lesbian Feminist Theoretical Framework ........................................... 12 Specific Aims of the Three Papers ........................................................................................................ 18 Chapter 2: Paper #1: Homophobic Sticks and Sexist Stones: Investigating Homophobic and Sexist Name-Calling among Middle School Students ........................................................................................ 31 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 31 Method ................................................................................................................................................... 34 Sample ................................................................................................................................................ 34 Procedure ........................................................................................................................................... 37 Measures ............................................................................................................................................ 37 Results .................................................................................................................................................... 39 Demographics .................................................................................................................................... 39 Prevalence of homophobic and sexist language use among grade seven and eight students in relation to friends, strangers, and antagonists................................................................................ 41 Relationship between students’ experience with sexist language and their experience with homophobic language ....................................................................................................................... 41 Where and how often in school homophobic and sexist language is heard. ................................ 42 School Staff and Peers: Who is around, and do they intervene? .................................................... 42 Reasons for using homophobic and sexist language and seriousness .......................................... 43 Seriousness of homophobic and sexist language ............................................................................ 44 Homophobia and Sexism by another name ..................................................................................... 44 Factor Analysis – Homophobic Content Agent Target Scale (HCAT) and Sexist Content Agent Target Scale (S-CAT) ......................................................................................................................... 46 Discussion .............................................................................................................................................. 46 v “Friendly” Homophobia .................................................................................................................... 50 Limitations ............................................................................................................................................. 52 Implications ........................................................................................................................................... 54 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................ 55 References .............................................................................................................................................. 56 Chapter 3: Paper